Mechanical Design of Overhead

Lines
 Introduction
• Transmission and Distribution lines are vital links between
generating station and consumers
• Transmission and Distribution of power from generating station and
consumers should be carried out with minimum possible loss and
disturbance
• Requirement of a Good Transmission and Distribution System:
• T & D system Should be efficient, technically sound and reliable
• Line should have sufficient current carrying capacity so as to transmit
required power over a given distance without excessive voltage drop
and over heating
• The line losses should be small
• Line insulation should be adequate to cope with the system voltage
• The line should have sufficient mechanical strength to cope with the
worst probable weather conditions
• Less Maintenance
• Satisfactory service over long period
 Main Components of Overhear Lines
• Supports • Vee Guards
• Cross arms and clamps • Guard Wires
• Insulators • Phase Plates
• Conductors • Bird Guards
• Danger Plate
• Guys and stays
• Barbed Wire
• Lightning Arrestors
• Miscellaneous items
• Fuses and Isolating • Vibration dampers,
Switches • Top hampers
• Continuous Earth Wires • Bead for jumpers etc.,
 Line Support
• The function of line support is to support the
conductors
• Line support must be capable of carrying load
due to insulators and conductors including ice
and wind loads
• Types of line support:
• Wooden poles
• Steel Poles
• Reinforced concrete poles
• Steel Towers either of the rigid or flexible type
 Line Support continued…
• Main Requirement of Line Support
• High Mechanical strength
• Light in weight
• Cheaper in cost
• Low maintenance cost
• Longer life
• Good looking
• Easy accessibility
• Anchoring tower
 Wooden Poles
• Wooden poles are cheapest, easily available, provide insulating properties.
• Extensively used in distribution purpose in rural areas
• Limited to 22 kV and for short span
• Rarely, H types poles are used for 130 kV with 150 meters span
• Sal or Chir wood is used.
• 11 meters in height with min dia of 38 cm at bottom and max 66 cm on top.
• Must be straight, strong, gradually tapered and free from knots
• Should be properly seasoned
• Provided with aluminum or zinc cap on top
• 2 meters from bottom is buried in the ground
• Impregnated with Creosite oil
• 25 – 30 years life span
• Wooden poles are very elastic
• Drawbacks of Wooden Support:
• Tendency to rot below ground level
• Comparatively smaller life span
• Less mechanical strength
• Requires periodical Inspection
 Wooden Poles

Single Pole Wooden Pole with A Type Pole

Supporting Cap
 Wooden Poles Continued….

H Pole Supporting Transformer 4 Member Pole construction with transformer

and switchgear and fuses
Wooden Poles for 11 kV line

Triangular Formation Horizontal Formation

 Steel Poles
• Types of steel poles
• Tubular poles
• Rail poles
• rolled Steel Joists
 Steel Poles
• Features of Steel poles
• Permits longer spans 95 – 80 m
• Higher cost
• Life is longer compared to wooden poles (40 years)
• Tubular poles are lighter in weight and easy to install
• Higher initial cost as compared to wooden poles
• Tubular poles are 9 to 11 mtrs long
• Generally used for Distribution purpose and gives
good appearance
• Steel rail poles is 11m to 13 m in height
• Used for transmission purpose at 11 kV and 33 V
 RCC Poles
• Used for low voltage and high voltage lines up to 33 kV
• 25 cm x 25 cm at bottom and 13 cm x 13 cm at top.
• One type is square cross section from bottom to top and other is
rectangular bottom and square top
• Advantage of RCC poles
• Good appearance
• No maintenance
• Have got insulating properties
• Resistance against chemical action
• Very strong
• Have longer life
• Can be used for longer span (80 – 200 m)
• Suitable for water logged situation
• Disadvantages of RCC poles
• Bulky
• Transportation is heavy
• Need care in handling
• Pressed Cement Concrete
 Lattice Steel Towers
• Advantages
• Mechanically strong and longer life
• Long span (300 m)
• Economical for tall supports and longer spans
• High Degree of Reliability
• Capable of withstanding severe climatic conditions
• Immune to forest fires
• Risk of service interruption due to broken or punctured insulators is
considerably reduced due to use of large spans
• Lightning troubles are also minimized
• Steel towers are fabricated from painted or galvanized angle
sections which can be transported separately and the erection done
on the site
• At moderate cost double circuit gives further insurance against
discontinuity of supply.
• Height of tower depends on line voltage and length of span
Lattice Steel Towers continued….
 Classification of Towers
• Types of Transmission Tower
• Types of transmission tower -
• A – type tower – angle of deviation 0o to 2o.
• B – type tower – angle of deviation 2o to 15o.
• C – type tower – angle of deviation 15o to 30o.
• D – type tower – angle of deviation 30o to 60o.
• As per the force applied by the conductor on the cross arms, the
transmission towers can be categorized in another way- Tangent
suspension tower and it is generally A - type tower.
• Deviation or angle tower or tension tower or sometime it is called section
tower. All B, C and D types of transmission towers come under this
category.
• Have broader base and stronger member and used to change the direction
• Cost is comparatively larger
• Can withstand heavy load
• Apart from the above customized type of tower, the tower is designed to
meet special usages listed below,
 Types of Lattice Steel Towers

