SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY

DCPR YEAR 1
 1. Introduction to social and cultural history, definition of terms

Journalism is the first rough draft of history.

- First American newspaper “Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick“,
is published in Boston in 1690
Reported on sex scandal involving King of France.
Shut down after just one issue - no license.

- Mass media is born: The opportunity for wider dissemination of news came with
the invention of printing by Gutenberg in the 1450’s.
Soon after the development of printing, sheets carrying news made their
appearance along with books, in particular the Bible…

- Ancient vs Traditional Modern Media:

•1865 – news traveled 9 days from Washington to London – telegraf signal from
Ireland arrived with news 3 days earlier

•2001- terrorist attack on the Twin towers – 2 billion viewers in real time

- Communication:
•Transfer of information from one group to another is crucial to every modern
society

•Society is influenced much more by the type of the media then by the
content of the message which the media convey

•McLuhan- electronic media are creating GLOBAL VILLAGE – world see major
events unfold and hance paricipate in them together.

•Globalisation indused change of media – Internet in the core of change:

Newspaper- paper/online

•MASS MEDIA- TV, Newspapers, films, magazines, advertisments, video games,

podcastast et.c.

•Use of mobile telephone explode.

•Printing machine – 15. century – oportunity for masses to read – texsts more
available
•Social, economic and cultural factors – free societies, educated and wealthy
enough society members
TRADITIONAL MEDIA: THE PRESS

•19. century UK
•Expensive press „stampled“ vs. Unexpensive Pamphlets for working class
•The cheap daily press – USA
•A lot of interesting informations in one likable packaging
•News – now- instantaneously- constantly updated-newspaper online free of
charge

FILM, RADIO, TV

•First film 1895 in Paris to Film industry

•Society on micro level/ macro level
•Playground for sociological interpretation and revealing/resolving social agenda
to masses
•Radio, TV – different interaction with the audience
•Radio now – during driving car
TV- „Family member“ always present in the livingroom

SOCIAL CAPITAL

•Useful social networks,

•sence of mutual obligation and trust- worthiness,
•understanding of the norms that govern effective behaviour
•other social resources that enable people to act effectively
NEW MEDIA

•Power of internet is doubling every 18 months

•Watching films, listening to music via Internet
•Digitization – interactiv media- audience in interacion with the media content
•Digital TV – possibility of interactive television, the Internet, home shopping/banking

•Internet- Cyberspace – space of interaction formed by the global network of computers

that compose the internet.
•In cyberspace we are no longer people but messages on someones screens – there is
no certainty about someones identity

CULTURE
•According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language,
communication, and practices that people share in common and that can be used to
define them as a collective.
•Culture also includes the material objects that are common to that group or society.
•Culture is distinct from social structure and economic aspects of society, but it is
connected to them—both continuously informing them and being informed by them.
•Culture - it plays a crucial role in our social lives.
•It is important for shaping social relationships, maintaining and challenging social
order, determining how we make sense of the world and our place in it, and in shaping
our everyday actions and experiences in society.
•It is composed of both non-material and material things.
•... NON-MATERIAL ASPECTS OF CULTURE as the values and beliefs, language,
communication, and practices that are shared in common by a group of people.
•... culture is made up of our knowledge, common sense, assumptions, and expectations.
•It is also the rules, norms, laws, and morals that govern society;
• the words we use as well as how we speak and write them (what sociologists call
"discourse");
• and the symbols we use to express meaning, ideas, and concepts (like traffic signs and
emojis, for example).
• Culture is also what we do and how we behave and perform (for example, theatre and
dance).
• It informs and is encapsulated in how we walk, sit, carry our bodies, and interact with
others;
•how we behave depending on the place, time, and "audience;"
•and how we express identities of race, class, gender, and sexuality, among others.
• Culture also includes the collective practices we participate in, such as:
• religious ceremonies,
•the celebration of secular holidays,
•and attending sporting events.

•Material culture is composed of the things that humans make and use.
•... buildings, technological gadgets, and clothing, to film, music, literature, and art,
among others.
•Aspects of material culture are more commonly referred to as cultural products.
•Duscussion: Is journalism material culture or non-material culture? What you take as
an argument?
•... the material and non-material—as intimately connected.
•Material culture emerges from and is shaped by the non-material aspects of culture
•In other words, what we value, believe, and know (and what we do together in everyday
life) influences the things that we make.
•(ŠUND? KIČ?​​UMJETNOST? What makes the difference?)
•„KIČ“-looks like art, discutabile moral values, emotionaly strong impact, negative
impact.
•„ŠUND“ is „Kič“ in literature.

•Material culture can also influence the non-material aspects of culture.

•For example, a powerful documentary film (an aspect of material culture) might change
people’s attitudes and beliefs (i.e. non-material culture).
• This is why cultural products tend to follow patterns.
•What has come before in terms of music, film, television, and art, for example,
influences the values, beliefs, and expectations of those who interact with them, which
then, in turn, influence the creation of additional cultural products.
•Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that
often evoke various reactions and emotions.
•Verbal/nonverbal symbols.

•Gestures are the signs that we make with our body, such as hand gestures and facial
expressions; it is important to note that these gestures also carry meaning
•language is crucial to communication and thus to any society’s culture.
• Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, - people cannot easily understand concepts and
objects unless their language contains words for these items (Whorf, 1956).
•They explained that language structures thought.
• Language thus influences how we understand the world around us.
•Norms are the formal and informal rules regarding what kinds of behavior are
acceptable and appropriate within a culture.
•Norms are specific to a culture, time period, and situation.
•Norms are often divided into two types: formal norms and informal norms.
•Formal norms, also called mores and laws, refer to the standards of behavior
considered the most important in any society.
•Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior
that are considered less important but still influence how we behave.
• Table manners are a common example of informal norms, as are such everyday
behaviors as how we interact with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator.
•... norms change over time within a given culture.
•Two obvious examples here are hairstyles and clothing styles.
•When the Beatles first became popular in the early 1960s, their hair barely covered
their ears, but parents of teenagers back then were aghast at how they looked.
•If anything, clothing styles change even more often than hairstyles.

Values
•Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good
or bad and desirable or undesirable.
•A culture’s values shape its norms.

•Artefacts'

•The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a
society’s material culture.
•In the most simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts people
live in, and the clothing they wear.
• One of the most important inventions in the evolution of society was the wheel.
•.... a wireless culture?
•Culture plays a significant and important role in the production of social order.
•The social order refers to the stability of society based on the collective
agreement to rules and norms that allow us to cooperate, function as a society,
and live together (ideally) in peace and harmony.
•For sociologists, there are both good and bad aspects of social order.
•Émile Durkheim: both material and non-material aspects of culture are valuable in
that they hold society together.
•The values, beliefs, morals, communication, and practices that we share in common
provide us with a SHARED SENSE OF PURPOSE AND A VALUABLE COLLECTIVE
IDENTITY.
• Durkheim revealed through his research that when people come together to
participate in rituals, they reaffirm the culture they hold in common, and in doing
so, strengthen the social ties that bind them together.
•Today, sociologists see this important social phenomenon happening not only in
religious rituals and celebrations like (some) weddings and the Indian festival of Holi
but also in secular ones—such as high school dances and widely-attended, televised
sporting events (for example, the Super Bowl and March Madness).

•Karl Marx: critical approach to culture in the social sciences.

•He reasoned that subscribing to mainstream values, norms, and beliefs keep
people invested in unequal social systems that do not work in their best interests,
but rather, benefit the powerful minority.
• Sociologists today see Marx's theory in action in the way that most people in
capitalist societies buy into the belief that success comes from hard work and
dedication, and that anyone can live a good life if they do these things—despite
the reality that a job which pays a living wage is increasingly hard to come by.1

•CULTURE CAN BE A FORCE FOR OPPRESSION AND DOMINATION, BUT IT CAN

ALSO BE A FORCE FOR CREATIVITY, RESISTANCE, AND LIBERATION.
• It is also a deeply important aspect of human social life and social organization.
• Without it, we would not have relationships or society.

