MODES OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is a process by which one organism produces offspring. It is one of the basic
processes in all known life forms. Every organism we see around us is a direct result of reproduction.

Reproduction in animals and plants takes place in two ways:

A. Sexual reproduction 
Requires two parents. Each parent contributes a gamete - a sex cell that has half of the normal
DNA of a regular body cell. In males, the gametes are sperm and in females, the gametes are eggs.
When these two gametes combine during fertilization, the result is a zygote, which then continues to
develop into an embryo.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Plants that reproduce sexually have sex parts which we know as flowers. The process of reproduction
involves the fusion of male gametes, namely, pollen with the female gamete, also known as ovules. This
fusion results in the formation of a zygote and an endosperm nucleus, which grow into seeds and fruits
respectively.

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

 Among the different modes of reproduction in animals, sexual reproduction is the most common
one. Most animals reproduce sexually, though in a variety of different ways.
 Sexual reproduction in animals involves the union of a haploid sperm and a haploid egg to form a
diploid zygote, which shares its DNA with both the parent cells.
 Certain invertebrates, such as tapeworms and certain other parasites, reproduce through the
process of self-fertilization in which they fertilize their eggs with their own sperm.
(Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues. In animals’
“self-fertilization” is not common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to donate sperms in
order to fertilize the oocytes in its body.)

Sexual reproduction in animals may happen through internal fertilization (humans, dogs) or external
fertilization (certain reptiles and birds).

 External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are
released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external
fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or several females release their
eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The release of the
reproductive material may be triggered by water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all
fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and
echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers).
  Internal fertilization occurs most often in land-based animals, although some aquatic animals
also use this method. There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal
fertilization.
o In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop there,
receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg. This occurs in most bony
fish, many reptiles, some cartilaginous fish, most amphibians, two mammals, and all
birds. Reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds and turtles produce eggs
with high concentrations of calcium carbonate in the shell, making them hard. Chicken
eggs are an example of this second type.
o In ovoviviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the embryo obtains its
nourishment from the egg’s yolk and the young are fully developed when they are
hatched. This occurs in some bony fish (like the guppy Lebistes reticulatus), some sharks,
some lizards, some snakes (such as the garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers,
and some invertebrate animals (like the Madagascar hissing cockroach Gromphadorhina
portentosa).
o In viviparity the young develop within the female, receiving nourishment from the
mother’s blood through a placenta. The offspring develops in the female and is born
alive. This occurs in most mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles.

B. Asexual Reproduction
It is the mode of reproduction which involves only one organism. The offspring that is produced
is genetically identical to the mother and almost always has the same number of chromosomes. Hence,
they are called clones. Moreover, they are exact copies of their parent cell.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Some plants have the ability to reproduce asexually, that is, without the help of flowers or
pollens. There are different modes of asexual reproduction in plants, both natural and human-induced.

In the natural mode of asexual reproduction, a plant can give rise to an offspring with the help of
roots. Certain plants also use budding and cutting to reproduce asexually.

Human-induced asexual reproduction in plants includes grafting, layering, cutting and

micropropagation.

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

Some simple animals, many of which are single-celled, reproduce asexually.

The different modes of asexual reproduction in animals include gemmules (sponges),

fragmentation (planarians), regeneration (echinoderms) and parthenogenesis (ants, wasps)

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Binary Fission - Type of asexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more
equal parts
 2. Fragmentation - Type of asexual reproduction where the
body breaks into two or more parts, with each fragment capable of
becoming a complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is
usually followed by regeneration where the missing parts are
produced. For example, a lost arm of the starfish may be
regenerated by mitotic cell divisions.

3. Budding - Type of asexual reproduction where a new

individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) from its parent, develops organs like those of the parent, and then
detaches itself.

4. Sporulation - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual forms from an aggregation
of cells surrounded by a resistant capsule or spore, which later on germinates

5. Parthenogenesis: An
embryo develops from an unfertilized cell.
Occurs in invertebrates, as well as in some fish, amphibians, and
reptiles.
Baby Komodo dragon produced through parthenogenesis.

Advantages Of Asexual Reproduction Disadvantages Of Asexual Reproduction

The process requires less energy. Since the offspring is an exact copy of the
parent, any negative mutation will also pass
on to the offspring.
It takes place in various environments. There is limited diversity within life forms.
It allows for the survival of species.
A single organism can develop a colony.
All the positive traits of the species are
transferred to future generations.
The organisms mature rapidly.
Advantages of sexual reproduction
Leads to variations.
Variations which are desirable often show
hybrid vigor.
High adaptability of individuals to changing
environmental conditions.
Variations provide a basis for evolutionary
changes.
It is difficult to control the increasing
population.
The organisms produced cannot adapt to
the changing environments.
There is a huge competition for food and
space among the species.
They have short lifespans.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Fusion is difficult if two individuals are
isolated.
Some variations may have undesirable
qualities.
Population growth is slow.
Takes time, time-consuming