Single Circuit Tower Double Circuit Tower

Advantages and Disadvantages of Single Circuit
and Double Circuit Design
• Single Circuit Design
• Its structure is lighter weight
and requires less strong
foundation
• It needs much lower support
for equal conductor clearance
to earth, but requires more
way leave for same no of
conductors.
• Two earth wires are required
for single circuit as these
cannot be disposed at the top.
• Double Circuit Design
• Its structure is heavier in
weight and of more height. It
requires relatively strong
foundation.
• It needs taller structure but
less way leave for equal no. of
circuits.
• Only one earth wire is
required for two circuits and
more protection against
lightening is due its disposition
at the top.
Single Circuit Design
• Danger of flashover is unlikely
and repairs can be carried out
without danger to workmen
from other circuits.
• Reliability regarding continuity
of supply is less.
• It is more expansive for two
circuits then double circuit
design.
• Greater spacing of conductors
is required resulting in greater
inductive reactance.
• The phase performance along
the is unbalanced as central
conductor passes at the top of
support, which is a drawback
Double Circuit Design
• There is always danger from
the other live circuit.
• Reliability regarding continuity
of supply is more.
• It is most economical and
cheaper.
• Lesser spacing of conductors is
required, hence the inductive
reactance is less.
• It gives better approach to the
triangular arrangement, hence
the phase performance will be
more balanced.
 Tower Design
• During design of transmission tower the following
points has to be considered:
• Weight of the conductor, ice and wind loads
• Extra forces due to break in the line
• The minimum ground clearance of the lowest
conductor point above the ground level.
• The length of the insulator string.
• The minimum clearance to be maintained between
conductors and between conductor and tower.
• The location of ground wire with respect to outer most
conductors.
• The mid span clearance required from considerations
of the dynamic behavior of conductor and lightning
protection of the line.
• To determine the actual transmission tower height by
considering the above points, we have divided the
total height of tower in four parts
1. Minimum permissible ground clearance (H1)
2. Maximum sag of the conductor (H2)
3. Vertical spacing between top and bottom conductors
(H3)
4. Vertical clearance between ground wire and top
conductor (H4).
 Conductor Materials
• Cost of conductor material accounts for major
part of the total cost of any transmission and
distribution system
• Characteristics of Conductor Material:
• High electrical conductivity
• High Tensile strength
• Low Specific Gravity
• Low cost
• Easy availability
• Should not be brittle
• Stranded wires are preferred
 Types of Conductors
• Stranded HARD Drawn Copper
• Aluminium
• Steel Cored Aluminium
• Galvanized Steel
• Cadmium Copper
• Copper Clad Steel
• Phosphor Bronze
 Problem
1. Electric power of 30 MW at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging is
to be transmitted by a 132 kV, 3 phase, 3 wire
transmission line over a distance of 120 km. The
efficiency of transmission is 90%. Calculate:
i. Weight of material required in case of copper
having resistivity of 1.78 x 10-8 Ω-m and density of
8900 kg/m3.
ii. Weight of material required in case of aluminium
having resistivity of 2.6 x 10-8 Ω-m and density of
2000 kg/m3.
Cross Arms
Pole Brackets and Clamps
Guys and Stays
Conductor Configuration, spacing and
Clearances
• Conductor Configuration
• Horizontal Configuration
• Vertical Configuration
• Triangular Configuration
• Conductor Spacing
• Conductor Clearances
• Span Length
 Sag and Tension
• Definition of Sag
• the vertical difference in level between points of support (most
commonly transmission towers) and the lowest point of the conductor.
• Important points related to the Sag
• For same level supports, the shape of conductor is catenary
• If sag is small compared to span then the sag-span curve is a parabola
• Tension at any point acts tangentially
• Tension has vertical and horizontal component. The tangent direction
at point O is horizontal thus the tension at point O acts horizontally
• The horizontal component of tension is constant through out the wire
• The tension at the support is approximately equal to the horizontal
tension acting at any point on the conductor
 Sag and Tension continued……
• Factors affecting the Sag
• Weight of the conductor
• Length of the span
• Working Tensile strength
• Temperature
• Calculation of Sag and Tension
• Supports at equal level
• Supports at unequal level
 Supports at Equal Level

