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Chem first fellas

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WHAT IS WHY DO ATOMS
BONDING? BOND?

To become ‘Happy Atoms’

It results in a re-distribution A ‘happy atom’ is one that has a

full outermost shell (such as in

of the electrons in the
the noble gas)
outermost shell of the
An electronic structure where the
atoms involved.
outermost shell is completely

filled with electrons is thought to

have the greatest stability.

The octet rule: Atoms will either

lose, gain or share electrons so

that it will have 8 electrons in its

outermost shell.
COVALENT BONDS

These are bonds that form between

elements that are non-metals

The valence electrons are shared

between the atoms to achieve the

structure of the nearest noble gas.

The electrons in the bond belong to

BOTH atoms that are involved in the

bond
 What is pH?

• pH is a measure of how strong of how weak an

acid is

• Strong acids give up their H+ ions very readily

while weaker ones don’t give them up readily

• Examples of strong acids are: hydrochloric

acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric
acid

• Examples of weak acids are: acetic/ ethanoic

acid (vinegar), formic/ methanoic acid (ant
venom) and citric acid (the acid that gives
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citrus fruits their sour/ tart taste
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 The pH Scale

• We use the pH scale to assign a value for the

pH of substances

• The pH scale goes from 1 to 14

• A pH od 1 to 6.9 is an acid

• A pH of 7 is neutral

• A pH of 7.1 to 14 is a base/ alkali

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 Indicators

• An indicator is a chemical substance that changes

colour with changing pH

• Some are used to tell weather the substance is

acidic, alkaline or neutral, while others change to a The colours of Universal
Indicator
different colour for every pH on the scale

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What Do We Mean By The Term ‘Properties (in Chemistry)

→ This term refers to the characteristics of a substance

→ These characteristics could be physical (example, melting point, density, etc)

→ These are called physical properties

→ It could also be its behaviour when exposed to other substances (example air, water, acids, etc)

→ These are called chemical properties

 → A physical property is a property, quality or way that an object is.
Physical
→ A physical property can always be measured without changing or making the
Properties object chemically different or different in a way that would affect its chemical
or atomic structure.

→ Examples of physical properties are:

1. Colour, Shape, texture
2. Density/ Hardness
3. Melting and boiling point
4. Solubility
5. Ductility (how easy it is to stretch a material)
6. Luminosity (how bright an object is)
7. Malleability (how easy it is to re-shape a material without damaging it)
8. Permeability (how dense a magnetic field would be if current passes
through it)
9. Tensile strength (how much force must be applied to a material to break
it)
10. Viscosity (how thick a fluid is)
Chemical Properties

→ A chemical property refers to any aspect of a substance which is only seen by means of a chemical reaction.

→ These properties cannot be determined by seeing or touching the substance

→ In a chemical reaction, the substance (the reactant) that we start with is changed to something else at the end (the
product)

→ Examples of chemical properties:

1. Surface tension
2. Cohesion
3. Conductivity of heat and electricity
4. pH
5. Reactivity with other substances including water and oxygen
6. Combustiveness/ flammability
Ionic Substances
→ Ionic substances are those that are formed by ionic bonding

→ Ionic substance are composed of 1 or more metal atoms

bonded to 1 or more non-metal atoms

→ The metal atom will lose electrons to become a positively

charged ion or CATION

→ The non-metal atom accepts electrons for the metal atoms to

form a negatively charged ion or ANION

→ The ionic bond forms as a result of the attraction between the

oppositely charged ions
Physical Properties of Ionic
Substances

→ They form giant crystalline structure with a regularly

repeating pattern of cations and anions

→ They generally show a high degree of clarity

→ Some are coloured, others are colourless

→ This regularly repeating pattern is called a lattice

→ They have high melting and boiling points (they are

solids at room temperature)

→ They are hard and brittle; density varies

→ They display low ductility and malleability and show

high tensile strength
Chemical Properties of Ionic Substances

MOST DISSOLVE QUITE EASILY AND
READILY IN WATER
THEY CONDUCT ELECTRICITY IN THE THEY ARE POOR HEAT CONDUCTORS THEY SHOW POOR FLAMMABILITY,
MOLTEN/LIQUID STATE AND WHEN BUT MAY REACT WITH OXYGEN IN AIR
DISSOLVED IN WATER (IN THESE WHEN HEATED STRONGLY
STATES, THE CHARGED IONS ARE
FREE TO MOVE ABOUT WITHIN THEIR
SPACE)
Covalent Substances