•CIVILIZATION is a complex human society, usually made up of different cities,

with certain characteristics of cultural and technological development.
•... EARLY CIVILIZATIONS - when people began coming together in urban
settlements.
•“CIVILIZATION” -latin word “CIVITAS” or “CITY.”
•the most basic definition of “civilization” is “a society made up of cities.”
•“civilization” and “civilized society” to differentiate between societies they found
culturally superior (which they were often a part of), and those they found culturally
inferior (which they referred to as “savage” or “barbaric” cultures).
• The term “civilization” was often applied in an ethnocentric way, with “civilizations”
being considered morally good and culturally advanced, and other societies being
morally wrong and “backward.”
•Criteria for CIVILIZATION to be considered:
•First, civilizations have some kind of urban settlements and are not nomadic.
•With support from the other people living in the settlement, labor is divided up into
specific jobs (called the division of labor), so not everyone has to focus on growing
their own food.
•From this specialization comes class structure and government, both aspects of a
civilization.
• Another criterion for civilization is a surplus of food, which comes from having tools to
aid in growing crops.
•Writing, trading, artwork and monuments, and development of science and
technology are all aspects of civilizations.
•However, there are many societies that scholars consider civilizations that do not meet
all of the criteria above.
•Incan Empire was a large civilization with a government and social hierarchy.
• It left behind a wealth of art, and had highly developed architecture­­—but no written
language.
• This is why the concept of “civilization” is hard to define;
•however, it is still a helpful framework with which to view how humans come together
and form a society.
 2. Foundations of intellectual tradition (from myth, through faith to
reason)
Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman tradition

The ideals of reason, freedom and human dignity

- what makes up the idea of ​the West –
is a human creation, one of the highest achievements of humanity.
Despite everything, Europeans have shown a tendency towards
irrational behavior, ideologies and violence.
They are willing to sacrifice and deny human dignity for the sake of their own
security and national greatness and glory.
World wars and totalitarian movements of the 20th century
showed the fragility of Western civilization.
Intellectual tradition and Western civilization were created as a
combination of Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman traditions,
respecting the achievements of the ancient civilizations of Egypt
and Mesopotamia.
The great achievement of the Greeks – the development of rational
thought
The spirit of the Jews – the development of religio-ethical thought

A peace-making view of the Middle East world

All the characteristics of Middle Eastern societies - legal system,

government, art, science - are intertwined with religion.
Religion is the source of vitality and creativity of the Mesopotamian
and Greek civilizations.
Peacemaking was the first way of thinking of mankind.
Focusing primarily on imagination and emotions, rather than reason
- peacemaking represented the earliest attempt
to make nature and life comprehensible.
Originating from sacred rites, myths described the deeds of the Deities who created the world
and human beings long ago.
The peoples of the Middle East interpreted their experiences using myths.
… that's how they explained nature and natural phenomena.

The civilizations of the Middle East rested on a way of thinking that is fundamentally different
from contemporary scientific thought.
The scientific mind perceives physical nature as IT - lifeless governed by general law.
To the peace-making mind of the Near East, every object in nature
 was - HE with its own personality, alive with an individual will,
a god or demon capable of governing things at its own will.
(flood, lightning, thunder, solar eclipse, etc.)
The scientific mind turns to reason - it analyzes nature logically and systematically
and searches for general principles
that govern phenomena.
The peacemaking mind appeals to the imagination and feelings, and instead of the
truth that is arrived at through
intellectual analysis and synthesis, it proclaims the truth that satisfies the emotions.
Mythical explanations of nature and human experience enriched perception and
feelings, alleviated life's adversities
and made death less frightening.
Although they used reason when building irrigation canals or creating calendars,
they failed to come up with a
consistent and self-contained rational method of researching physical nature and
human culture because rational
and logical thought remained subordinate to the mythic-religious world view.
The civilization of the Middle East reached the first level in the development of
science: observing nature, recording
data and improving technology, but it did not reach logically deduced
abstractions, hypotheses and generalizations.
This later became the domain of Greek philosophy - the rational interpretation of
natural phenomena previously
explained by ancient mythology.

The Jews: Ethical Monotheism

True monotheism – Jehovah as an almighty God versus the

Middle Eastern gods who had limited power.
Jehovah - completely sovereign, rules everything and is
not subject to anything, is not subject to fate or the
biological laws of creation.
It is completely transcendent - above nature and not part of it.
Natural phenomena were understood as the work of God
and not as separate creatures/deities.
The Jews demythologized nature, but overwhelmed by religion
and morality, they did not create a theoretical science.
The Greeks, not the Jews, founded rational thinking,
but Christianity retained the Jewish understanding of a
transcendent God and the orderliness of what He created.
Greek science could be placed in that concept.
By claiming that God is one, supreme, transcendent, and good,
the Jews created a religious upheaval that separated them
from the understanding of the world held by other peoples of the ancient Middle East.

Individual and moral autonomy

RELATIONSHIP WITH GOD, Jews develop self-awareness
individual becomes aware of his personality, moral autonomy and personal worth.
The free God gave the Jews freedom - to choose between good and evil.
People receive autonomy and sovereignty from God (to choose whether to follow
the path of obedience to God)
Jews believed that God could not be represented by a picture or a statue - the
work of human hands, they rejected the idea that a depicted figure could have
divine powers.
Ethical appreciation, not myth or magic, occupied a central place in Jewish
religious thought.
By their devotion to God, the Jews established the dignity and autonomy of
human beings.
Thus, the Jews founded the idea of ​moral freedom according to which each
individual is responsible for his actions.
These ideas about human dignity and moral autonomy inherited from Christianity
represent the central points of the Western tradition.

Prophets

Important in Jewish history.

Inspired people who felt called to act as God's messengers.
They did not care about material wealth.
They appear in times of crisis.
They are advocating for the return of agreements and laws.
God is merciful, he cares for everyone, especially the poor and the oppressed.
Their inner personality was the outer manifestation of religion.
They criticized priests whose devotion to rites and rituals was not accompanied
by spirituality and morality.
The prophets made it possible to shape the social consciousness that became
part of the tradition of the West.

This revolutionary social doctrine says that:

- everyone has a God-given right to
social justice and fair treatment,
- that everyone has a religious obligation to
condemn evil and oppose the mistreatment of others,
- and that the community has a moral responsibility to help those in need.

They emphasized the hope that:

- life on earth can be improved,
- that poverty
- and injustice do not have to be accepted as part of the unchangeable natural
order,
- that the individual is able to rise and respect the dignity of others.
Universalism and individualism:
The Jewish way of thinking is characterized by parochialism and universalism.
The parochial mind emphasized the special nature of the chosen people, a
nation set apart from others.
His counterbalanced concern for humanity – universalism (prophetic preaching
of the unity of all people under the auspices of God).
The prophets believed that by glorifying war (in the world of war and warriors
as a social ideal), people dehumanize their opponents, become cruel and
dishonor God.
The prophets emphasized the responsibility of the individual for his own actions.
Understanding God's law as a "commandment of conscience", the prophets
raised awareness of the human personality.
God cannot be known only through rituals - the individual must experience God.
At the time of the exodus from Egypt, the Jews were a tribal people who obeyed the
laws mainly out of fear and collective coercion, and at the time of the prophets, the Jews
were autonomous individuals who respected the law out of will, awareness and
inner loyalty.
Monotheism initiated the process of self-knowledge and self-realization for Jews.

THE GREEKS: from myth to reason

Another source of Western tradition (besides the Jews) is the Greek tradition.
The Greeks broke with the mytho-poetic view of the world of the Middle East and
started a new way of looking at nature and human society, which represents the
basis of the scientific and philosophical tradition of the West.
Nature and society no longer act according to the Wonders of demons or gods, but
follow general rules.
Reason becomes the way to knowledge, and both people and gods are
responsible for their behavior.

Philosophy of the Hellenic Age

The development of rational thought in Greece was a process and not a final
achievement.
... the moment when thinkers became skeptical of Homer's gods and went beyond
mythical explanations in understanding natural phenomena.
The importance of Greece is only for establishing the principles of rational
thought.