• The point O is the lowest point on the trajectory.

• Let L = Length of the span
• W = Weight of the span
• T = Tension in the conductor in kg
• Consider a point P on the conductor and let point O is origin. Hence the
coordinates of point P are (x,y)
• The length of span L is large compared to sag S, hence the shape of conductor
takes the form of parabola
• Let l = Half span length = L/2
• As the curve is very small due to small sag, it can be assumed that the length
OP of the conductor is same as the x coordinate of P
• l(OP) = x
Supports at Equal Level continued…

• Now there are two external forces acting on the portion OP of

the conductor
• The tension T
• The weight wx which acts at a distance of x/2 from the point O or
P, as OP = x
• The tension T acts in horizontal direction at point O
• Taking moments of these two forces about point P and equating
them we get
• T . y = wx . (x/2)
• y = wx2/2T …………… (1)
Supports at Equal Level continued…

• y = wx2/2T ………………… (1)

• The equation shows that the trajectory is parabolic in nature. At the support A
and B, the vertical distance y from the origin O indicates the sag S
•  At A or B, x = l = L/2 and y = S
• Substituting in equation (1)
• S = (w/2T)(L/2)2 = WL2/8T
• L = Total span length andd T = Tension in the conductor
• The sag at any point P of the conductor is
• Sag at P = S – y
• = (wL2/8T) – (wx2/2T)
• Sag ar P = (w/8T) [L2 – 4x2]
 Problems on Sag with level support
• An overhead line has a span of 250 m. The tension in
the line is 1500 kg while the conductor weighs 750 kg
per 1000 metres. Calculate the maximum sag in the
conductor (S = 3.9062 m)
• An overhead line conductor is supported by the two
towers which are at 70 m height above the water level.
The towers are separated from each other by
horizontal distance of 300 m. The tension in the
conductor is 1500 kg. Find the clearance at a point
midway between the towers if size of the conductor is
0.92 cm2 and density of the conductor material is 8.87
gm/cm3 and suspension length of the string is 2 (S =
6.12 m, clearance = 63.88 m)
• 1.Solution
• Sag=wl2/8T
• l=250 ; T=1500; w= 750 pre km i.e w=0.75kg
• Sag= 0.75*(250)2/1500*8
• S= 3.9062
2.Solution:
• Sag,
• S= Wl2 /2T
• l = 150 m,
• W = lAρ = (0.9 × 10−4) × (8.9 × 103) = 0.8 kg wt
• T = 1500 kg wt
• S = Wl2 /2T = 0.8 × 1502/2 × 1500 = 6.007 m
• Clearance between conductor and water at mid-
way between the towers = 70 − 6 = 63.9
• 3. A 132 kV transmission line has the following
data :
• Wt. of conductor = 680 kg/km ;
• Length of span = 260 m
• Ultimate strength = 3100 kg ;
• Safety factor = 2
Calculate the height above ground at which the
conductor should be supported. Ground
clearance required is 10 metres.
• Solution.
• Wt. of conductor/metre run, w = 680/1000 = 0·68
kg
• Working tension, T =Ultimate strength/Safety
factor
• T= 3100/2 = 1550 kg
• Span length, l = 260 m
• ∴ Sag = w l2/8T
• 0.68* (260)2/8*1550
• =3.7m
∴ Conductor should be supported at a height of
10 + 3·7 = 13·7 m
 Supports at Unequal Level
• L = Total span
• h = Difference in the levels
• T = Tension in the conductor