Covalent substances are formed by covalent bonding

Covalent substances are composed of 1 or more non-metal

atoms bonded to 1 or more non-metal atoms

The covalent bond forms as a result of the sharing of electrons

between the atoms involved
Physical Properties of Covalent Substances

Some form simple molecular structures that are held together by weak forces
forming amorphous solids, whilst others form giant covalent molecule that have
crystalline lattices

Some, for example carbon, shows a feature called allotropy, where it exists in
different crystalline lattices

The simple molecules have low boiling and melting points (many being gaseous at
room temperature) while the giant structures tend to have high melting and
boiling points
Chemical Properties of Covalent Substances

They show low or no solubility in They show low electrical and Some are highly flammable and
water thermal conductivity (except tend to undergo combustion
graphite and silica) easily
Allotropes
→ Allotropy - the existence of a chemical element in two or
more forms, which may differ in the arrangement of atoms
in crystalline solids or in the occurrence of molecules that
contain different numbers of atoms.

→ Such as the different forms of carbon which has at least 3

known allotropes
1. Diamond
2. Graphite
3. Fullerenes

→ Other substances such as sulphur and phosphorous exist

as allotropes

→ Each allotrope has its own physical and chemical properties

Diamond and Graphite

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Uses of Diamond and Graphite
 Acids,
Bases &
Salts
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 What is An Acid?
• A molecule that has H+ ions to give away
• A substance that reacts with a base to make a salt
and water
• It has a pH between 1 and 6.9
• They turn blue litmus to red
• They are usually clear and colourless
• It is sour to taste (but DO NOT taste anything in the
lab!!!)
• It is corrosive
 •Hydrochloric Acid
(HCl)
Examples •Nitric Acid (HNO3)
•Sulphuric Acid
of Acids (H2SO4)
•Ethanoic/ acetic acid
(vinegar) (CH3CO2H)
What is A Base?
• A substance that accepts H+ ions
• They give up OH- ions
• They react with acids to form a salt and
water
• They have a pH of between 7.1 and 14
• They turn red litmus to blue
• Bases are called ALKALIS when they
dissolve in water
• They are soapy-feeling
• They taste bitter (but remember: NO
TASTING IN THE LAB!)
Examples of
Bases
• Substances that end in ‘Hydroxide’ – Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)
• Substances that end in ‘Carbonate’ or
‘Hydrogencarbonate’ – Calcium carbonate
(CaCO3); Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)
• Oxides of metals – Magnesium oxide (MgO)
• Metals
Biology
Section A ( 30 MCQ)

- What is Biology?
- Characteristics of life
- Plant and Animal cells
- Food Chains and Webs
- Modes of Nutrition
- Biotic and Abiotic factors
- Human Excretory Systems
- Human Reproductive Systems
- Communicable Diseases

Section B ( 2 structured questions)

- Ecology: Food Chains and Webs

- Excretion and Reproduction
Characteristics of Life:

Growth:

Respiration:

Irritability / Sensitivity:

Movement:

Nutrition:

Excretion:

Reproduction:
Growth

A permanent increase in size

or level of development of an
organism.
Respiration

Respiration is a chemical reaction that

happens in all living cells, including plant
cells and animal cells. It is the way that
energy is released from glucose so that
all the other chemical processes needed
for life can happen.
Irritability / Sensitivity

The ability to perceive or

sense the environment or
changes in the environment.
Movement
Nutrition

the process of providing or

obtaining the food necessary for
health and growth.
Excretion

Excretion is the removal from the body

of waste products which result from
normal life processes. Waste products
such as carbon dioxide must be
removed. If they are allowed to
accumulate they cause poisoning which
slows down vital chemical reactions.
Reproduction

The ability of an organism to produce

a new generation of individuals of the
same species. This is necessary to
continue the species and replace dead
individuals.