COSMOLOGISTS: RATIONAL STUDY OF NATURE

Thales, Anaximander AND ANaximens were looking for physical and not
mythical-religious explanations of natural phenomena.
They believed that beneath the apparent chaos of nature lay principles of
order—general
laws that the human mind could determine.

- It is the beginning of scientific and philosophical thought.

This made it possible to systematize the knowledge of previous civilizations.

E.g. The Egyptians' practical experiences with land measurement were formulated
into a logical and connected science - geometry.
The Greeks used the data of the Babylonians who observed the sky for religious
reasons trying to discover the wishes of the gods

The Sophists: A Rational Inquiry into Human Culture

Sophists - professional teachers who wandered from city to city teaching others
rhetoric, grammar, poetry, gymnastics, mathematics and music.

They advocated that individuals improve themselves and their cities by instilling
reason in the duties of citizenship and conduct in state affairs.

The humanistic tradition of the West owes much to the Sophists, who explored
political and ethical problems, cultivated the minds of their students, and founded
formal secular education.

Applying reason to human activities, they shook the traditional and religious
values ​of Athenian society.
They applied reason even to the law, undermining traditional authority.

Socrates: The Reasonable Individual

Socrates (470-399) - fought against the relativism of the sophists.
The main preoccupation for him was the improvement of human character and
the achievement of moral perfection.

For Socrates- moral values ​did not come from a transcendent God as among the
Jews, but are achieved when an individual arranges his life according to
universal principles that are arrived at by rational thinking.

His method of investigation - dialectic - logical discussion - dialogue as a logical

exchange between individuals, a source of knowledge that leads people to a state
of apathy and complacency and to critically question their thoughts.

Plato: Reasonable Society

Plato (429-347) relied on Socrates' ideas.

He is most significant for: the theory of ideas and the theory of the just state.

Plato expanded Socrates' concept of reason in his theory of ideas, and Socrates‘
concept of rational individual and moral character in his conception of a just
state.

Socrates taught that there are unique principles of law and justice and that they
are
arrived at by thinking.
Plato insisted on the existence of one world and multiple realities, independent
of apparent things.
Higher reality is the realm of ideas or forms of unchanging, eternal, universal
standards of beauty, goodness, justice and truth.

Truth is found in the world of Form and not in the world that can be known
through the senses.

Adapting the rational heritage of Greek philosophy to politics, Plato created a

clear
political theory.
What the Greeks achieved in practice - moving away from mythical and
theocratic
politics - Plato achieved at the level of thought: shaping a rational model of the
state.

Plato rejected the basic principle of Athenian democracy that the average man is
able
to participate reasonably in public affairs.
Those duties should be entrusted only to the best, those who possess the
knowledge of the truth.

Aristotle: Synthesis of knowledge

Aristotle (384-322) Achieved a creative synthesis of the knowledge and theories of

earlier thinkers.

He supported the development of empirical sciences - physics, biology, zoology,

botany and other disciplines that are based on observing and researching nature
and recording data.

ETHICAL THOUGHT.
Learning about morals is possible and it must be based on reason, yet he
recognized
that people are not fully rational and that people have an affective part that should
not be ignored.

POLITICAL THOUGHT.
Aristotle's Politics completes his Ethics.
In order to live well, a person must be part of a political community.
He emphasized the importance of the rule of law and the possibility of their
occasional change.
He believed that tyranny and revolution are a threat to the rule of law and the
well-being of citizens.
 In order to prevent a revolution, the state must maintain a "spirit of respect for the
law".
He believed that the best state is the one formed by the middle class, which
should be numerous and stronger than other classes - because the rich rule
despotically and the poor have no potential for rule.
The middle class is more resistant to envy towards the rich, and it is easier than
the rich to view their fellow citizens as equals.

Hellenistic Age

Greek civilization (Hellenism) went through three distinct eras:

- Hellenic,
- Hellenistic,
- and Greco-Roman.

Hellenic era – 800 B.C. n. e. the first cities of the state - lasts until the death of
Alexander the Great. 323. G. BC. E.

The Hellenistic era until the 30th century. p. n. e. when Egypt, the last Hellenistic
state, falls to the Roman Empire.

Greco-Roman era lasts 500 years the period of the Roman Empire until the fall of
the western part of the empire at the end of the 1st century BC. e.

Due to the great conquests of Alexander the Great, the mixing of the Greeks with
the eastern peoples as an essential characteristic of the Hellenistic age, and the
increase of the rational tradition.

Until then, in the Hellenic age, the world was divided into Greeks and
non-Greeks/Barbarians.

In the Hellenistic age, the center of gravity shifts from the city/ oikoumene to the
inhabited world. For philosophers, the civilized world becomes the city of
humanity.
Stoicism
Stoicism is the main idea of ​the Hellenistic age.

In the universe, there is a principle of order - logos - which is instilled in every

human being, enabling people to act prudently.
Since reason is common to people - people are brothers and basically equal.
Even slaves are not denied inner freedom, although their bodies are subordinate to
the power of their masters, their minds are independent and free.
There is continuity between Stoic thought and the principle of inalienable rights
enshrined in the American Declaration of Independence.

Greek achievements: reason, freedom, humanism.

The humanistic attitude is particularly interesting to us - the value of the

individual, the improvement of human abilities.

IN ART, the human body is the central point of attention for the glorification of
nobility, ideals of dignity, self-confidence and beauty of the human being.
They want to picture a higher type of man - who would make himself harmonious
and perfect like a work of art
Man can control himself - men can control their own lives.

The Romans

1. Period of the Roman Republic 509 A.D. the overthrow of the Etruscan monarchy
and
2. period of the empire began on 27. AD when Octavian (Augustus) became the first
Roman emperor ending 500 years of republican self-rule.

The great reach of Rome is to overcome the city-state and create a world state that
unites
the different nations of the Mediterranean, Philosophy and low.

The Romans adopted the creative way of Greek achievements and passed them on
to
others, expanding the orbit of Hellenism.

Stoicism is the main philosophy of the Roman world.

The world is ruled by reason and values ​the human intellect.

Moral values ​are acquired through reason.

An individual is self-sufficient and depends on rational abilities to acquire knowledge
and do good deeds.
International low develops through the expansion of the state that also includes
other peoples (ius gentium).
Cicero: "True low is correct reason in agreement with nature, it has universal
application, it is unchanging and eternal.
There will not be different laws in Rome and in Athens or different laws now and in the
future, but one eternal and unchanging low is valid for all nations and all times

The idea of ​a World empire united by common law and an efficient government,
Latin language, Roman low

Early Christianity

In response to the declining influence of Hellenism, Christianity offered a reason

worth living in
the spiritually disillusioned Greco-Roman world: THE HOPE OF PERSONAL
IMMORTALITY.

By offering consolation and solutions to existential problems, religion has shown a

greater
ability to move human hearts than reason could in the previous period.
Christianity offered the individual what the city-state could not:
- a deeper personal relationship with God,
- a close connection with a higher reality, and
- membership in a community of believers who care for each other.

Christianity and Greek philosophy

Christianity created a synthesis of Judaism and Greco-Roman tradition.

Combining Greek philosophy with Jewish tradition in Christianity also had opponents
who
did not approve of the pagan influence of the philosophy.
Those who approved of the influence of Greek philosophy believed that it helped
the
Christian to explain his beliefs in a logical way and to reason with pagan critics.
Using the language of Greek philosophy, Christian intellectuals transformed
Christianity from a simple ethical creed into a theoretical system - THEOLOGY.
Hellenization of Christianity – Christian beliefs expressed through Greek
rationalism.
Although Christianity made use of Greek philosophy, Christianity rested on faith
rather than reason.
St. Augustine: The Christian World View
Author of the book "On the State of God".
When Augustine was 50 years old in 410. The Visigoths conquered Rome.

The pagans blamed Christianity for that defeat, and the Christians themselves
were troubled
by the suffering they had not hoped for as believers. WHY?

