GENERAL BIOLOGY (REVIEWER) – QUARTER 1

LAW CELL THEORY (contributors)

-A principle that can be used to predict the behavior of 1.) ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
the natural world.
-Attributed for the Leeuwenhoek microscope
-Scientific laws refer to rules for how nature will behave under
2.) ROBERT HOOKE
certain conditions, frequently written as an equation.
-Observed that cork has regular small boxes in it
Example:
that he called “cells”.
Law of Gravity
3.) THEODOR SCHWANN
Law of Inertia
-“All animals are made of cells”
Aerodynamics
4.) MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN

-“All animals are made of cells”

THEORY
5.) RUDOLPH VIRCHOW
-Refers to a comprehensive explanation of an important feature
-“Cells come from pre-existing cells.”
of nature supported by facts gathered over time.

-A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some

aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been CLASS THEORY
repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation.
1.) All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
Example:
2.) Cells are the basic unit of structural and functional unit of life.
Plate Tectonics
3.) All cells come from pre-existing cells
Natural Selection

Evolution
MODERN CELL THEORY

1.) The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living
BELIEFS things.
-is a statement that is not scientifically provable 2.) All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
-may or may not be correct 3.) Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
-They just are outside the realm of science to explore 4.) Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from
cell to cell during cell division
Example:
5.) All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
Spirit world
6.) All known living things are made up of cells.
God
7.) Some organisms are unicellular, made up of only one cell.
Astrology
8.) Other organisms are multicellular, composed of countless
number of cells.

9.) The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of

independent cells
TWO TYPES OF CELL Mode of Reproduction

1.) Prokaryotic cells 1.) Prokaryotic Cells –Binary fission and some through Spores

2.) Eukaryotic cells 2.) Eukaryotic Cells –Mitosis and Meiosis

Prokaryotic Cells -Prokaryotes continuously replicate their short DNA

-Type of cell that does not have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles within its cytoplasm. This type of cell is like a studio-type
condo unit that does not have several compartments.
-Prokaryotes are small, single-celled organisms that have prokaryotic
cells. These organisms are metabolically diverse because they can
utilize different nutrients and energy sources and they can inhabit all
types of environment on Earth.
-All bacteria that include the organisms of domains Archaea and
Bacteria are considered as prokaryotes.
-Eukaryotes only replicate their DNA during the S-phase of
interphase in cell division.
-In prokaryotic cells, transcription and translation can be done at the
same time in the cytoplasm.
-In eukaryotic cells, the transcription occurs in the nucleus and the
translation occurs in the cytoplasm.
-Examples of prokaryotes are Archaeans and Bacteria.
-Examples of eukaryotes are plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

Eukaryotic Cells -Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells vary in terms of presence of

nucleus, endomembrane system, cell wall and cell membrane,
-Type of cell that is characterized by the presence of nucleus and
ribosome, shape of DNA and number of chromosome, cell size, DNA
membrane-bound organelles within its cytoplasm
replication, transcription and translation, and mode of reproduction
-Membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotic cells provide
compartmentalization in the cell. This is comparable to a mansion
that has several rooms or compartments.

-Domain Eukarya which includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals

are examples of eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are organisms that consist
of eukaryotic cells.
 Connective Tissue

-The most abundant tissue in the body that connects body parts.

-Most connective tissues are vascularized (with constant blood

supply from blood vessels) except tendons and ligaments.

-Connective tissues have an extracellular matri

Types of Animal Tissue

1) Connective tissue
2) Epithelial tissue
3) Muscle tissue Muscular Tissue
4) Nervous tissue
-Made up of specialized cells that can shorten or contract to produce
movements.

Epithelial Tissue -Consist of long and extensive muscle fibers.

-Forms the inner and outer lining of organs, the covering in surfaces,
and the primary glandular tissue of the body.

-Closely packed, this allows epithelium to form linings and impart

protection to bodily structures.

-Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they do not have blood

supply of their own

Nervous Tissues

-Makes up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous

system. It is composed of neurons and neuroglia or supporting cells.

-Neuron serves as the basic structural unit of the nervous system

 -Ground tissues are also called fundamental tissues because their
functions are essential for the growth and development of plants.

1.) Parenchyma

-Responsible for storage and photosynthesis.

2.) Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

-Provide support to the plant’s body.

The structure and form of the tissues in animals are always related
to their functions.

