CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This part of the research presents the gathered

information from printed and online journals, books,

unpublished theses and dissertation, published studies,

articles and other online information which in some ways are

related to the present study. Related literature and studies

both local and foreign were collected and used as frames of

references for study. It also presents the synthesis of the

state – of – the – art, gap bridged by the study, and

theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Important terms and

expression used in the study were also defined conceptually

and operationally to provide a better understanding of the

present study.

REVIEWED LITERATURE

Teaching is a difficult, delicate process that

frequently requires teachers to balance several objectives

and activities simultaneously and flexibly Carnegie Mellon

University (n.d). A successful teaching-learning process

comprises numerous teaching approaches, strategies, methods,

techniques, and components that work harmoniously to achieve

a common goal and facilitate the learners' holistic

learning.

Teaching and understanding mathematics is a significant

concern in any educational system. Researchers have

extensively determined the factor contributing to student

performance in the subject. Wriston (2015) stressed that

mastering basic math skills is vital since learners' mastery

of the subject determines their future and success in life,

be it in terms of higher studies or work. In 2019, Guhl

(2019) declared the impact of early Math and numeracy skills

on academic achievement in elementary school. The primary

number skills like counting, comparing and classifying,

geometry, and thinking skills lay the groundwork for future

math skills and academic success later in life. Thus,

students must perform the fundamental tasks before learning

more advanced skills. In line with this, daily encounters

with numeracy activities and games, casual chats about math

concepts, and formal instruction time can all lead to

learning and improving students' skills. Play is an

essential aspect of early math learning because it allows

them to utilize and practice their academic language while

learning a skill.
 In a qualitative study on factors affecting

difficulties in learning mathematics by mathematics

learners, Acharya (2017) suggests that teacher's lack of

connections between new mathematical concepts and previously

learned mathematical structures, math anxiety, an

unenthusiastic math feeling, students' economic

circumstances and educational backgrounds, the school

management system, a lack of school infrastructure, and a

lack of a regular assessment system at school are some of

the issues that mathematicians face. Mathematics problem-

solving difficulties of BSE students reveal that errors

frequently occur in exploring the problem. Students find

difficulties comprehending specific terms of the problem

written or presented in the English language. Also, they

were unable to use appropriate strategy or show any

flexibility in solving the problems using more than one

heuristic; they even committed mistakes in solving process

and made errors due to carelessness because there is no

evident checking of their own solution Marjorie Mangulabnan

(2016) stated. Students' mathematics achievement in the

Mindanao context: In a meta-analysis, Callaman and Itaas

(2020) concluded that the school type was a significant

factor that causes variations of the effect sizes in

students' academic achievement in mathematics, and the three

factors, namely: mathematics skills, attitude, and self-

efficacy, have a significant effect on the achievement of

the students.

Although mathematics education is very important in

shaping a person's future, the problems encountered by high

school students in mathematics were evaluated. The results

show that the participants think necessary care is not

devoted to mathematics teaching in Turkey. The number of

students who think that mathematics teachers aim to complete

the curriculum on time rather than teach mathematics was

significantly high. Particularly, the students have

difficulties in terms of teaching high school mathematics

teachers. They indicated that their mathematics teachers do

not promote interest or positive attitude toward mathematics

concluded by Necdet Guner (November 15, 2020).

Quilala (2018) recommended that teachers strive to

enhance both the literacy and numeracy skills of the

learners in Mathematics using an explicit teaching Approach

and providing Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) and

technology, figure, and activities that may enhance the

performance of learners. Tabuk (2018) revealed that

prospective teachers had a positive attitude toward teaching

mathematics. Gurzoy's (2018) study aimed to know the

opinions of teacher candidates about using the history of

mathematics (HoM) in the instruction of mathematics.

Research data was collected from elementary mathematics

education 4th-grade students through semi-structured

interviews to collect their opinions about using HoM in the

instruction of Mathematics. This study's data was collected

from six teacher candidates with a qualitative approach. The

review of semi-structured interviews revealed that teacher

candidates believe that using HoM in the instruction of

Mathematics may be useful for teaching and learning

purposes. Their concerns about using HoM in the instruction

of Mathematics was another outcome revealed by the study.

As a mentor and facilitator, a teacher in the 4th grade

of elementary school needs to look at the condition of the

student's concrete thinking stage. The learning process

needs to be adjusted such that abstract objects in

mathematics can be represented through concrete objects as a

bridge to the knowledge that the students already have,

especially for the material of fractions. One is analyzing

the achievement and the improvement of students' mathematics

reasoning ability through implementing the Indonesian

Realistic Mathematics Education (PMRI) approach. He

suggested that achievements and the progress of students'

reasoning ability with the use of the PMRI approach are

better than conventional learning Saleh (2018). And Michael

G. Domanais (March 2019) recommends that teachers may

develop lesson plans using the 5Es instructional approach,

cooperative learning tasks, and contextualized learning

activities. The developed lessons may be tried out, adapted,

enhanced, or used as supplementary activities in teaching

mathematics, especially in the elementary grades and Grade 7

learners during remedial classes.