Augustine believes that the Earthly State should not be the object of the
believer's interest
because a true Christian is an inhabitant of the Heavenly State, which cannot be
affected by the
destruction of Rome in any way, it is permanent.

What is important in history is neither the creation nor the disappearance of

cities,
but the going to heaven or hell.

Augustine rejected the features of classical humanism - the autonomy of thought.

Faith leads to opinion.

The man-centered worldview of classical humanism gave way to a God-centered

worldview.

The fulfillment of God's will and not the full development of human abilities
becomes the central preoccupation of life.
Christianity and Classical Humanism:
Alternative World views
They are the most important components of the Western tradition.

Classical humanists believed that the value of an individual comes from the
individual's ability to reason,
while in Christianity, although the emphasis is on the individual - God cares about
each individual, wants them to behave justly and to enter heaven.

According to the classical understanding, history has no ultimate goal,

while for Christianity it has a spiritual meaning.

History begins with the defiance of Adam and Eve and ends with Christ's return to earth,
eradicating evil and overcoming God's will.

JOURANLISM

• The earliest known journalistic product was a news sheet circulated in ancient Rome:
the Acta Diurna, said to date from before 59 BCE.

• The Acta Diurna recorded important daily events such as public speeches.

• It was published daily and hung in prominent places.

PUBLIC SPEAKING

• .. ancient Greeks considered it imperative to facilitate political debate and

participation in assemblies, so as to persuade the people (rhetoric.)

• ... public speaking has been practiced more than 2,500 years ago, right
from the period of Aristotle to Plato to Martin Luther King Jr. to Barack
Obama and to TED talk.

• … the purpose or the way of speaking publicly was different during the
Medieval Age as compared to that of the Modern Age or the New School
period. 

The Classical Period of Public Speaking

(500 BCE – 400 BCE)
• . first started in Egypt,

• … the written piece regarding the oratory came from Ancient Greece.

• Public speaking emerged as a crucial tool because the Greeks highly

valued public political participation. 

• The development of public speaking theories during the Classical

period was marked by Aspasia of Miletus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle -
The Fantastic Four.

• During the classical period, Rhetoric (a tool to persuade the listeners) was

considered to be the main component of speech delivery or discourse.

• Plato defined the scope of rhetoric in terms of his negative opinions

 about the art,

• Aristotle defined its scope by the three means of persuasion i.e. Ethos,
Logos and Pathos.

• Aristotle developed definitive models for public speaking, his school -

The Lyceum is where he taught the theories and principles of public
speaking.
Aristotle - Father of Public Speaking
His philosophies are considered to be empirical, practical, and
commonsensical. 

• He was the first philosopher to consider the dynamics of public

speaking and persuasion and to compile those observations in The
Rhetoric - first textbook on public speaking. 

• Aristotle was the one who came up with the definitive rules and models
of public speaking.

• It was his emphasis on oratory that led to oration becoming a central

part of liberal arts and education.

• ... the art of public speaking was taught and developed.  

• He came up with the three rules of public speaking and termed it as

RHETORIC– “the faculty of observing in any given case the available
means of persuasion.”

• The three rules or means of persuasion are-  LOGOS, ETHOS & PATHOS.

ETHOS (CREDIBILITY)

• Ethos basically refers to ethics, meaning a speaker must radiate moral

characters to create an aura of trust and authority in the audience. ...
credible source so that the audience bothers to even listen to you.

LOGOS (LOGICAL REASONING)

• Logos mean supporting your speech with logical reasoning in the form
of facts, figures, and evidence. 
 • According to Aristotle, it is one of the most effective ways of helping the
audience to get to the conclusion of an argument on their own.

PATHOS (EMOTIONAL APPEAL) 

• It refers to adding an emotional touch to your speech, so as to cater to

the audience’s emotions.

• An emotional appeal works the best because you make the audience feel
what you feel about a particular subject which helps you to get them on
the same page as you, which in turn helps you (speaker) to form a
connection with them.
2) The Romans
... inspired by the Greek culture of training.

• Some of the areas of study during this period were:

- how to add wit and humor in your speech,

- how to appeal to the audience’s emotions,

- and the use of digressions.

• Marcus Tullius Cicero was considered to be one of the significant

rhetoricians of all time.

• He developed a theory called the

•  FIVE CANONS OF RHETORIC– a

• five-step process for developing a persuasive speech that we still use

while teaching public speaking today.
 The Five steps of Cicero‘s Canons Rhetoric are:

INVENTION

• ... coming up with an idea in order to make your speech interesting.

 ARRANGEMENT

• ... arrange t data in an organized manner.

STYLE

• In this stage, you try to make choices that would help you to create an
impact, so as to persuade your audience. This would include your tone of
voice, word choice, etc.

MEMORY 

• Memory here refers to the content you know about your topic. The more
you research the more you will know about it and gain in-depth
knowledge regarding the same.

DELIVERY

• Delivery refers to the way you actually present your information. It involves
your body language, tone of voice, eye contact, and much more.
3. The Middle Ages and the Emergence of Modernity
(Dark Ages, Philosophy, Science, Renaissance and Reformation)

- THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE EMERGENCE OF MODERNITY

The triumph of Christianity and the strengthening of the Germanic king s in the
areas that once belonged to the Roman Empire represent a new phase in the history
of the West (1000 years).

Christianity is at the center of medieval civilization,

Rome was the spiritual capital,
Latin was the language of intellectual life,
Germanic customs permeated social relations.

People saw themselves as participants of a great salvation. - There was only one
truth.

God's revelation to humanity through the way provided by the church.

Belonging to one universal church has replaced belonging to a universal empire.

EARLY MIDDLE AGES – DECLINE OF CULTURE

In the early Middle Ages (500-1050) a new civilization struggles to take shape
(decline of classical culture) in
the late Middle Ages (1050-1300) medieval civilization reached its peak.

The decadence of the Greco-Roman tradition brings European culture to a point

of poverty where Byzantium, Islam and ancient Rome were incomparably more
advanced.
Learned people were mainly concerned with saving the remnants of classical
civilization.

Charlemagne (768-814), a great Frankish ruler who was crowned emperor by the
Pope in 800 G., showed concern for education.
The Carolingian Renaissance sought to train the clergy to better understand the
Bible, and led to a higher level of literacy and an improvement in the style of the
Latin language. – the DECAY PROCESS IS STOPPED.
The Late Middle Ages:
- an intellectual flourishing In the 12th and 13th centuries,
 - a rich civilization of distinct style united the educated elite in countries from
Britain to Sicily.

- Gothic cathedrals are a lasting testimony of inspiration.

- Universities,
- reading Roman writers,
- the quality of the Latin language,
- the Roman low renewed and gaining importance.

Medieval World View the Universe:

Higher and Lower Worlds

Medieval thinkers distinguished between spirit and matter, the realm of bliss and
the earthly realm.
Two sets of laws ruled the medieval world – one for heaven and one for earth.
The individual understood himself in the Middle Ages through a hierarchy at the top
of which is God.
The theory of the geocentric universe was taken from Aristotle and Ptolemy, which
they imbued with Christian symbolism.
Seven transparent spheres circle around the immovable earth.
A sphere of fixed stars encloses this planetary system.
Above the starry sky are three celestial spheres: the outermost, the empirical sky,
the abode of God and the chosen ones.
INDIVIDUAL: SINFUL BUT REDEEMABLE

At the center of medieval belief is the idea of ​a Perfect God and an unhappy and
sinful human being.
God gave Adam and Eve the freedom to choose which they used to disobey God.
In doing so, they made a part of the human personality ugly.
God who did not stop voiding people showed them the way to get out of sin.
God becomes man and dies so that people can be saved.

SOCIAL HIERARCHY

The duties and rights of each individual are defined according to his divine place.

The clergy led society according to Christian principles:

- lords and kings, whose right to rule comes from God,

- those who defend Christian society from enemies,
 - while slaves at the bottom of the social order work for the good of all
Philosophy
Medieval philosophy (scholasticism) tried to apply reason to revelation, using
concepts and logical principles from Greek philosophy to explain Christian
teaching.
Although religious teachings do not originate from reason, they are not contrary to
reason.

