Introduction to Microbes
and Cellular Biology
→The cell is the fundamental unit of any living organism
because it exhibits the basic characteristics of life.
→There are two categories of cells: eucaryotic and
procaryotic.
→Some microbes are procaryotes (bacteria and archaea),
some are eucaryotes (algae, protozoa, fungi), and some are
not composed of cells (viruses, prions, viroids).
→Eucaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus, whereas
procaryotic cells do not. A true nucleus consists of
nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear membrane.
→Eucaryotic cells possess a complex system of membranes
and membrane-bound organelles, whereas procaryotic cells
do not.
→Both eucaryotic and procaryotic cells possess a cell
membrane. Cell membranes have selective permeability,
allowing only certain substances to pass through them.
Eucaryotic Cell Structure
The Eucaryotic Nucleus
• The “command center” of the cell.
• 3 components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and
nuclear membrane.
• Chromosomes are embedded in the nucleoplasm.
• Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA
molecules and proteins.
• Genes are located along chromosomes. An
organism's complete collection of genes is referred
to as its genotype or genome.
• Each gene contains the information to produce one
or more gene products (usually proteins).
• Although most genes code for proteins, some code
for 2 types of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
– Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
– Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
• The number and composition of chromosomes and
the number of genes on each chromosome are
characteristic of the species of organism.
• Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (23
pairs).
• It has been estimated that the human genome
consists of between 20,000 and 30,000 genes.
Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures
• Cytoplasm
– A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix
– Contains storage granules and a variety of
organelles
– Each organelle has a specific function
– The cytoplasm is where most metabolic
reactions occur
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– A highly convoluted system of membranes
arranged to form a transport network in
the cytoplasm
– Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it;
smooth ER does not
• Ribosomes
– Consist of ribosomal RNA and protein
– The sites of protein synthesis
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• Golgi Complex
– Also called the Golgi apparatus or Golgi
body
– Connects or communicates with ER
– Completes the transformation of newly
synthesized proteins and packages them
for storage or export (“packaging plants”)
• Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
– Originate in the Golgi complex
– Lysosomes contain lysozyme and other
digestive enzymes • Cytoskeleton
– Peroxisomes are membrane-bound – A system of fibers throughout the
vesicles where H2O2 is generated and cytoplasm
broken down – 3 types of fibers: microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
– Microtubules and microfilaments are
essential for a variety of activities
• Cell wall
– Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls –
an external structure to provide shape,
protection, and rigidity
– Simpler in structure than procaryotic cell
walls
– Chitin found in cell walls of fungi, cellulose
in cell walls of algae and plants
• Mitochondria
– “Power plants,” “powerhouses,” or “energy
factories”
– ATP molecules are produced within
mitochondria by cellular respiration
– Number of mitochondria varies depending
on activities of the cell
• Plastids
– Membrane-bound structures containing
photosynthetic pigments
– They are sites of photosynthesis
– Chloroplasts are a type of plastid; they
contain chlorophyll

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 • Flagella and Cilia (contain microtubules)
– Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa
and certain protozoa) possess long, thin,
whiplike organelles of locomotion called
flagella.
– Flagellated cells may possess one or more
flagella.
– Some cells move by means of cilia, which
are shorter, thinner, and more numerous
than flagella; described as being “hair-like.”
– Cilia can be found on some species of
protozoa and certain types of cells in our
bodies (e.g., ciliated epithelial cells in the
respiratory tract).
Procaryotic Cell Structure
→Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than
eucaryotic cells.
→Procaryotic cells are simple compared to eucaryotic cells.
→Procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
→All bacteria are procaryotes, as are archaea.
→Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells is
not filled with internal membranes.
→The cytoplasm of procaryotic cells is surrounded by a cell
membrane, a cell wall (usually), and sometimes a capsule or
slime layer.
• Cell membrane
– Similar in structure and function to the
eucaryotic cell membrane
– Selectively permeable
– Many enzymes are attached to the cell
membrane and metabolic reactions take
place there
• Chromosome
– Procaryotic chromosome usually consists
of a single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA
molecule – serves as the control center of
the cell
– Plasmids are small circular molecules of
DNA that are not part of the chromosome
(extra-chromosomal)
• Cytoplasm
– Semi-liquid that consists of water,
enzymes, waste products, nutrients,
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids –
materials required for metabolic functions
• Cytoplasmic particles
– Most are ribosomes, some of which occur
in clusters
– Eucaryotic ribosomes are smaller than
procaryotic ribosomes, but their function is
the same – they are the sites of protein
synthesis
• Bacterial Cell Wall
– A rigid exterior that defines the shape of
bacterial cells – chemically complex
– Main constituent of most bacterial cell walls
is peptidoglycan (only found in bacteria)
– Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer
of peptidoglycan; Gram-negative bacteria
have a much thinner layer
– Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall;
they are pleomorphic
• Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and Capsules)
– Some bacteria possess glycocalyx, a slimy,
gelatinous material produced by the cell
membrane and secreted outside the cell
wall
– 2 types of glycocalyx – slime layer (loosely
connected to the cell wall) and capsule
(highly organized and firmly connected)
• Pseudomonas spp. produces a
slime layer
• K. pneumoniae, and S.