• x1 = Distance of point O from the support A
• x2 = Distance of point O from the support B
• w = Weight per unit length of the
conductor
• Applying the results derived in the earlier
section, we can write
• S1 = wx12/2T = sag at A ………………… (1)
• S2 = wx22/2T = sag at B ………………… (2)
• The sum of x1 and x2 gives the total span
length L
• x1 + x2 = L ………………………………….(3)
 Supports at Unequal Level continued…..
• If x1 and x2 are known, then sag S1 and S2 can
be obtained using equation (1) and (2)
• Subtract equation (1) from (2)
• S1 – S2 = ((w/2T)(x12 – x22))
• S1 – S2 = ((w/2T) ((x1-x2)(x1+x2)))
• S1 – S2 = ((w/2T) ((x2 - x1)L))where L = x1+ x2
• But it can be seen that the distance h which is
difference in the levels is also difference
between the two sags S1 and S2.
•  S1 – S2 = h ……………………………………….(4)
• Substituting in the equation of S2 – S1
• h = ((wL)/(2T (x2 – x1))
• x2 – x1 = ((2Th)/wL) …………………………(5)
• Solving the equation (3) and (5) simultaneously
we get
• 2x1 = (L – (2Th/wL))
• X1 = (L/2 – (Th/wL)) ……………………………(6)
• X2 = (L/2 – (Th/wL)) …………………………...(7)
 Problems on Sag with Unequal
support
• The two towers of height 95 m and 70 m respectively support the line
conductor, at a river crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers is
400 m. If the tension in the conductor is 1100 kg and its weight is 0.8 kg/m
calculate:
i. Sag at lower support
ii. Sag at upper support
iii. Clearance of lowest point on trajectory from water level
iv. Assume bases of towers to be at the water level
(S1 = 4.731 m, S2 = 29.731 m, clearance = 65.26 m)
• Two towers of height 40 m and 30 m respectively support a transmission line
conductor at water crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers is
300 m. If the tension in the conductor is 1500 kg, find the clearance of the
conductor at a point midway between the supports. Weight of the conductor
is 0.8 kg/m. Assume bases of the towers to be at the water level.
(S1 = 2.041 m, S2 = 12.041 m, xp = 62.5 m, yp = 1.041 m, clearance of O =
27.959 m, point p clearance = 29 m)
• Solution:
• Here, h = 95 − 70 = 25 m; l = 400 m T = 1100 kg; w = 0.8 kg/m
• Obviously, x1 + x2 = 400 m ...(i)
• Sag S1 =w x12/2T and Sag S2 = w x22/2T
• ∴ h = S2 − S1 = w x22/2T - w x12/2T
• or 25 = w/2T (x2 + x1 )(x2 – x1 )
• ∴ x2 − x1 = (25*2*1100)/0.8*400 = 171.875 m ...(ii)
• Solving exps. (i) and (ii), we get, x2 = 285.93 m and x1 = 114.06 m
• (i) Now Sag S1 = w x12/2T = 0.8*(114.06)2/2*1100
• = 4.7307 m
• (ii) Sag s2 = w x22/2T = 0.8*(285.93)2/2*1100
• = 29.729 m
• (ii) Clearance of the lowest point O from water level = 70 − 4.7307
• = 65.269 m
Solution:
• Here, l = 300 m ; w = 0.8 kg ; T = 1500 kg.
• Difference in levels between supports, h = 40 − 30 = 10 m.
• Let the lowest point O of the conductor be at a distance x1 from the
support at lower level (i.e., support A) and at a distance x2 from the
support at higher level (i.e., support B).
• Obviously, x1 + x2 = 300 m………(i)
• Sag S1 =w x12/2T and Sag S2 = w x22/2T
• ∴ h = S2 − S1 = w x22/2T - w x12/2T
• 10 = w/2T (x2 + x1 )(x2 – x1 )
• ∴ x2 − x1 = (10*2*1500)/0.8*300
• x2 − x1 = 125m...(ii)