Thomas Aquinas: synthesis of reason and Christianity

(1225-1274)
... tried to reconcile Aristotelianism with Christianity.
Professor at the University of Paris and founder of the Dominican school in Naples
(Summa Theologiae).
Regardless of his reliance on the logic of reason, he always subordinated reason to
the needs of faith and did not question the truth of the medieval Christian view of
the world and individuals.

Science

Scientific thought was at its lowest level since its origin in Greece more than 1000
years ago, during which period Byzantine and Islamic science enriched the legacy of
Greek science with translations from Greek to Arabic, and later only to Latin.

The main centers of translation were in Spain, where Christian and Islamic
civilization meet, and in Sicily, which was under the control of Byzantium, later
Islam, and in 1091 the Normans completed the conquest of that island.

In the 13th and 14th centuries, a real scientific movement took place.

However, medieval thinkers did not make inroads into modern science.
They kept the geocentric system.
By translating and commenting on ancient Greek and Arabic works,
medieval scholars provided ideas about what to think about and what to surpass, which
is a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of modern science.
They developed anti-Aristotelian physics, which some historians of science believe
influenced Galileo - the creator of modern mechanics - after more than 2 centuries.

The Middle Ages and the modern world: continuity and discontinuity

Medieval civilization begins to weaken in the 14th century, opening the door to the
modern age.
The modern world relies on the Middle Ages, which can be seen in European
cities, the appearance of the middle class, the organization of the state system,
English general low, universities.
Economic practice, partnership, accounting and promissory notes were
formulated.
During the Middle Ages, the moment of application of technological knowledge led
Europe to take the lead from the Byzantines, the Muslims, the Chinese, and other
nations.
Unlike classical humanism, Christians did not advocate the position that work
degrades man, but on the contrary, that they use the power of work to benefit the
world that was given to them to manage in the name of God.
They believed that God's law was above all state and national rules - which
provided a theoretical basis to oppose tyrannical rulers who violated Christian
principles.
The idea that the ruler and those whom he rules are bound by a higher law later
becomes a basic element of liberal thought in the secular world.

Feudalism contributed to personal freedom.

According to the Feudal Theory, the king as a member of the feudal community
is obliged to abide by the agreements made by his vassals.

Resentful of a king who violated feudal rights, the nobles conclude the Magna Carta to
legally secure customary privileges.

In order to protect themselves from the arbitrary behavior of the king, the feudal
landowners initiated what was later called the "RULE OF LAW".

In the Middle Ages, the idea emerged that the law was not imposed on the subjects by
an
absolute monarch, but that it required the cooperation of the king and his subjects, that
the
king was bound by the law, and that landowners had the right to oppose the king
who
violated agreements.

Another phenomenon is the establishment of representative institutions with which the

king was expected to consult regarding royal affairs.
The most important such institution is the British Parliament, although subordinate to the
king it has become an integral part of the state.
Religion is an integrating feature of the Middle Ages, science and secularism
characterize modern thought.
The period from the Renaissance in Italy in the 15th century through the Enlightenment
period in the 18th century represents a break with the medieval world view.
The modern view of the world broke with the rigid division of medieval society
into three orders: the clergy, the nobility, and the commons.

The modern mind emphasized equality of opportunity and equal treatment before
the law.
The modern mind rejected feudal customary low.
Science and secularism pushed Christianity and religion from the central position
to the periphery of human interests.
Rejecting the Christian idea of ​man's inherited sin, they believe that the individual
is basically good and that evil comes from wrong institutions, wrong education
and bad leadership.

RENAISSANCE
•It began in the 14th century in the cities of the northern Italian states.
• Intensive enrichment of merchants and bankers made it possible to establish libraries,
collect works of art and support art, literature and science.
•In the 15th and 16th centuries, the ideas of the Renaissance spread to Germany,
Spain, France and England through numerous books that became available through
the invention of the printing press.
•The Renaissance, although it did not renounce Christianity, - contributed to the
development of the spirit of secularism.

•Individualism is another important feature of the Renaissance.

•Renaissance Italy gave birth to the type of "Universal Man": a person who knows
the ancient classics, appreciates visual art and has a talent for it, shows interest
in the daily affairs of his city - someone who aspires to shape his life into a work
of art.

•The idea that human beings are sufficient in themselves and that they have the
power to shape their lives according to the ideals they privatize through reason
and not government is a key feature of the modern worldview.

•There are three important differences between the awakening of the 12th century
as the peak of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance:
1. Many more ancient works were saved in the Renaissance, Renaissance scholars
had a better knowledge of the Latin language and classical authors. In addition to
Latin, Renaissance authors also knew Greek, from which they translated classical
works into Latin
2. Medieval scholars tried to fit ancient creators into Christian frameworks.
Renaissance authors appreciated ancient achievements as such
3. Renaissance humanists approached ancient civilization with a critical attitude,
while medieval thinkers did not associate ancient texts with time but accepted them
uncritically as authoritative works of wisdom.
This new critical attitude was expressed by Lorenzo Valla in the work False Gift of
Constantine.
... used by the popes to support all claims to worldly power, confirmed that the
Roman emperor
Constantine (4th century) had given the papacy sovereign power over the
Western Empire.

It shows that some words were not known in Constantine's time, so even the
emperor could not use them. Valla proved that the document was forged by church
officials several hundred years after Constantine's death.
In his notes on the New Testament, Valla said that none of Christ's words could
have come down
to us because Christ spoke Hebrew and never wrote anything down.
By observing ancient works as historical phenomena - the products of certain
people at a certain
time - Renaissance humanists helped to create a critical historical
consciousness.

Humanists saw the previous period as the canon and the dark ages, and they are
the ones who divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval and modern.
Humanists also conceived the embryo of modern ideas about progress, that they
could surpass the cultural brilliance of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
The Humanists believed that the study of Greek and Roman literature was the
only suitable education for a gentleman or someone who wanted to work in the
civil service.
Humanists were neither anti-Christian nor irreligious, but unlike medieval
thinkers, they did not subordinate secular learning to the needs of Christian
learning and put man at the center of their view of the world.
Renaissance art broke with the Middle Ages, which had a religious task - to
ascend to God.
Example:
- The Gothic cathedral that rises towards the sky represents the medieval
conception of a hierarchically organized world, at the top of which is God.
- Medieval painting represented spirituality. The left side depicted the damned
and the right side the saved, dark colors depicted evil and light colors good.
Spatial proportion depicted spirituality – a less valuable thing was smaller or deformed.

Renaissance artists used religious themes as well.

- They shift attention from heaven to the natural world and to man, shaking the
supremacy of faith over art.
Raphael, Michelangelo, Da Vinci and other Renaissance artists depicted the features
of men and women and celebrated the physical form of man.
Renaissance art also developed a new concept of visual space that was defined
from the point of view of the individual observer.

Using reason and mathematics, the artist depicted the essence of the object as it
appeared in three dimensions to the human eye.

REFORMATION

At the beginning of the 16th century, Martin Luther's (1483-1546) attack on the
church marked a break with the secular humanism that began the Renaissance
and represented a regression towards medieval religiosity.
The Reformation continued in the direction of narrow-mindedness, fanaticism
and intolerance that renaissance was overcome and returns in the works of Luther
and Calvin who believed that man is fundamentally sinful and corrupt and
completely rejected the idea that an individual can do something for his own
salvation.

Dividing the Christian world into Protestants and Catholics, the REFORMATION
marked the religious unity of Europe - a feature of the Middle Ages – weakened
the church - the main institution of medieval society.
In doing so, the Reformation accelerated the growth of the modern secular AND
centralized state AND political liberties characteristic of the modern West,
although neither Luther nor Calvin
promoted political liberties.

The Reformation provided the basis for challenging monarchical, political and
religious authorities that violate the laws of God.

The Reformation advanced the idea of ​the equality of people, which has its
foundation in Christianity, and which in the Middle Ages was violated primarily
through feudalism, which emphasized the importance of hierarchy from commoners to
nobility, and the clergy was above all because of the privilege of giving
communion and providing salvation.