There are two types of

reproduction: asexual and sexual.
Plant and Animal Cell
Structure
RSeedarnee
Form 3
Cells
The basic unit of life.

The simplest form an organism can take.

The smallest unit that can exhibit the characteristics of life.

Organelles present in ALL cells:
Cell membrane: very thin layer that is surrounding the entire cell. It controls the entry and exit of materials into
/ out of the cell.

Nucleus: membrane bound sac that contains the genetic material ( DNA) .It stores and passes on instructions
for the cell to function.

Mitochondrion: the powerhouse of the cell, contains enzymes for respiration and the release of energy for the
cell.

Cytoplasm: fluid matrix of the cell, supports the organelles. The site for most cellular reactions.

Vacuole / vesicles: space within the cytoplasm, used for various functions, eg storage of food , of water.
Organelles present in PLANT cells only
Cell wall: made of cellulose, freely permeable. Supports and protects the cell.

Chloroplast: large bodies that contain chlorophyll. They are the site of photosynthesis (
CO2 + H20 > C6H12O6 + O2 )
 Animal Cells under the
microscope:

Cheek cells under high power of the

light microscope.

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Plant Cells under the light
microscope
Onion skin cells under high
power of the light microscope.

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Levels of Biological
Organisation
Form 3 Biology
Group 1
Cells
Tissues
 Organs
Structures made of several
groups of tissues working
together to perform a particular
function.
 Organ Systems
A group of different organs that
all work together to perform a
particular task
Organism Habitat: the place where an organism lives and
carries out its niche.

A living being that has organised structure and

can grow, respire, feed, excrete, reproduce, move
and perceives and react to its environment.

Niche: the role / job of an organism;

adaptations, use of resources etc
Group 2
 Species
A group of organisms that are
physically similar that are
capable of interbreeding to
produce fertile offspring.
 Population
A group of organisms of the
same species that live on the
same habitat at the same time.
 Community
A group of organisms of DIFFERENT
species that live in the same habitat
at the same time.
 Ecosystem

A community of the biotic (

plants, animals and
microorganisms) and their
interactions with the abiotic (
non-living) components of their
environment.
The Excretory System
R. Seedarnee
 What is Excretion?

The process by which organisms get rid of

metabolic waste.
 What is metabolism ?

Metabolism is the series of chemical reactions that cells use to maintain

the structure and balance of the body. It's actually two processes:

1. Catabolism primarily breaks down the molecules from our food into
smaller parts or energy that cells can use (for example a sandwich
broken down into carbohydrates, proteins, and fats).
2. Anabolism involves the construction of structures from smaller units
(for example proteins from the sandwich being rearranged to make
muscle).
 What is metabolic waste ?

Metabolic waste: the leftover / unwanted products

made by cellular reactions.
Eg: nitrogenous wastes from the catabolism of
proteins
Excretion ? or Egestion?
Egestion
the act or process of voiding or discharging undigested food as
faeces.
What are the organs involved in Excretion?
The Human Reproductive
Systems

The Male Reproductive System

What is REPRODUCTION?
Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more
organisms like themselves.

In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex

cells, or gametes, are involved. The male gamete, or
sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or ovum, meet in
the female's reproductive system. When sperm
fertilizes (meets) an egg, this fertilized egg is
called a zygote. The zygote goes through a process of
becoming an embryo and developing into a fetus.
Stages of Reproduction
What is the male reproductive system?

The male has reproductive organs, or genitals, that are both inside
and outside the pelvis. The male genitals include:

● the testicles
● the duct system, which is made up of the epididymis and the vas deferens
● the accessory glands, which include the seminal vesicles and prostate gland
● the penis
Summary: What is the function of the Male Reproductive System?

The male reproductive system:

● makes semen
● releases semen into the reproductive system of the female during
sexual intercourse
● produces sex hormones, which help a boy develop into a sexually
mature man during puberty
The Human Reproductive
Systems
The Female Reproductive System
 What is REPRODUCTION?
Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like
themselves.

