SIMULATION IN POWDER METALLURGY

Lyndon Smith

University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

ABSTRACT: Simulation involves employment of accurate process models for analysis of

relevant elements of a given manufacturing operation. In the case of powder metallurgy (PM),
most of the modelling that has been reported relates to prediction of the properties of materials
under various processing conditions. Although materials modelling is an important element for a
comprehensive simulation of the PM process, design simulation has been somewhat neglected by
manufacturers, perhaps as a consequence of the relatively limited families of components which
have traditionally formed the bulk of PM production. However, to remain competitive, PM
manufacturers will need to increase the range of component types, at the same time as minimising
lead times and costs. This requires design analysis and optimisation at the earliest possible stage.
It is here that some of the greatest benefits can be obtained from process simulation, through
application of techniques such as solid modelling/finite element analysis, and (in the longer term)
artificial intelligence/knowledge processing. This paper outlines some of the more important
research that has been completed in modelling of the powder metallurgy process. Also, a
discussion is provided of methods for incorporating the relevant models into a simulation system
capable of advising on optimal PM design and manufacture.

KEYWORDS: Simulation: design, packing, compaction, sintering.

1. INTRODUCTION

Simulation has an important role to play in achieving increased utilisation of powder metallurgy
technology. If manufacturing outcomes can be predicted for a given set of production parameters, then
considerable technological and economic benefits can be gained. These benefits could be realised through
avoidance of scrap production, or a reduction in manufacturing variation that would provide a cost benefit
that could be calculated using the Taguchi Loss Function. Despite these potential advantages, the PM
industry has been relatively slow in adopting simulation based technology. There is perhaps a perception
that simulations do not relate closely enough to real production scenarios, or that the results are not
sufficiently accurate to find useful application. There has perhaps been some historical justification for
these views due to limitations in the sophistication of available models, and the expense involved in
obtaining the required computing power. However, in recent years these difficulties have diminished
significantly, with powerful simulation software now available to run on personal computers, which have
themselves dramatically decreased in price. As PM component designs progress from 2D representations
to detailed solid models, excellent opportunities arise for in-depth design analysis through numerical
simulations. At the same time the Internet is exploding, so that information exchange is becoming
increasingly easy and inexpensive. Consequently, the area of manufacturing simulation that is likely to
exhibit most rapid growth is that of generation, electronic transfer, and optimisation of CAD solid models
of PM components. One way of achieving this is for software vendors to develop specialised PM CAD
Tools. Such products could be similar to the 'product section modules' provided with the ProENGINEER
CAD system. These modules provide the designer with features related to processes such as casting,
however so far the processes covered have not included PM. Until such tools become available, the
practical utility of PM simulations will be somewhat limited. This is because the component
characteristics of greatest interest to manufacturers are the dimensional characteristics and mechanical
properties of the final part, and these factors are profoundly influenced by component geometry. For
example, there is a general consensus across the industry that production of high quality defect free parts
requires near uniform green densities. This in turn requires a quantitative understanding of the effect of
part geometry on powder flow, packing density, compaction forces, and sintering behaviour. For
example, the fact that the powder will not generally flow during compaction means that even production
of simple features such as a step requires two sets of punches in order to avoid problems associated with
density gradients, such as cracking during sintering. Therefore much of the future of PM simulation is
considered to lie with accurate CAD based models of component behaviour during the various stages of
production. However, since this stage in realism of PM simulation is only just arriving, so far few results
have emerged of CAD based PM simulation. Of the PM simulation research that has been completed,
most relates to materials behaviour for test pieces with standard geomteries. Much of this research is in
any case worthy of study, since it has resulted in numerous interesting and useful findings relating to PM
materials behaviour, some of which are outlined below. The outlines are arranged in sections relating to
powder packing, compaction and sintering.