Liang (2019) reported a research group of four

mathematics teacher educators from a large, minority-serving

university. The project's goal was to establish a repeated

cycle of improving the mathematics content course of pre-

service teachers and to contribute a shared knowledge base

that rests on the foundation of well-defined learning goals

in mathematics courses for elementary pre-service teachers.

It showed an example of iterative task design for the topic

of professional development for mathematics teacher

educators, highlighting the benefits to the students and

teachers.

Kuzniak (2016) showed an approach to Mathematics

education whose optimal aim of teaching mathematics is to

assist students in achieving efficient mathematical work.

The model of Mathematical working spaces, with its three

dimensions, semiotic, instrumental, and discursive, allows

the original addressing of the questions based on a

multidimensional approach to using tools and instruments and

on the notion of complete mathematical work. The

Mathematical Work is considered complete when a genuine

relationship exists between epistemological and cognitive

aspects and when the model's three dimensions are

appropriately articulated. The model can help identify

misunderstandings not acknowledged by the teacher or

complete mathematical work despite differences between

intended and actual work.

Bostic (2016) explained that a teaching experiment

provided students with continuous engagement in problem–

solving based instructional approaches during one

mathematics unit. The Students' problem–solving performance

and performance on a unit test was evaluated, and the result

showed that the intervention had a positive effect on

students' problem-solving performance. In contrast, the

comparison helped students solve more problems on the post-

test than their peers, but the comparison group performed

the intervention group on the unit test.

 In a journal article, The 5E Instructional Model: A

Constructivist Approach for Enhancing Students' Learning

Outcomes in Mathematics, Omotayo (2017) shows that the

importance of teaching and understanding mathematics is

justified by the numerous and diverse applications of the

subject to all human endeavors. Teachers' adoption of

constructivist instructional strategies is recommended since

they encourage independent learning rather than rote

memorization. In his journal article from 2017, Stem

outlines how a Liberian third-grade class was taught

division word problems involving money using the Realistic

Mathematics Education (RME) method. The instructional

approach employed real-world situations and students'

experiences as a framework for teaching crucial mathematical

ideas and abilities. As they were exposed to the actual

Mathematics Education Model, the pupils, who were previously

passive recipients of traditional methods of instruction,

developed into creative thinkers and active participants.

Based on Colle (2018), direct instruction and teaching

through problem-solving help students improve their

performance; it recommends that curriculum developers

consider teaching through problem-solving as an avenue for

student development and teachers' improvement. In the same

year, Lucena (2018) emphasized that Teaching Through Problem

Solving (TTPS) Approach" is deemed effective in teaching

Mathematics to Grade 4 Pupils in Public Elementary Schools.

Hence, the integration of TTPS in Mathematics is highly

recommended. This research used a quantitative method to

determine the effectiveness of Teaching through Problem

Solving (TTPS) in teaching Mathematics Grade 4 pupils. The

quantitative treatment of the data through identifying mean,

standard deviation, variance, and z-value is deemed

appropriate. Pre-test and post-test designs were employed

wherein the participants were selected randomly from the

total population. Using a Multi-Method Interview Approach

during Mathematics Problem solving in Assessing the

Metacognition of Grade 2 and Grade 2 Students, the

importance of metacognition as a predictor of students'

mathematics learning and problem-solving, as highlighted by

Kuzle (2018) has been well-documented. However, primary

grades have received attention lately, and additional study

is required at this level. It presented a metacognitive

framework during mathematics problems. It was developed to

evaluate the model's utility and the approach's adaptation

in the context of Grade 2 and 4 Mathematics problem–solving.

 Ozdemir's 2018 study was about the effect of teaching

integers through a problem-posing approach on sixth-grade

students' academic achievement and mathematics attitudes. It

used a mixed method, in which quantitative and qualitative

research methods were used together. In the study, the

quantitative component was the pre-test and post-test

control group model. In contrast, its qualitative component

used the observational method and a content analysis of

students' worksheets. A total of 69 people comprised the

study groups; 34 were in the experimental group, and 35 were

in the control group. The study's results showed a

difference in the experimental group regarding academic

success levels but no significant difference in either

group's attitudes toward mathematics. It was found that

while the strategy of posing problems had a favorable impact

on academic accomplishment in teaching integers, it had no

appreciable impact on student's attitudes.

Parwati's 2018 study described and tested the effect of

the learning model problem-solving learning model on the

ability to solve mathematics problems of the fifth- grade

students. This quasi-experimental research used non –

equivalent control group design with pre-test and post-test.