pneumoniae possess a capsule,
which serves an antiphagocytic
function
• Flagella
– Motile bacteria possess flagella – whiplike
appendages composed of threads of
protein called flagellin
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 – Number and arrangement of flagella are
characteristic of a particular species:
• Peritrichous bacteria – flagella
over entire surface
• Lophotrichous bacteria – flagella
at one end
• Amphitrichous bacteria – flagella
at both ends
• Monotrichous bacteria – single
polar flagellum
4 Basic Types of Flagellar Arrangement on Bacteria
• Pili (also called fimbriae)
– Hair-like structures, most often observed
on Gram-negative bacteria
– Composed of polymerized protein
molecules called pilin
– Pili is thinner than flagella, have a rigid
structure and are not associated with
motility
– Pili enables bacteria to anchor themselves
to surfaces
– Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for
conjugation
• Spores (Endospores)
– A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and
Clostridium) can form thick-walled spores
as a means of survival
– The process of spore formation is called
sporulation – it is not reproduction
– Spores have been shown to survive for
many years and are resistant to heat, cold,
drying, and most chemicals
– Usually, one spore is produced in a
bacterial cell and generates into one
vegetative bacterium
– Endospores can be visualized using a spore
stain
Recap of Structural Differences Between Procaryotic and
Eucaryotic Cells
• Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus; procaryotic
cells do not.
• Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant and animal
types
– Animal cells do not have a cell wall, plant
cells have a simple cell wall.
• Eucaryotic cells contain membranous structures and
many membrane-bound organelles; procaryotic
cells possess no membranes other than the cell
membrane that encloses the cytoplasm
Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells
• Procaryotic Cell Reproduction
– Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process
known as binary fission – one cell splits in
half to become two daughter cells.
– Before a procaryotic cell divides in half, the
chromosome must be duplicated.
– The time it takes for binary fission to occur
is called the generation time.
– Generation time varies from one species to
another and depends on growth conditions
(under ideal conditions, E. coli has a
generation time of about 20 minutes).
Binary Fission of a Bacterial Cell
Taxonomy
• Taxonomy is the science of classification of living
organisms.
• Taxonomy consists of classification, nomenclature,
and identification.
• Classification is the arrangement of organisms into
taxonomic groups (known as taxa).
• Tool for remembering the sequence of Taxa
– “King David Came Over for Good
Spaghetti” KDCOFGS, K for Kingdom, D for
Division, C for Class, O for Order, F for
Family, G for Genus, and S for species.
Microbial Classification
• The science of taxonomy was established based on
the binomial system of nomenclature.
• In the binomial system, each organism is given 2
names – genus and the specific epithet. Taken
together, both names constitute the species.
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 – For example, Escherichia coli; Escherichia is
the genus and coli is the specific epithet.
– The genus is frequently abbreviated with
just a single letter, (e.g., E for Escherichia).
• The abbreviation “sp.” is used to designate a single
species and “spp.” for more than one species.
• Organisms are categorized into larger groups based
on their similarities and differences.
• The Six-Kingdom System of Classification
– Bacteria
– Archaea
– Protista
– Fungi
– Plantae
– Animalia
• Viruses are not included because they are acellular.
• Other systems of classification do exist.
• The Three-Domain System of Classification
– Archaea (procaryotic)
– Bacteria (procaryotic)
– Eucarya (all eucaryotic organisms)
• The Three-Domain System is based on differences in
the structure of certain ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
molecules among organisms in the 3 domains.
Determining Relatedness Among Organisms
• The most widely used technique for gauging diversity
or “relatedness” of organisms is called ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) sequencing.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits; a small
subunit and a large subunit.
• The small subunit is composed of only one rRNA
molecule, which is coded for by a gene called the 16S
rRNA gene in procaryotes and the 18S rRNA gene in
eucaryotes.
• To determine how closely related one procaryotic
organism is to another, scientists compare the
sequence of nucleotide base pairs in the 16S rRNA
gene from one of the organisms to the sequence of
base pairs in the 16S rRNA gene from the other
organisms.
• The more similar the sequence of base pairs, the
more closely related are the organisms.
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