Epithelial tissues are made up of tightly packed cells because they

cover and protect bodily structures. Connective tissues are
characterized by the presence of ground substances and fibers that
support, bind, and protect organs. Muscular tissues are made up of
highly specialized cells that contract to cause movement. Lastly,
nervous tissues mainly contain networks of nerve cells that possess
irritability and conductivity to allow the transmission and reception
of electrochemical impulses.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PLANT CELL

-Plants have two major tissues, namely meristematic and permanent

tissues.

1.) Meristematic tissues

-Give rise to permanent tissues which will differentiate into

specialized cells with certain functions.

2.) Permanent tissues

-Are generally responsible for photosynthesis, support, and

transport of water and nutrients.

-Apical and lateral meristems are responsible for primary and

secondary growth, respectively.

1.) Primary growth

-An increase in plant’s height.

2.) Secondary growth

-An increase in plant’s diameter and girth.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF MODIFIED CELLS CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

- Modified or specialized cells have developed structures that help - The life cycle of a cell is known as the cell cycle, and it describes
them carry out their functions. how cells grow, develop, and reproduce.

- Specialized cells in animals include the following: - With very few exceptions, all of the cells in your body contain
genetic material in the form of DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, which
1) Microvilli are responsible for increasing the surface area
is usually found in the nucleus of your cells.
for absorption.
2) Cilia and stereocilia are responsible for movement and
sensation, respectively.
- There are three main stages in the cell cycle, namely, interphase,
3) Flagella are responsible for locomotion or motility.
M phase, and cytokinesis.
4) Basal infoldings and hemidesmosomes are responsible for
fluid transport and attachment, respectively.
5) Cell junctions serve as connections between adjacent cells.
6) Red and white blood cells are responsible for transporting - Interphase is the stage when the cell prepares itself for eventual
oxygen and protecting the body from pathogens, cell division, which can either be mitosis or meiosis. It is also the
respectively. stage when the cell is metabolically active and performs its
7) Sperm and egg cells aid in the reproduction process. specialized function.

- Cytokinesis refers to the division of the cell’s cytoplasm and other

components. This process significantly differs between animal cells
- Specialized cells in plants include the following: and plant cells, primarily because of the presence of cell walls in the
latter.
1) Trichomes serve as protection of plants from extreme
temperatures and insect or herbivore attacks.
2) Root hairs increase the surface area for the absorption of
water.
3) Mesophyll cells serve as the sites of photosynthesis.
4) Xylem and phloem consist of cells that are responsible for
the transport of essential substances such as water and
photosynthetic by-products.
Gap 1 Phase

- G1 phase usually begins as soon as the previous cell cycle ends

with the newly produced daughter cells.

- This phase involves the growth of the cell’s cytoplasm alongside

the doubling of cellular organelles.

S Phase

- If all of the conditions of G1 checkpoint are satisfied, the S phase

or the synthesis phase takes place.
G1 to S checkpoint (G1 checkpoint)
- This stage is named so because it is when the cell synthesizes a
copy of its DNA in a very notable process called DNA replication. - This checkpoint makes sure that the cell is large enough with all
the necessary energy reserves and doubled organelles and that
there is no damage in the cell’s DNA before the cell cycle continues.
Gap 2 Phase

- After DNA is replicated in the S phase, the cell will then enter the
G2 phase or gap 2 phase.
- Important processes that happen during this phase are continued
growth and the production of materials that are necessary for cell
division to occur.
MITOSIS – somatic cells or non-sex cells
G2 to M checkpoint (G2 checkpoint)
- makes sure that the cell is prepared before mitosis or meiosis.
- Some of the factors checked during this checkpoint include the
presence of DNA damage, whether the chromosomes are properly
replicated, or if environmental conditions are favorable for cell
division to take place.

MEIOSIS – sex cell or gametes M Checkpoint

- the metaphase checkpoint will first check if the spindles are

properly attached. The cell proceeds to anaphase if all spindles are
> CYTOKINESIS – division of cytoplasm
properly attached. Otherwise, mitosis pauses to remedy the error.
> MEIOSIS & MITOSIS – division of nucleus and genetic materials
STAGES OF MITOSIS

STAGES OF MEIOSIS
- The process of sexual reproduction requires a reduction in the
chromosome number. This is achieved through meiosis, the type of
cell division that produces gametes or sex cells.