2. OUTLINES OF PM SIMULATIONS

2.1 Powder packing

The packing of spheres is of direct relevance to the PM industry, since PM filters are made using near-
spherical gas atomised bronze powder. Also, it is also worth noting that superalloy powders used for
production of fully dense parts by means of Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) consist of spherical particles [1].
It is true that structural components are often manufactured from irregular powders such as atomised iron
powder, which have geometries that can prove difficult to simulate. However, the author has found that
simulation methods and algorithms developed for modelling packings of spheres can often be usefully
employed for simulation of irregular particle behaviours. Therefore simulation of sphere packing was
taken as the starting point for an analysis of powder packing phenomenon.

As early as 1950, G. Brown [2] published experimental data for sphericity against porosity for monosized
particle packings, and this data can still be usefully employed today. Following a discussion by Bernal of
the utility of packing models for spheres [3], experiments by Scott in 1960 [4] indicated that spherical
balls in rigid containers exhibit random packing with fractional densities of between 0.63 and 0.60, and
this finding was confirmed by studies by McGeary [5]. McGeary also investigated binary mixtures of
spheres, and further studies in this area were completed by Yerazunis et al. in 1965 [6]. This paper was
used to propose expressions for fractional densities of bimodal spherical mixtures. The work described is,
however, principally concerned with mixtures that have densities less than that of the optimal packing.
Around 1970 a number of reports emerged of computational modelling of random packings of spheres
[7]. In 1972 Adams and Matheson described a deterministic algorithm [8], and reported a simulated
packing density of 62.8%. This method was further developed by Matheson in 1974 [9], and Ichikawa in
1975 [10]. Meanwhile Visscher and Bolsterli [11] had reported on an approach for simulating packings
by modelling the behaviour of spheres acting under a uni-directional gravitational force. Although
reported densities were only in the range 58.2% to 60%, this approach is more realistic than previous
deterministic approaches in that random sphere movements are employed. Some relevant observations on
disordered packings were made by Oger in 1986 [12], who identified a range of 4.75 to 6 for the mean
coordination number for disordered packings of spheres. In 1989 German published a comprehensive and
useful review of powder packing research [13]. In 1992 Nolan and Kavanagh [14] described a simulation
which predicted densities of up to 63.8% and coordination numbers of up to 5.9 for a random dense
packing of spheres. A novel approach, which was described by Lu in 1994 [15], involves movement of
particles towards a central position. Upon collision with existing particles the new particle is rotated
around the surface of the existing particle, and this occurs until no further motion is possible, so that the
particle is then placed. A coordination number of seven has been reported, but the densities attained are
no higher than 52%, which is less than that observed for a random loose packing of spheres. In the same
year interesting observations were provided by Cargill [16], and Zou [17]; the latter study being
concerned with the effect of the container wall on the packing density. In 1996 Seibert and Burns reported
on simulations of fluidised beds using techniques analogous to Monte Carlo methods, where between 500
and 5000 particles are randomly placed and then moved randomly 10 million times [18]. In their
simulations of packed beds, fractional densities of up to 56.3% were observed. Although computationally
intensive, this technique offers advantages that include provision of a visualisation of the particle packing
behaviour, and a capability for incorporation of natural phenomena in the model, (e.g. a gravity field).
From a review of the literature, it is evident that only a relatively small amount of research has been
performed on packing of irregular particles. A method suggested by Itoh and Wanibe for modelling the
shape of non-spherical powder particles [19], simulates particles as ellipsoids of revolution. It therefore
seems likely that this approach will be most applicable to particles with flake-like characteristics. The
author’s research in powder particle packing utilised random placement and movement of spheres. Dense
random packing of bimodal spherical powders [20], and packing of irregular particles has been addressed
[21]. More recent research has concentrated on neural network methods for modelling densities [22][23].
A neural network approach offers numerous benefits, such as an inherent ability to model non-linear
responses, resistance to noise, and a facility for modelling the effects of numerous process parameters. It
is envisaged that these types of models would find useful application in advisory systems for assisting
manufacturers in attaining target powder densities.