The results showed that the ability to solve mathematics

problems of the students who learned through the Problem

Solving Learning Model was higher than those who learned

through the direct instructional model; that the student's

ability to solve problems facilitated with open mathematics

problems was higher than that with closed mathematics

problems and that there was an effect of interaction between

learning model and problem type on problem-solving ability.

The conclusion was that the local wisdom–oriented problem-

solving learning model effectively improves mathematical

problem-solving ability.

Eikelmann (2017) examined the relationship between ICT

use and the performance of Grade 9 students in mathematics

and further integrated it into a multi-level model,

including school-level factors. The results showed that

characteristics at the school level played a major role in

integrating IT into teaching and learning and turned out to

be relevant across the educational systems. In addition to

further in-depth country-specific findings, the results

pointed to cross-national future challenges in using

technologies to enhance teaching and learning. The academic

performance in mathematics of the students taught using

computer-based interactive learning activities was better

than that of the students taught using the traditional

method of teaching, based on the study of Increasing

Mathematics Performance of Grade 8 Learners through Computer

Based Interactive Learning Activities Proceso L. Mengote Jr.

(2020).

The study of Osima Gift ND shows that teacher's

attitude, student "s attitude, Qualification, and

professionalism, and also the school environment and its

degree of discipline, affects the academic performance of

student positively because when all these factors are

properly examined and play they needed roles in educational

pursuit student, academic performance will be skyrocketed to

a better grade. And he recommended that research of this

type should be carried out in other local governments at an

interval to find out if there has been a change in the

factors that influence the academic performance of students

in mathematics.

Blue Ribbon Schools- No Child Left Behind use many of

the same instructional strategies discovered in an article

on Improving the Math Performance of Blue Ribbon Schools.

They all strongly emphasize the mathematics curriculum's

compliance with state requirements and regularly administer

benchmark exams to gauge students' proficiency with the

standards. Every effort is made to give enough time each day

for math education to guarantee that all pupils achieve at

high levels. Students who struggle with math concepts

receive prompt attention and more classroom time. Assessment

is formative and ongoing. To help pupils learn math topics,

several schools employ manipulatives. The ability to master

calculation is balanced with the ability to solve problems,

use math, and draw connections to the outside world.

The recently conducted Albay Numeracy Assessment Tool

(AlNAT) under Unnumbered Regional Memorandum dated June 3,

2022, entitled "Conduct of End–of–Year Numeracy Assessment,

Analysis, and Interpretation of Data and Submission of

Consolidated Results and Test Data revealed that the

performance in numeracy of Grade 3 learners was 56.23% with

the description of Needs Major Support announced during the

Division Orientation Workshop on the 8 – Week Learning

Recovery Curriculum in Literacy numeracy (Division

Memorandum No 114, s. 2022).

Synthesis of the State of the Art

The review of related literature presented

deductively. The most general concept of teaching to the

present study's focus was discussed through the related

literature from the Teaching Principle of Carnegie Mellon

University (n.d.).
 The significance of learning numeracy skills and

mathematics in the educational system was presented in the

reviewed literature.

Wriston (2015) stressed that mastering basic math

skills is vital since learners' mastery of the subject

determines their future and success in life, be it in terms

of higher studies or work. In 2019, Guhl (2019) declared the

impact of early Math and numeracy skills on academic

achievement in elementary school.

Different perspectives on the factors that affect the

difficulties in mathematics were shown in the reviewed

literature.

In a qualitative study on factors affecting difficulties in

learning mathematics by mathematics learners, Acharya (2017)

suggests that teacher's lack of connections between new

mathematical concepts and previously learned mathematical

structures, math anxiety, an unenthusiastic math feeling,

students' economic circumstances and educational

backgrounds, the school management system, a lack of school

infrastructure, and a lack of a regular assessment system at

school are some of the issues that mathematicians face.

Marjorie Mangulabnan (2016) stated that mathematics problem-

solving difficulties of BSE students reveal that errors

frequently occur in exploring the problem. Students find

difficulties comprehending specific terms of the problem

written or presented in the English language. Also, they

were unable to use appropriate strategy or show any

flexibility in solving the problems using more than one

heuristic; they even committed mistakes in solving process

and made errors due to carelessness because there was no

evident checking of their own solution. And Callaman and

Itaas (2020) concluded that the school type was a

significant factor that causes variations of the effect

sizes in students' academic achievement in mathematics, and

the three factors, namely: mathematics skills, attitude, and

self-efficacy, have a significant effect on the achievement

of the students. Necdet Guner (2020) found that no necessary

care is devoted to mathematics teaching. Students indicated

that their mathematics teachers do not promote positive

interest or attitudes toward mathematics.

Numerous recommendations for improving the learners'

numeracy skills and mathematics performance were depicted in

the review literature.