- Unlike mitosis, meiosis involves two rounds of divisions, namely,

Prophase meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis II immediately takes place after
meiosis I, so only the latter is preceded by the duplication of genetic
- Chromosome condensation happens material.
- Spindle formation also begins. - Aside from the number of daughter cells produced, meiosis is also
different from mitosis in terms of its unique events.
- Once prophase begins, the chromatin will start to condense into
compact structures known as the chromosomes.  Synapsis involves the pairing of the members of
homologous chromosomes so as to allow them to undergo
crossing over and to segregate them.
Prometaphase
 Crossing over refers to the exchange of segments
- begins after the completion of the breakdown of the nuclear
between non-sister chromatids of homologous
envelope. chromosomes. Ultimately, this enhances the genetic
diversity of species.

Metaphase
Meiosis I
- involves the alignment of the chromosomes in the metaphase
plate. - is considered the reductional division in meiosis because it reduces
the number of sets of chromosomes from two to one.
- The microtubules of the mitotic spindle attach and interact with the
kinetochores of the chromosomes.

Anaphase
- The sister chromatids move to the opposite poles of the cell
- the mitotic spindle pulls and separates the sister chromatids apart.
Telophase
- ends when two nuclei are formed in the cell.
Meiosis II
- is considered the equational division in meiosis because there is
no further reduction of the chromosome number in daughter cells.
- Meiosis I and II are also different in terms of the segregating
elements. Meiosis I entails the separation of the members of the
homologous chromosomes, whereas meiosis II involves the
separation of the sister chromatids.
SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPLICATIONS
OF MITOSIS AND MIEOSIS
- Each organism has a complete set of genes that can be found in
each cell. This complete set of genes is known as a genome. During
mitosis, this must be completely inherited by successive cell
generations.

- Growth, in the biological sense, refers to an increase in body size

usually because of an increase in the number of cells, a process
achieved through mitotic divisions.

- Cells are usually limited by a certain number of times that they can
divide before being too aged to further undergo mitosis. This limit is
known as the Hayflick limit.

- Crossing over is when the homologous chromosomes in the tetrads

exchange segments. This is an event during meiotic division that
allows recombination of genes, and ultimately, enhances genetic
variation.

- Meiosis is essential in reducing the number of chromosomes during

the production of gametes. It allows the restoration of the original
chromosome number during fertilization.

- The mechanisms of cellular division are highly taken advantage of

in stem cell technology and in genetic engineering.
Disorders and Diseases Related to Structure and Functions of the Cell
Cell Malfunction During the Cell Cycle Membrane
- If errors occur in the cell cycle, the cell will either attempt to
compensate for the error through repair processes or undergo
apoptosis if the errors cannot be repaired.

- In mitosis and meiosis, errors can be passed on in the form of DNA

modifications or damage.

- The failure of the chromosomes or chromatids to separate

properly is known as nondisjunction. This is known as meiotic
nondisjunction if it occurs in meiosis and mitotic nondisjunction if it
occurs in mitosis.

- Cancer is primarily characterized by uncontrollable cell division

which results in a neoplasm, which is an abnormal growth of the
defective cells.

- Aneuploidy occurs when the cell has an abnormal number of

chromosomes while polyploidy occurs when the cell has an
abnormal number of sets of chromosomes

- The plasma membrane is described by the fluid mosaic model

because its structure is composed of diverse protein molecules
embedded in a mosaic-like fashion in the fluid phospholipid bilayer.

- The phospholipids with the attached carbohydrates chains are

called glycolipids and proteins with carbohydrate chains are called
glycoproteins which can be found on the outside surface of the cell.
They usually function for cell-cell recognition.

- Diverse proteins are associated with the plasma membrane, and

they are functionally classified into whether they transport
molecules, aid in the recognition of other cells, or whether they
determine the presence of substances in the extracellular
environment.

- The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable because it only

allows certain substances into cells while keeping others out. The
size and the chemical nature of the molecules are important
determiners of the permeability of the membrane to certain
substances.
- The molecules that pass through the plasma membrane follow a
concentration gradient wherein they move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Facilitated diffusion
- involves the movement of molecules across the membrane but
with the aid of either channel or carrier proteins. These molecules
are usually those that cannot cross due to their molecular size or
chemical nature.

Osmosis

- is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable

membrane from high to low concentration.

 ISOTONIC - solutions have an equal solute

concentration in and out of the cell.
 HYPOTONIC - solution has a lower
concentration of solutes than inside the cell.
 HYPERTONIC - solution is one with a higher
concentration of solute outside of the cell
membrane.

Cell’s Transport Mechanism I:

Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion

- is the movement of molecules down their concentration

gradient, i.e., from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration.

- is an example of passive transport in which molecules are moved

across the membrane without spending energy.

A solution contains both the solute, which is usually solid and a

solvent, which is usually a liquid. A solute added in a solvent will
naturally diffuse to form a solution.