In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex cells, or gametes,

are involved. The male gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the
egg or ovum, meet in the female's reproductive system. When sperm
fertilizes (meets) an egg, this fertilized egg is called a zygote. The zygote
goes through a process of becoming an embryo and developing into a
fetus.
Stages of Reproduction
What is the female reproductive system?
The external part of the female reproductive organs is called the vulva,
which means covering. Located between the legs, the vulva covers the
opening to the vagina and other reproductive organs inside the body.

A female's internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian

tubes, and ovaries.
Parts of the female reproductive system
The vagina is a muscular, hollow tube that
extends from the vaginal opening to the
uterus.It has 3 functions:

1. It's where the penis is inserted during

sexual intercourse.
2. It's the pathway (the birth canal)
through which a baby leaves a
woman's body during childbirth.
3. It's the route through which menstrual
blood leaves the body during periods.

The uterus is shaped like an

upside-down pear, with a thick lining
and muscular walls.
Parts of the female reproductive system
At the upper corners of the uterus, the
fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the
ovaries.

The ovaries are two oval-shaped organs

that lie to the upper right and left of the
uterus. They produce, store, and release
eggs into the fallopian tubes in the process
called ovulation.
How does the female reproductive system work?
The female reproductive system enables a woman to:

● produce eggs (ova)

● have sexual intercourse
● protect and nourish a fertilized egg until it is fully developed
● give birth
Communicable
Diseases

Reproductive System
What is a Communicable Disease?

A communicable disease is any disease that can

be passed from one infected being to another.

Examples of communicable diseases include: covid

19; chicken pox, monkey pox, athletes foot, HIV
and the common cold.
What are “ Symptoms of Disease”?
Any objective evidence of a disease, such as a skin rash or a cough, is
a sign. A doctor, family members, and the individual experiencing the
signs can identify these.

Symptoms are subjective, meaning that other people only know

about them if informed by the individual with the condition. Eg
stomachache, lower back pain, fatigue and headache, are symptoms
and can only be recognized by the person experiencing them.
Communicable diseases can be passed in many ways:

1. Contact with an infected person: Some communicable diseases require

contact with an infected person's blood or other bodily fluids, such as with acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

2. Contact with an infected animal or insect: Sometimes an animal or

insect passes an illness onto a human. An animal that carries disease and spreads it from
one person to another is known as a vector.
3. Contact with an infected surface, food or water: With some
contact communicable diseases, like the common cold, just touching something after a
sick person does can get you sick.
STIs: Sexually Transmitted Infections
Diseases that are spread through sexual contact.

This includes:

- Kissing
- Oral sex
- Vaginal sex
- Anal sex
STI include:
● Chlamydia
● Gonorrhoea
● Trichomoniasis
● Genital warts
● Genital herpes
● Pubic lice
● Scabies
● Syphilis
Common STI symptoms
● unusual discharge from the vagina, penis or anus
● pain when peeing
● lumps or skin growths around the genitals or anus
● a rash
● unusual vaginal bleeding
● itchy genitals or anus
● blisters and sores around the genitals or anus
How are STIs transmitted?
Statistics (US)
Physics
INTRODUCTION- MAGNETS
KEY POINTS
● The poles of a magnet are the parts of a magnet where the
magnetic force appears to be concentrated
● A magnet has two poles - a north seeking pole (N-pole) and a
south- seeking pole (S-pole)
● A magnet that is allowed to turn freely always comes to rest
in a North- South Direction- like a compass
● Like poles of magnet repel, unlike poles attract.
● Repulsion is the surest way to test for a magnet.
● Permanent magnets keep their magnetism for a long time
(forever)
● Temporary magnets lose their magnetism quickly
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY MAGNETS
ll

TEMPORARY MAGNETS ARE KNOWN AS SOFT MAGNETS

PERMANENT MAGNETS ARE KNOWN AS HARD MAGNETS

MAGNETIZING

Magnetic Materials can be magnetised to become magnets as

follows:
1) Stroke the permanent bar
magnet on the steel bar with
one pole as shown, for about a
hundred times.