2.2 Powder compaction

The early attempts at compaction modelling focused on densification studies and concentrated on the
variation of either axial or radial stress with compact sectional area, height, surface area and friction
coefficient [24][25]. Such approaches provide analytical results for characterising powders for different
simple generic part shapes. The limitation of this approach is that it has very limited applicability for
predicting the stress and density variation in actual parts of multi-sectional shape [24]. In recent years an
alternative approach based on continuum models for which the governing equations are solved by
numerical means, and usually via finite element methods, have been developed and used to model
compaction in one or two planes, [26][27][28][29]. The author has completed some simulations of
powder compaction [30], with the aim of investigating artificial intelligence methods representing and
accessing the resulting knowledge. A number of researchers have suggested various FE constitutive
equations for powder compaction, which is the system element that most contemporary FE packages lack.
Hwang, [27], and Koopman [31] have provided examples of such work.

Whilst considerable information can be derived from such continuum models, a complete treatment of
powder compaction requires modelling of the granular phenomena inherent in the compaction process.
One of the most suitable techniques available to achieve this is discrete element modelling, which has
been used to model particulate materials in geotechnical and granular flow applications. The method
considers the behaviour of individual material particles, which can be considered to be connected by
frictional contacts. The continuum and granular approaches have to some extent integrated by Gethin
[32], in his ‘Deformable Discrete Element’ approach. Here the behaviour of assemblies of particles
modelled, and the technique is said to be applicable to mixtures of ductile and brittle particles. Other
recent developments in compaction modelling include inclusion of particle morphology effects in the
compaction model [33], and the results of the compaction modelling studies of the PM-MODNET
European thematic network [34]. Despite the relatively large amount of work that has been completed in
the area of powder compaction simulation [35][36][37][38], a generally accepted methodology has
proved somewhat elusive. This is result of the numerous mechanisms that are present during compaction
[30], and the fact that the extent to which each of them occurs is dependent upon numerous factors, such
as temperature and particle morphology. Further complication is associated with the effective change of
state that occurs during compaction, from a granular medium to a voided solid. Some of the inaccuracy
that is sometimes associated with the simulations may be due to the fact that different simulation
approaches are most applicable to the beginning and end stages of compaction. The PM industry requires
a modelling technique that will make a considerable impact on the accuracy of quantitative prediction of
density distribution in complex compacted forms. In practice, the best way of achieving this may be to
employ a hybrid system, that applies two or more methodologies (or constitutive equations), depending
upon which stage of compaction is of particular interest.

2.3 Sintering

The second major stage in the PM process is sintering, which refers to heat treatment below the melting
temperature of all (solid state sintering), or the major constituents (liquid state sintering), of a porous
body. Sintering results in an increase in solid contact between individual particles and shrinkage due to a
reduction in porosity, [39]. Phase changes, chemical reactions, alloying and dimensional changes are
often observed. These phenomena are caused by sintering mechanisms; the most important of which is
atomic diffusion driven by the requirement for surface energy minimisation [40]. Computer simulations
of sintering have included finite difference based methods in the 1970s [41], and Finite Element schemes
developed in the 1990s [42]. Many of the major developments were discussed in a review published in
1998 [43].

Parameters influencing sintering events include the powder constituents, the green compact structure,
lubricants, additives, and sintering atmosphere temperature and time. Prediction and control of part
shrinkage and subsequent change in dimension and density, is of critical significance. This is achieved by
controlling the temperature gradients, heating rate, and atmosphere. However, the selection of these
parameters is still very much an art rather than a science. Modelling of sintering process has mostly been
limited to simplified empirical studies, providing estimates of shrinkage for different sintering
temperatures and times. As a result, despite the importance of a more scientific approach to the problem,
there is still the requirement for formalisation of precise and realistic simulations of sintering behaviour.