Luther's revolutionary idea was that the clergy has no spiritual distinction in relation to
the laity - they are all equally human, equally Christian.
The Reformation fostered religious individualism as an equivalent to the
intellectual individualism of the Renaissance.

Protestants establish the primacy of private judgment and individual conscience.

Everyone individually interpreted the scriptures according to the provisions of

their own conscience.

DISCUSSION:

NEW MEDIA emerges: Printing press, availabillity of books, literacy have sense
now , national lenguage becomes intellectual tool for discussion

For Protestants, faith was a personal and internal matter.

By emphasizing private judgment in religious matters BASED ON PERSONAL

CONVICTION - it helped shape the modern European who trusts his own
judgment
AND is not afraid to stand up to authority.

The importance which the Reformation gave to the conscience of the individual may
have contributed to the development of the capitalist spirit which underlies
modern economic life.
MAX WEBER (1904) PROTESTANT ETHICS AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM

He points out that capitalism existed even before the Reformation, but Protestantism,
especially Calvinism, gave capitalism a special dynamic.

Protestant businessmen believed that they had a religious obligation to acquire

money, and their faith instilled in them the self-discipline to succeed in this.
Convinced that PROSPERITY IS GOD'S BLESSING AND POVERTY HIS CURSE,
Calvinists had a
religious incentive to work hard and avoid laziness.

According to Calvin's doctrine, man could not gain salvation through any works
because God had predetermined who would be saved, but by some signs one
could guess that God had chosen them:
- hard work,
- value,
- obedience,
- efficiency,
- frugality
- and contempt for hedonism.

According to Weber, Protestantism gives religious approval for making money

and the way of life of a businessman.
Because of the feeling that they have a special place with God/a special
relationship with God results in a feeling of self-confidence and fairness.

Protestantism fosters a highly individualistic religiosity that:

- values ​inner strength,
- self-discipline, and
- methodical sober behavior—characteristic of a middle class striving for
business success in a world of intense competition.

BUT...

The Reformation unleashed a tide of fanaticism that culminated in religious

persecutions and wars between Protestants and Catholics that ravaged Europe in
the Thirty Years' War until 1648.

Europe did not get rid of this fanaticism for very long time, it is possible that such
fanaticism appeared in the devastating national wars of the 19th and 20th
centuries.
Public Speaking in Medieval Period and Renaissance

The Medieval Period (400 CE  -1400 CE)

• In contrast to the development and modifications that took place during

the Classical period, the Medieval age was considered to be a dark
 phase. 

• However, St. Augustine, a Christian clergyman, and a renowned

rhetorician continued to develop ideas and considered the study of
persuasion that had originated during the Classical Period.

4) The Renaissance (1400 CE- 1600 CE)

• The Renaissance period saw a rise of new intellectuals and rhetoricians

who emphasized more on the style of public speaking. 

• Petrus Ramus challenged the theories of the great scholars from the

Classical Period and focused on logic rather than rhetoric.

• According to him, logic falls under two parts- INVENTION AND

JUDGMENT.

• He also challenged much of what the great scholars thought about ethics,
morals, and the way they tied it up to communications.

• According to Francis Bacon, morality and reasoning should be an

essential part of any oration.
The Enlightenment (1600 CE – 1800 CE)

• The Enlightenment Period was considered to be a bridge between the

past and the present. 

• In the presence of Neoclassicism, the classical approach of rhetoric was

applied and practiced as per the situations present at that time.

• George Campbell, a Scottish minister, and educator used scientific and

moral reasoning to understand how persuasion in speech works

• It was in this period where the elocutionary approach was developed that
mainly focused on the delivery aspect of public speaking, namely- tone
of voice, gestures, body language, facial expressions, and
pronunciations.

• New political rhetoric was developed which was highly inspired by

ancient Greeks and Romans as well as from the Five Canons of
Rhetoric by Cicero. 
6) New School (from 1900s till today)

• The New School considered public speaking as a separate field of study.

• Communication departments have professors or instructors to teach

about classical and modern rhetoric. 

• For instance, Toastmasters is one such training organization that aims at

teaching its members public speaking skills.

• Ted Talk is one such example that is broadcasted globally and consists of
professionals who talk about various aspects of public speaking. People
consume Ted Talks mainly for inspiration.

• The new forms of public speaking are YouTube broadcasting, video

conferencing, and Podcasts which don’t involve a real physical
audience; however, they have the power to educate, entertain and
persuade the viewers or the listeners. 

What about journalism…

• Countless chroniclers of all walks of life in the middle ages, and they recorded
almost every type of history imaginable.

• The vast majority were done by members of the clergy, such as monks,
bishops, prelates, chaplains, etc. (Thietmar of Merserburg, Cosmas of Prague,
Frutolf of Michelsberg, and Helmold of Bosau).

• ... anonymous author of the Gesta Francorum, a common soldier, wrote his
impressions about First Crusade.

• ... troubadours who sang of their patrons' deeds and a variety of

contemporary events, usually adopting the sirventes form.

• ... troubadours and satirically minded trouvères were closer to our modern
notion of a freelance journalist or gossip columnist.

• There was no profession comparable to a journalist, but between the towns

travellers caried (wanderer‘s) news and general gossip, people kept themselves
 informed to a certain level about what mattered to them - say, about the
naming of a new priest to the area, or a new law the local lord had instituted.

• Word-of-mouth was the main source, however, specially in the higher middle
ages, when literacy rates were lower and books were much rarer than in
later periods.
4. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (new cosmology and methodology)

EMBODIMENT OF THE MODERN SPIRIT

Scientific revolution: new cosmology and methodology

... SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION OF THE 17TH CENTURY:

- the scientific method was established
- systematic observation and
- experimentation as the basic means for solving the secrets of nature.

Great trust in reason encourages the emergence of the Enlightenment, which

decisively rejects the ideas and institutions of the medieval past and articulated
the essential principles of modernity
Geocentism meant also that the universe (with earth in the center) was centered on
man, who is the only being to whom God gives
reason and the promise of salvation - THE LORD OF THE EARTH.
Around the earth are seven transparent spheres that carry one planet each (Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Sun,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) in the 8th. are stars that also revolve around the earth.
Behind the stars is the "celestial sphere" (primum mobile) which transmits motion
to the planets and stars, so in one day the entire celestial system revolves around the
motionless earth.
On the highest sphere, God sits on his throne surrounded by Angels.

Aristotle's position on the qualitative universe was accepted: earthly objects are
composed of earth, water, air and fire - while heavenly objects are composed of
ether (an element too perfect and pure to be found on earth).

The geocentric model (Aristotelian-Ptolemaic) and the division of universities into

the higher and lower world agreed with the statements from the Holy Scriptures.

The Renaissance background of the scientific revolution

Renaissance interest in antiquity revives the works of Archimedes and Galen,

which encourages new ideas about mechanics and anatomy.
Renaissance art connects mathematical proportions with the accurate
representation of the human body and requires precise observation of natural
phenomena.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404 – 1472) formulated a mathematical theory of
perspective that enabled artists to depict three-dimensional objects on a
two-dimensional surface - thus creating the illusion of depth.

The renewal of the ancient ideas of Pythagoras and Plato during the Renaissance,
which emphasized mathematics as the key to understanding reality, also
contributes
to the scientific revolution.
Pythagoras: all things have their numerical expression form - reality consists of
the relationship of numbers that the mind can understand.

During the Renaissance, mystical-magical hermeticism was especially popular.

Hermetic writings (Corpus Hermeticus) combined astrology, astrology, alchemy,

Jewish stories of creation and mystical longing with elements of Greek
philosophy
(Platonism and Pythagoreanism).

THE CORPUS HERMETICUS CONTAINS BELIEFS THAT:

- an unprecedented mathematical harmony pervades the cosmos;
- that mathematical activity is similar to religious contemplation because it
gives divine truth the key to the highest reality;
- that human beings ennoble their souls by acquiring knowledge of the cosmic
order that God imparts to the world.