• Solving exps. (i) and (ii), (e get, x1 = 87.5 m; x2 = 212.5 m
• Now, S1 = w x12/2T = 0.8*(87.5)2/2*1500 = 2.04m
• Clearance of the lowest point O from water level = 30 − 2.04 = 27.96 m
• Let the mid-point P be at a distance x from the lowest point O.
• Clearly, x = 150 − x1 = 150 − 87.5 = 62.5m
• Sag at mid-point P, Smid = w x2/2T = 0.8*(62.5)2/2*1500 = 1.041m
• Clearance of mid-point P from water level =27.96+1.041= 29m
 Problems on Sag with Unequal
support continued……
• An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is supported from two
towers at heights 60 m and 110 m respectively from the water level. The
horizontal distance between the towers is 400 m. If the maximum allowable
tension is 1800 kg and the weight of the conductor is 1 kg/m, calculate the
clearance between the point of conductor midway between the towers and
the water level
(x1 = -25m, x2 = 425 m, S1 = 0.1736 m, S2 = 50.1736 m, Xp = 225 m, yp = 14.06
m, clearance from point O = 59.8264 m, Clearance of point P = 73.88 m)
Solution:
• Here, l =4 00m ; w = 1 kg ; T = 1800 kg.
• Difference in levels between supports, h = 110 − 60 = 50 m.
• Let the lowest point O of the conductor be at a distance x1 from the
support at lower level (i.e., support A) and at a distance x2 from the
support at higher level (i.e., support B).
• Obviously, x1 + x2 = 400 m………(i)
• Sag S1 =w x12/2T and Sag S2 = w x22/2T
• ∴ h = S2 − S1 = w x22/2T - w x12/2T
• 50 = w/2T (x2 + x1 )(x2 – x1 )
• ∴ x2 − x1 = (50*2*1800)/1*400
• x2 − x1 = 450m...(ii)
• Solving exps. (i) and (ii), (e get, x1 = -25 m; x2 = 425 m
• Now x2 is the distance of higher support B from the lowest point O
on the conductor, whereas x1 is that of lower support A. As the
span is 400 m, therefore, point A lies on the same side of O as B as
shown in figure
• S1 =w x12/2T= 1*(-25)2/2*1800 = 0.173m
• Horizontal distance of mid-point P from lowest point O is
• x = Distance of A from O + 400/2 = 25 + 200 = 225 m
• ∴ Sag at point P, Smid = w x2/2T= 1*(225)2/2*1800= 14.06m
• Now Sag S2 = w x22/2T = 1*(425)2/2*1800 = 50.17m
• Height of point B above mid-point P = S2 − Smid
• = 50.17 − 14.06 =36.11m
• ∴ Clearance of mid-point P above water level
• = 110 − 36.11= 73.89 m
 Effect of Atmospheric condition on
Transmission lines
• Effect of Ice Coating
• Thickness of ice coating increases the vertical sag
• D = d + 2t ………………………………………………….(1)
• (D is over all diameter of the conductor, t is thickness
of the ice coating, d is diameter of the conductor)
• Area of coated conductor =D2/4
• Hence the area of the ice coating = Ai = ( (D2-d2))/ 4
• Density of ice is 915 kg/m3 then total weight of ice is
• wi = 915 x ( (D2-d2))/ 4 (weight of ice per unit length)
…………………………………………………………………..(2)
• The weight acts vertically downwards. Using (1) in (2)
• wi = 915 x ( ((d-2t)2-d2))/ 4
• wi = 915 t[d + t] kg/m
 Effect of Atmospheric condition on
Transmission Lines continued…….
• Effect of Wind Pressure
• Wind flows horizontally so wind pressure acts
perpendicular to the conductor
• ww = wind force per unit length in kg/m
= Wind pressure per unit area x projected