3. DISCUSSION

A review of available literature reveals that a considerable amount of simulation work has occurred in the
powder metallurgy field. In addition to the papers that appear in the major journals and conference
proceedings relating to PM, the major manufacturers are indicating their intention to employ an increased
amount of simulation work. The results of this activity will take the form of documentation and
mathematical models relating to the simulation outcomes. Full realisation of the potential benefits of PM
simulation requires effective utilisation of these results, and achieving this is perhaps the greatest
challenge associated with PM simulation. The author believes that intelligent CAD based design tools and
knowledge based systems offers the best approach for representing and utilising the knowledge that is
being gleaned from PM simulations. Initial work in this area has been undertaken in the UK [44] and
USA [45], using PC based CAD systems and various artificial intelligence architectures. Knowledge
based techniques employed by the author for processing PM knowledge include databases and statistical
modelling, rule based analysis, and neural network modelling. This last technique is one of the most
promising [46], since it offers useful modelling characteristics as well as a facility for machine learning.
This is an important factor, since one of the most frequently cited reasons for lack of utilisation of
advisory systems is the difficulty of up-dating the knowledge base when the simulation results inevitably
become out of date. In addition to the work described, the author has also undertaken research in a
number of PM related technologies which can benefit significantly from simulation. Examples include
powder atomisation [47], powder injection moulding [22], rapid manufacture using selective laser
sintering [47], and Internet opportunities for implementing concurrent engineering [49]. The application
of computer simulation in PM is continually increasing, and it offers great potential rewards in the long
term. However, in order to avoid a ‘knowledge bottleneck’ it is important that research efforts are also
focused on computerised methods for representation and utilisation of the emerging results.

4. CONCLUSION

Due to the significant time and costs associated with initial tooling development and process stabilisation,
mass produced parts have constituted the main market for PM components. Incorporation of PM models
and simulation tools into the part design environment holds the promise of considerable reduction in
tooling times and costs, by allowing the design engineer to accurately predict the process requirements.
This in turn will enable designers to appraise PM technology at an early stage in design, so that savings
can be made by avoiding design errors and re-design costs. Employment of internet technology for
transfer of design information and on-line geometrical analysis, in combination with emerging
technologies for rapid tooling, will enable attainment of further savings to the extent that PM may be able
to evolve from its traditional mass production role to batch manufacturing, or even mass customisation.
Such a capability would be expected to influence the industry positively, since batch production
represents a considerable portion of manufacturing volumes, and mass customisation is considered to be
one of the greatest potential growth areas of the 21st century.

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Author Details:

Lyndon Smith PhD

Lecturer and Researcher
Faculty of Engineering
University of the West of England, Bristol
Frenchay Campus
Coldharbour Lane
Bristol BS16 1QY
UK

Tel. +44 (0)117 9656261 ex. 3839

Fax. +44 (0)117 9763873
E-mail. Lyndon.Smith@uwe.ac.uk
Professor George Arghir
Secretary General
Powder Metallurgy Society
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Department of Material Science & Technology
Research Laboratory for Powder Metallurgy
B-dul Muncil 103-105
RO 3400, Cluj-Napoca 14
ROMANIA

26 February 2000
Dear Professor Arghir,

Simulation in Powder Metallurgy

I was delighted to learn from your fax. dated 15/2/2000, that the abstract for the above
paper (51) has been favourably reviewed for the Second International Conference on
Powder Metallurgy RoPM'2000. Please find enclosed, the final manuscript for which I
would be grateful if you could acknowledge receipt. I wish to present the paper as a
poster at RoPM'2000.

I look forward to hearing from you, and to attending the conference, which we
anticipate as being one of the major PM events of the year 2000.

Best regards,

Lyndon Smith, PhD

Lecturer and Researcher
Faculty of Engineering
University of the West of England, Bristol
Frenchay Campus
Coldharbour Lane
Bristol BS16 1QY, UK

Tel. +44 (0)117 9656261 ex. 3839

Fax. +44 (0)117 9763873
E-mail. Lyndon.Smith@uwe.ac.uk