Nicolaus Copernicus: overthrow of the earth

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) astronomer, mathematician and church canon

WHO DECLARED THAT THE EARTH, TOGETHER WITH OTHER PLANETS,

REVOLVES AROUND THE SUN,
WHICH IS IN THE CENTER. - HELIOCENTRIC THEORY IN THE WORK
"On the Circulation of the Celestial Orbits" (1543)

About 50 years after Copernicus' death, the theory frightened the church
authorities because it seemed to contradict the Holy Scriptures.
Frightened by Protestantism, the church leaders tried to avoid any lapse in church
discipline and believe, so Copernicus's book becomes banned, ....
But before the invention of the telescope, it was difficult to find evidence for
 COPERNICUS' THEORY

The church's fear of Copernicanism is best illustrated by the church's relationship

with the late Renaissance philosopher Giordano Bruno (1548-1600).
Accused of heresy, he spent 8 years in the prisons of the Inquisition until he was
burned alive.
Bruno's hermeticism led him to Copernicus' heliocentricity.
In Hermetic philosophy, movement is the energy of life, and the living planet Earth
revolves around the divine sun.
Bruno added mysticism to his Copernicanism
Galileo: shaping the modern scientific worldview
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) gifted musician and artist, cultivated humanist,
connoisseur of the Latin language and Italian poetry - at the same time an astronomer
and a physicist who helped to maintain the medieval conception of the cosmos and
shape the modern view
of the world

UNIFORMITY OF NATURE AND EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS

Galileo made for himself a telescope and discovered the moon's craters and
mountains, breaking with the Aristotelian view that the heavenly bodies are pure,
perfect and unchanging.
The moon is made of the same material as the earth.
Galileo's discovery of sunspots was proof that heavenly bodies are not
immutable.
He discovers 4 moons orbiting Jupiter, which overcomes the main objection to
the Copernican system.

GALILEO PROVED THAT:

- a celestial body can rotate around a center other than the Earth,
- the Earth is not a common center for all celestial bodies;
- some celestial body can orbit around the planet and together with it around
the sun.

For Galileo, the science of movement - physics should be derived from

observation and mathematics, and not, as with Aristotle, from the principles and logic
of common sense.
 Opposition to authority
Insisting that physical truth comes through observation, experimentation, and reason.
Galileo strongly criticized reliance on authority (Aristotle as authority):
“There are few who try to find out whether what Aristotle says is true; it is enough for
them to have to quote as many Aristotle's texts as possible to be thought of as more
educated".
For Galileo, who was a devoted Christian, the goal of the Holy Scriptures was to
teach the truth necessary for the salvation of the soul and not to instruct people
in the functioning of nature, which is the task of science.

"The intention of the holy spirit is to teach us how to get to heaven, not how
heaven moves.„

GALILEO PROTECTED THE NEW SCIENCE FROM THEOLOGICAL CONTROL.

Galileo's physics taught about the permanence of substantial particles, which if

applied to the Eucharist - bread and wine remain what they are even after
consecration, which casts doubt on a miracle.
After the publication of the work "Dialogue“ concerning the two main systems of the
world, he had to renounce Copernicanism and the work was banned - in order not to be
sentenced to death.

For the rest of his life, the Inquisition sentenced him to life imprisonment in his
home in Florence.

The Inquisition banned Copernicanism in 1633, and the ban was lifted only in 1820.

After the condemnation of Galileo, science (mechanical philosophy and

heliocentricity) is stifled in Catholic countries, and banned books can only be printed
in countries where the Catholic Church has no influence - in the Protestant
countries of Europe.
Johann Kepler: Laws of planetary motion
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) German mathematician and astronomer – combined
a Pythagorean-Platonic quest to understand the mathematical harmony within
nature with a deep devotion to Lutheran Christianity.

He is considered the last great astronomer who believed in astrology.

He longed to discover the geometric harmony of the planets - the "music of the
spheres".
Its mystical quality triggered the creative potential of the imagination, which had to
be disciplined with a rational attitude in order to have significance for science.

As the creator of mathematical astronomy, he rejects the use of pseudoscience,

although he still drew inspiration from it.

He discovered the 3 basic laws of planetary motion using the data of Tycho Brahe
who observed and recorded the motion of the planets:
1. The planets move along elliptical paths in the center of which is the sun;
2. The planets do not move at a uniform speed but gain greater acceleration the
closer they are to the sun;
3. He established a mathematical relationship between the time it takes for a
planet to complete its path AND its average distance from the sun
Newtonian synthesis
Publication of Isaac Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" in
1687. marks the peak of the scientific revolution.
He established three laws of motion that connected all heavenly and earthly
objects into a huge mechanical system whose parts function in perfect harmony
and whose relationships can be expressed in mathematical terms.

He established a mathematical proof of the heliocentric system, which stopped all

opposition to that system.

Newton, loyal to Anglican Christianity, believes that there is no conflict between

divine miracles and the universe, which is like a clock mechanism.
Newton's mechanics and understanding the universe and the scientific method
he insisted on (research, experiment, hypothesis and explanations) were THE
CORNERSTONES OF THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

PROPHETS OF MODERN SCIENCE

Modern science includes, after Newton, the formulation of a new method of examining
nature and the recognition that science could serve humanity.

The most significant are: FRANCIS BACON AND RENE DECARTES.

Francis Bacon: The Inductive Method (1561.1626)
English statesman and philosopher, supported the progress of science and the scientific
method.
His method that leads to truth and useful knowledge is an INDUCTIVE APPROACH:
- careful observation of nature and systematic collection of data:
- extracting general laws from knowledge of particulars;
- checking the law through continuous experiments.

Harvey used the inductive method when discovering blood circulation.

Believing that knowledge is power, he pressured the state to establish scientific
institutions and praised advances in technology and mechanical skills.
Rene Decartes: deductive method
The scientific method includes two approaches to knowledge that complement
each other:
- empirical (inductive) and
- rational (deductive).

The inductive approach is used in descriptive sciences such as biology, anatomy

and geology - general principles are derived from analyzing data collected by
observation and experiment.

The deductive approach is used in mathematics and theoretical physics where

truths are derived by successive steps from first principles, undoubted axioms.

It was formulated by Rene Decartes (1596-1650), a French mathematician and

philosopher, the founder of modern philosophy.
In his saying "I THINK, THEREFORE I EXIST", he presented his starting point of
knowledge.

He is considered the founder of modern philosophy because he asked the

individual to question himself, if necessary reject all traditional beliefs,
emphasizing the autonomy of reason, which has the ability to know the truth.
He believed that the method used in mathematics is the surest way to reliable
knowledge.
The mathematical or deductive approach consists of finding a self-evident principle
such as a geometric axiom and then deducing another truth from it through logical
reasoning.

Descartes tried to free scientific research from the interference of the clergy and
theological pressures.
His trust in human reason over authority and beliefs not confirmed by reason, his
support of the new scientific spirit, and his faith in
the ability of human beings to think for themselves, undermined dogma and
helped shape the Enlightenment's questioning, skeptical worldview.
Baruch Spinoza: nature as an intelligible system.
A descendant of Spanish Jews who fled to Holland to avoid the Inquisition, he studied
traditional Jewish religious and philosophical works, medieval
scholasticism and the new science and philosophy of his time, especially the works of
Descartes and Hobbes.
He was excommunicated from the Jewish religious community.
He worked as a lens grinder and dedicated his life to the search for truth.
He agreed with Descartes that the deductive method is the most correct way to
certainty.
For Spinoza, knowledge of God was the highest form of knowledge, and
"intellectual love of God" is man's ultimate goal.
Inspired by the new science, Spinoza identifies God with the natural order,
rejects many religious beliefs and calls for a critical reading of the Bible.
For him, the Bible is just an ancient text written with intention and not the pure
word of God.

With this he foreshadows the "higher criticism" of the Holy Scriptures that
appeared in the 19th century.

