Lows of Chemical Combinations: 1.

Law of conservation of mass: In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of the products. OR Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. 2. Law of definite proportions or Law of constant composition: The law states A chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in the same fixed proportion by weight 3. Law of multiple proportions: When two elements combine to form two or more than two compounds, then the weights of the elements which combine with the fixed weight of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another. 4. Gay-Lussacs Law of Gaseous Volumes: It states When gases react together, they always do so in volumes which bear a simple ratio to one anoth er and to the volumes of the products if gaseous, provided all measurements of volumes are done under similar conditions of temperature and pressure. 5. Avogadros Hypothesis or Law: It sates, Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperatu re and pressure contain equal number of molecules. 6. Daltons Atomic Theory: The main postulates of this theory are: (i) Matter consists of indivisible atoms (ii) All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass. Atoms of differen t elements differ in mass. (iii) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratio. (iv) Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. Atomic and Molecular (Molar) Masses: (i) Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element is the number of times and atom of the element is heavier than an atom of carbon taken as 12. Atomic Mass Unit (amu) or : One atomic mass unit (amu) or is equal to
the mass of an atom of carbon -12 isotope Relative atomic mass: The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the average relative mass of an atom of the element compared with an atom of 12C taken as 12 atomic mass units. Thus, Relative atomic mass of an element
 

Gram atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called Gram atomic mass. (ii) Molecular mass: The molecular mass of a substance (element or compound) is the number of times the molecule of the substance is heavier than 1/12 th the mass of an atom of carbon -12 isotope. Or The molecular mass of a substance is the average relative mass of its molecules as compared with an atom of carbon -12 isotope taken as 12.

Gram molecular Mass: The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called its gram molecular mass. (iii) Molecular mass: The average mass of one mole of any material is called its molar mass. Mathematically, Molar mass (M)         Molar mass of any substance = mass of 6.23 x 10 23chemical units of the substance. (iv) Molar volume: The volume occupied by one mole of any substance is called its molar volume. Molar volume of a substance depends upon temperature and pressure. Molar volume of gaseous substances changes appreciably with temperature and pressure. The molar volume of all gaseous substances at 273 K and under 1 atm pressure (NTP conditions) is found to be 22.4 liter or 22400 mL. The unit of molar volume is liter per mol (L/mol) or milliliter per mol (mL/mol) Percentage Composition and molecular formula: The mass percentage of each constituent element present in any compound is called its percentage composition. The mass percentage of each element can be calculated by using the relationship. Mass percentage of element i        The percentage composition of a compound may also be obtained from the molecular formula of the compound. This is done as follows: (a) Write down the molecular formula of the compound (b) Calculate the mass of each element present in the molecule of the substance by multiplying the atomic mass of the element by the number of atoms in the molecule. (c) Calculate the molecular mass of the compound by adding the masses of all the atoms present in its molecule. (d) Calculate the mass percentage of each element by using the relationship Mass percentage of element             Empirical and molecular formula: Empirical formula: The simplest formula of a substance which gives the relative number of atoms of each element present in th e molecule of that substance is called as the empirical formula. Molecular Formula: The symbolic representation of a molecule of any substance describing the actual number of atoms in it is called its molecular formula. Molecular formula = n Empirical formula = (Empirical formula) Where n may be 1, 2, 3...

In SI system, MOLE (symbol, mol) was introduced as seventh base quantity for the amount of a substance. One mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms in exactly 12g (or 0.012 kg) of the 12C isotope. Avogadros Constant
 

We can say that 1 mol of hydrogen atom s = 6.022 10 23 atoms 1 mol of water molecules = 6.022 10 23 water molecules 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.022 10 23 formula units of sodium chloride. The mass of one mol of a substance in grams is called its molar mass. The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass in amu. Molar mass of water = 18.02 g Molar mass of sodium chloride = 58.5 g Chemical Stoichiometry: (i) Chemical Equation: A short hand representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of the substances involved in the reaction is called Chemical Equation. Essentials of a Chemical Equation (a) It should represent a true chemical change (b) It should be balanced. (c) It should be molecular. (ii) Limiting Reagent: The reacting substance which gets used up first in the reaction is called the Limiting reagent. This is because the amount of the limiting reagent limits the amount of the products formed. A p art of the other reactants which are present in amounts greater than the stoichimetric amounts is left behind as unconsumed reagents. Stoichimetry of Reactions is Solutions: (i) Mass percentage or percent by mass: it is defined as the mass of solute in gram per 100g of the solution. For example, a 10% solution of sodium chloride means that 10g of NaCl are present in 100g of the solution.         Both, the mass of solute and that of the solution must be expressed in the same mass units. viz. both in grams or both in kilograms, etc. (ii) Volume percentage of percent by Volume: The number of units of volume of the solute per 100 units of volume of the solution is known as volume percent. For example, a 10% ( /V) solution of ethyl alcohol contains 10 mL of alcohol in 100 mL of the solution. Mathematically, volume percent is expressed as          (iii) Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per dm3 (or liter, L) of the solution. Molarity of any solution depends upon temperature. So, molarity of any solution is specified for a given temperature. Mathematically, molarity is defined as:               

Where n is the number of moles of the solute. V is the volume of the solution in liters (or dm3) Since the number of moles of any substance is related to its mass and the molar mass,            The molarity of a solution then can also be expressed as:             

 

So, W grams of a substance having molar mass M, is dissolved in sufficient solvent, so as to make the total volume of V liter of the substance, the molarity (M) of the solution is given by
 (ii) Formality: The number of gram formula mass dissolved per liter of the solution is called formality of the solution.                             (iii) Normality (N): Normality of a solution is defined as the number of equivalents of the solute dissolved per liter (or dm3) of the solution at any specified temperature. Thus,            Since, the number of equivalents of any solute can be obtained from its mass and equivalents mass, hence              

Or

Normality of a solution also varies with temperature. (iv) Molality ( m): Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute per kg of the solvent. If a solution is prepared by dissolving n moles of a solute in W kg of the solvent then.         



        (v) Mole fraction (X):The mole fraction of any component of a solution is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of that component to the total number of moles of all the components of the solution. Thus if a solution contains moles of A and moles of B, then              

    

    

If the mole fraction of one component in a binary solution is known, that of the other can be determined. i.e.