2) A steel bar is placed inside a

cylindrical coil of copper
wires connected to a battery.
As the direct current passes
MAGNETIZING
DEMAGNETIZING
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism is the branch of physics that deals
with the magnetic field associated with a current (
moving electrons) in a conductor.
CREATING A SIMPLE ELECTROMAGNET
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF AN
ELECTROMAGNET

An electromagnet becomes a magnet when an electric

current flows through the solenoid and loses its

magnetism when the circuit is off. The strength of the

electromagnet can be increased by :

a) Increasing the current in the solenoid

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID
similar magnetic fields
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
RELAY SWITCHES- a small switch used to turn on a more
powerful circuit- e.g. the relay switches in your car to start
the ignition
ELECTRIC BELLS
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
KEY POINTS ON REFRACTION OF LIGHT
● The change in direction or bending of light when
it travels from one transparent medium to another
is called the refraction of light

● Light refracts when passing from one transparent

medium into another because light travels at
different speeds in different media

● Light bends towards the normal when its speed

decreases as it passes from a less optically dense
medium to a more optically dense medium. (air to
glass)

● Light bends away from the normal when its speed

IDENTIFYING THE INCIDENT RAY, NORMAL AND REFRACTED
RAY, AND ANGLES
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT
The splitting or separation of white light into its component
colours is called dispersion of white light.

White Light (sunlight, light from LED bulbs, fluorescent light

bulbs)is made up of different colours of the rainbow
ROYGBIV.

When white light enters a triangular glass prism it splits into

the different colours of the rainbow as shown. WHITE
LIGHT (visible light) is a small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that contains the full range of electromagnetic
waves.
EXPLAINING DISPERSION
RECOMBINATION OF THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW

TO prove that white light is a mixture of the different colours of the rainbow,
another prism can be used to recombine the colours as shown above. The colours
recombine to give white light.

ACTIVITY: RESEARCH WHAT IS A NEWTON DISC AND MAKE ONE ,

RAINBOW FORMATION-
REFRACTION/DISPERSION/REFLECTION
ADVANCED TOPIC: REFRACTIVE INDEX
REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH EQUATION 2
SNELL’s LAW

EQUATION 3
which represents the direction of the force on a positive
particle (test charge)
Electric fields

NOTE:

ELECTRIC FIELD IS A VECTOR QUANTITY- IT HAS STRENGTH AND DIRECTION. THE

DIRECTION IS ALWAYS THE SAME AS THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE ON A
POSITIVELY CHARGED PARTICLE.

THE DIRECTION OF THE FIELD LINES SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS SLIDE, SHOW THE
DIRECTION A TEST POSITIVE CHARGE WILL MOVE IF PLACED IN THE ELECTRIC
FIELDS
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
WHY DO ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
WELL
WHY ARE INSULATORS POOR CONDUCTORS

INSULATORS ARE HENCE EASILY CHARGED BY FRICTION

since the electrons gained by rubbing stay put on its
surface and cannot easily flow
LIGHTNING FORMATION AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS -
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC CHARGE are responsible
for lightning
WHY DOES LIGHTNING OCCUR AND HOW DO LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS
PROTECT BUILDINGS

_ write a note in your book on how lightning occurs.

Geography
Weather Maps
Temperature and Rainfall
Temperature on Synoptic Charts/Weather maps
Air temperatures are measured and recorded in degrees Celsius (otherwise called
degrees Centigrade).

In Trinidad and Tobago, we are more familiar with the Celsius scale. (℃).

In weather maps, on the weather stations, we indicate it by using the numeral

value.
Hydrological Cycle
Types of Rainfall-
Convectional Rainfall
This involves the air becoming
heated as a result of contact
with the ground. The hot air
expands, becomes lighter and
so rises. On rising it is cooled.
Convectional Rainfall most
commonly occurs in the
afternoon.
Types of Rainfall-
Orographic Rainfall
This involves a wind blowing
against a mountain range and the
air having to rise over it. Heavy
rainfall usually occurs on the
windward side of the mountains
(the side which faces the prevailing
wind). The leeward side ( the side
which is sheltered from the wind) is
usually very much drier and is said
to be in the rain shadow.
Types of Rainfall- Frontal
or Convergence
This involves two bodies of
air meeting with one body
of air pushing up under the
other and forcing it to rise.
The line where two bodies
of air (air masses) meet is
a front.
Precipitation on a Synoptic Chart/Weather map
History
Last one boys