SPINOZA IS CONSIDERED A HERALD OF MODERNITY because he:

- refused to submit to the authority of the clergy;
- rejection of faith in miracles and the efficacy of prayers;
- critical approach to the study of the Holy Scriptures:
- condemnation of superstitions
- and commitment to scientific objectivity:
- advocacy for freedom of thought
- and religious tolerance:
- advocacy for a constitutional government that limits state power.
5. Revolution in political thought (Machiavelli, Hobbes and Locke)
Revolution in political thought:
MACHIAVELLI, HOBBES AND LOCK

- skeptical and critical attitude,

- a break with the traditional way of thinking
- separation of church and dogma from government and management
manifested in rationalization and secularism

After the disillusionment of the Middle Ages,

a modern centralized, territorial state emerged and that subordinated religious
institutions to national control.

Towards a modern state

During the Middle Ages, kings shared political power with feudal lords, clergy, free
cities, and representative assemblies.

Church theorists envisioned Christian Europe as a unitary political community in

which the spiritual prevails over the secular.

Kings who receive their authority from God must not ignore the religious obligation to
rule in accordance with God‘s commandments as interpreted by the clergy.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, kings managed to consolidate their power over
rival powers, continuing the trend that had begun in the late Middle Ages.

Everywhere, strong monarchs dominated the parliaments, which in the Middle Ages
were the brakes on royal power, more and more landowners and church authorities
were subordinated to royal control

The national- territorial state as a seal of the modern world gradually became the
basic political unit.

During this period of weakening of feudal and ecclesiastical power, several

essential features of the modern state
manifested themselves:
- A modern state is inviolable in its territory
- has a strong central government that issues laws that are applicable throughout the
country
- It maintains and pays a standing army of professional soldiers
- as well as trained bureaucrats accountable to the central government
- who collect taxes,
- enforce laws, and
- administer justice.

It is a secular state because the promotion of religion is not its concern and the
church does not determine state policy.

Absolutism- justified by divine law was the form of government supported by the first
modern kings.

In the new arrangement of political forces, the kings claimed that they were
chosen by God to rule and that they were answerable only to God.

The king's position and personality is sacred, and rebellion is sacrilege.

The three most important political theorists of early modern Europe were: Niccolò
Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Niccolò Machiavelli
Florentine statesman and political theorist.
He dedicated his work "The Ruler" to Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, but Lorenzo
showed no interest in that manuscript, which was published only after
Machiavelli's death.
Appearing in the Middle Ages, the city-states in northern and central Italy became real
secular states in Christian Europe at the beginning of the 15th century, whose
rulers ruthlessly used force to achieve their interests without any need to justify their
actions on religious or idealistic grounds.

Politics of reality

Machiavelli believed that people need safe and secure states (instead of just or
virtuous ones) and the goal of politics is to achieve that.

Machiavelli's research into politics led him to explore human nature from the point of
view of its limitations and imperfections.

A shrewd ruler sees people as they are and not as he would like them to be.
Human beings are by necessity selfish, corrupt, cowardly, vile, dishonest, and
prone to violence, and violence and deception are necessary to keep under
control the imperfect human nature that is a threat to civil order.

Politics does not follow moral imperatives but protects the security of the state
and its well-being.
However, he did not advocate immoralism, but he did say that actions that are
normally condemned in personal behavior become permissible in politics.

"THE END JUSTIFIES THE MEANS";

"IN THE WORLD OF POLITICS - MISTAKES ARE UNFORGIVABLE AND NOT

CRIMES"
A break with medieval thought
Machiavellianism acquired the importance of justifying all political opportunism,
duplicity, immorality in politics;

We use the adjective Machiavellian when we talk about politicians and statesmen
who cannot be
prevented from achieving their political goals.

By secularizing and rationalizing political philosophy, he began a direction that

we recognize as distinctly modern.

He did on a theoretical level what the Italian rulers did in reality by affirming the
secular and autonomous character
of the state - its independence from the transcendent kingdom, theological
principles and the power of the clergy.

Tomas Hobs
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) had a dark picture of human nature.
He rejected religious interpretations of political life and tried to formulate a
theory that agreed with reality.
Absolute monarchy is the most desirable form of government (Leviathan 1651).

Without the coercive force of the state, society degenerates into anarchy.
Hobbes believed that the creation of proper government depended on adherence
to set
rules that were as lawful and timeless as geometry.
Human nature as imperfect
He believed that one must first understand people's behavior if we want to build
a great political order.
For Hobbes, people are selfish, greedy and envious - prone to rivalry and
quarrels - for this purpose they use violence.
Because of this, without a common force to keep them in fear, they are in a state of
war

"THE WAR OF ALL AGAINST ALL„

In this way, Hobbes assumed the hypothetical state of humanity before the
formation of the state.
He did not recognize the actual historical existence of the natural state .
Natural state for Hobbes is the state in which society finds itself if there
were no authority to enforce laws.
Therefore the people agree to establish a state administered by a ruler whose
duty it is to defend his subjects and protect their natural right of
self-preservation.
The ruler does this by instilling in his subjects the fear of punishment.
The ruler must have absolute power because otherwise he will not be able to
protect society and subjects.
The social contract given to the sovereign cannot be revoked.
For him, hereditary monarchy is the best form of government.

The shaping of modern thought

Leviathan is a rational and secular political writing.

For him, the state is a human creation that deals with people's problems,
and its legitimacy and strength rest solely on the power of people.

For Hobbes, the state was not a creation of God, but merely a useful
arrangement that allowed individuals to exchange goods and services in a safe
environment.

What is essential to the liberal worldview is Hobbes's idea of ​a social contract,

according to which PEOPLE, not God, ARE THE SOURCE OF THE RULER'S
AUTHORITY.
 John Locke (1632-1704)

English physicist, statesman, philosopher, and political theorist.

He shared Hobbes's rational and secular approach to political thought,

but deviated from Hobbes' understanding of human nature and the state.

Locke believed that the individual is basically good and reasonable and rejected
the absolutist state of Hobbes.
Locke advocated constitutional government in which it derives
from the consent of those over whom the state rules, and state power is limited
by agreement.

Locke theorized what the British considered integral components

of the English tradition:
- the rejection of monarchical absolutism,
- parliamentary government under the rule of law,
- and the protection of private property.
Locke had more faith in the rational abilities and moral potential of human beings
than Hobbes.

He believed that individuals participate in a moral order whose existence can

be understood through reason and that rational people can recognize
that their behavior should correspond to the needs of the moral order.
Human beings, because they are rational and have a sense of moral obligation,
can overcome narrow selfishness and thus recognize and respect the dignity of other
people.

And Locke took the "state of nature" as the assumed state of mankind before the
creation of the state as the basis for the development of his views on human
nature and his political philosophy.

IN THE STATE OF NATURE, ACCORDING TO LOCKE, INDIVIDUALS ARE BORN

FREE, RATIONAL AND EQUAL.

Locke believed that all men are equal.

Locke justifies rebellion only in the most extreme circumstances - only after
many years of abuse have shown the tyrannical intentions of the ruler
THE CORNERSTONE OF LIBERALISM
LOCKE'S POLITICAL THOUGHT IS ESSENTIAL FOR SHAPING THE
 LIBERAL-DEMOCRATIC TRADITION.

In Locke's state, laws are intended for the general welfare of the people and not
for the private benefit of the ruler.
Locke believed that sovereignty lies in the people and that government rests
on the consent of those it rules.

The government is obliged to use the law to respect and apply the law of nature.
This recognition that there is a higher right above the human right that the people
and the government are obliged to respect is the cornerstone of modern liberalism.

Locke's state is also a constitutional state - another essential characteristic of

modern liberalism.

It follows established rules and sets obstacles to despotic dictates.

A ruler holds his power under laws; when he acts outside the law he loses his
right to rule.

... people possess the capacity for reason and freedom:

"WE ARE BORN FREE JUST AS WE ARE
BORN RATIONAL."

Locke's principles that PROPERTY IS A NATURAL RIGHT AND THAT STATE

INTERFERENCE IN PRIVATE PROPERTY LEADS TO THE EXTINGUISHMENT OF
FREEDOM - become the main principles of modern liberalism.