surface per unit length
• ww = wind pressure x [(d + 2t) x 1)
• Ww = p [d + 2t] where p = wind pressure in kg/m3;
d = diameter of conductor; t = thickness of ice
coating if exists
 Effect of Atmospheric condition on
Transmission Lines continued…….
• Effect of Ice and Wind
• wt = ((w + wi)2 + (ww)2) total weight on the
conductor
• w = weight of the conductor itself acting vertically
down; wi = Weight of ice acting horizontally; ww =
wind force acting horizontally
• The sag direction is at an angle  measured w.r.t.
vertical. Hence the sag is called slant sag.
• Slang sag = S = wtL2/8T
• Tan  = ww/(w + wi)
• Vertical sag = Slant sag x cos 
• Factor of Safety = Breaking stress / working stress
• FS = Ultimate strength / allowable working tension T
 Problems on sag with Ice and Wind
• An overhead transmission line has a span of 230 m and the conductor weight
is 650 kg/km. Calculate the maximum sag if the breaking stress is 4465
kg/cm2 while the area of the conductor is 1.29 cm2. Assume factor of safety
as 2 (S = 1.49 m)
• An overhead transmission line has a span of 200 m, between the supports.
The supports are at the same level. The area of cross section of conductor is
1.9 cm2 while the ultimate strength is 5000 kg/cm2. The specific gravity of the
conductor material is 8.9 gm/cm3. If the conductor is subjected to the wind
pressure of 1.5 kg/m length, calculate the sag if factor of safety is 5. Also
calculate the vertical sag. (S=5.94 m, Vertical sag = 4.45m).
• A transmission line conductor having diameter of 19.5mm weights 0.85kg/m.
the span is 275 m. The wind pressure is 39 kg/m2 of projected area with ice
coating of 13 mm. ultimate strength of the conductor is 8000 kg. Calculate
maximum sag if the factor is 2 and ice weights 910 kg/m3. (S = 6.422m)
• Solution
• Here l=230; w= 650 kg/km =0.65kg;
• Breaking stress(ultimate strength)= 4465 kg/cm2
• area= 1.29 cm2
• Safety factor =2
• T = (Breaking stress*area)/2
• T= (4465*1.28)/2 = 2879.9 kg
• Sag= w l2/8T
• =0.65*(230)2/8*2879.9
• S= 1.492m
• Solution
• Here l=200m; ultimate strength= 5000kg/cm2;
• Area= 1.9cm2; specific gravity= 8.9gm/cm3;
• wind pressure Ww=1.5kg/m; safety factor= 5;
• T = (Breaking stress*area)/2
• T= (5000*1.9)/2 = 1900kg
• W=area*specific gravity
• = 1.9*8.9*100=1691gm = 1.69kg
• Total weight wt= 𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤2 = (1.69)2 +(1.5)2 = 2.25𝑘𝑔
• Slant sag= wt*l2/8T= 2.25*(200)2/8*1900
• = 5.92m
• Vertical sag= S cosθ = 5.92*(w/wt)=
5.92*(1.69/2.25)=4.44m
• Solution
• given ultimate strength =8000, safety factor =2;
• T= 8000/2 =4000kg
• wc= 0.85 kg/m
• wi= density of ice* 𝜋 ∗ 𝑡 𝑑 + 𝑡
• = 910* 𝜋 ∗13*10-3 *(19.5+13)*10-3 =1.208 kg
• Ww=ρ*(d+2t)=39(19.5+2*13)* 10-3=1.7745 kg
• resultant force per meter length of the conductor is
wr= (𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 +𝑤𝑤2
• = (0.85 + 1.208)2 +(1.7745)2 = 2.717𝑘𝑔
• Maximum sag = wrl2/8T
• 2.717*(275)2/8*4000
• S= 6.422m
Suspension Insulator
Post Insulator
Long Rod Insulator
Bushings
Components of Substation
Substation Components
Substation Components
Potential Transformer
Identify the components