Quilala (2018) recommends that teachers strive to enhance

literacy and numeracy skills in learning mathematics using

SIMS and technology figures and activities. Tabuk (2018)

revealed that a positive attitude towards the subject helps.

Gusoy (2018) proves that the History of Mathematics may be

useful for the teaching and learning process in mathematics.

Saleh (2018) suggests that there is a need to investigate

the condition of the student's concrete thinking stage.

Domanais (2019) recommends that teachers may develop lesson

plans using the 5Es instructional approach, cooperative

learning tasks, and contextualized learning activities. And

Liang (2019) reported a research group of four mathematics

teacher educators from a large, minority-serving university.

The project's goal was to establish a repeated cycle of

improving the mathematics content course of pre-service

teachers and to contribute a shared knowledge base that

rests on the foundation of well-defined learning goals in

mathematics courses for elementary pre-service teachers.

Additional related studies were also cited. These researches

were considered reviewed as they support certain aspects of

the paper, such as the indirect signs of the teacher factor

in improving numeracy and mathematical skills.

The studies of Kuzniak (2016), Bostic (2016), Omatayo

(2017), Colle (2018), Lucena (2018), Kuzle (2018), Ozdemir's

(2018), and Parwati (2018) discussed various ways on how to

improve mathematics performance in mathematics subject. The

researcher looked into these studies to view the different

perspectives on the topic. These researches helped build the

study's premise on the primary considerations in creating

the present study.

Moreover, the effectiveness of the integration of ICT in the

teaching and learning process in mathematics was considered

Eikelmann's (2017) study showed that characteristics at the

school level played a major role in integrating IT into

teaching and learning and turned out to be relevant across

the educational systems.

There is no similar study and literature as the present

study; other related literature and study were The study of

Osama Gift ND that shows that teacher's attitude, student "s

attitude, Qualification, and professionalism, as also the

school environment and degree of discipline, affects the

academic performance of student positively. Blue Ribbon

Schools- No Child Left Behind use many of the same

instructional strategies discovered in an article on

improving the Math Performance of Blue Ribbon Schools, where

they regularly administer benchmark exams and make every

effort to give enough time each day for math education to

guarantee that all pupils achieve at high levels.

A related article on the present study contributed to

determining the research problem and the courage to create a

study that could help solve a problem.

The recently conducted Albay Numeracy Assessment Tool

(AlNAT) under Unnumbered Regional Memorandum dated June 3,

2022, entitled "Conduct of End–of–Year Numeracy Assessment,

Analysis, and Interpretation of Data and Submission of

Consolidated Results and Test Data revealed that the

performance in numeracy of Grade 3 learners was 56.23% with

the description of Needs Major Support announced during the

Division Orientation Workshop on the 8 – Week Learning

Recovery Curriculum in Literacy numeracy (Division

Memorandum No 114, s. 2022). These assessments helped

realize that until now, there is a need to makemake

extensive efforts to understand mathematics education and

enhance learners' performance.

Gap Bridged of the Study

The related literature and studies presented all delved

on particular facets of the present study. Studies on

mathematics achievement of the students, instructional

strategies in teaching mathematics and the standards for

mathematics practice were conducted.

 However it could be observe that none of these dealt

with the activities provided by the teacher in improving the

numeracy skills of the learners along knowing and

understanding, computing and solving, estimating,

visualizing and modelling, representing and communicating,

conjecturing and reasoning, proving and decision making and

applying and connecting, particularly on the public

elementary schools in the municipality of Oas. This is the

gap to be bridged by the study.

Theoretical Framework

Every Filipino learner must have 21st-century skills to

cope with the ever-changing world. In the pursuit of

improving the skills of every learner, an educator must

first know the nature of his learners and familiarize

himself with the different underlying process that takes

place. Thus, in this study, the theoretical framework is

supported by the following underlying principles and

theories of teaching and learning. Figure 2 shows the

theoretical paradigm of the study.

Meaningful Learning Theory is learning that makes a

difference in one's mind and life. David Paul Ausubel

developed this. He theorizes that to learn and understand

something; people must connect new information to pertinent

concepts they already know. The learner's existing body of

information must interact with new knowledge. In addition,

this theory allows students to associate acquired material

with previous knowledge or experiences that serve as an

anchor when obtaining new knowledge. This will enable the

student to make connections that will allow learning to be

comprehensive and lasting throughout their life.

Ausubel's Meaningful Learning Theory explores and

explains how a learner learns by relating new information to

previously known information and concepts. While the simple

regurgitation of facts characterizes rote memorization,

meaningful learning implies new information is understood

and internalized as it is incorporated into prior knowledge

and concepts. This act is called the subsumption of

information. The new information is

Meaningful
Learning
Theory

Purposive Holistic
Learning The use of varied Learning
Theory and suitable activities Theory
 contributes to the
improvement of the
numeracy skills of the
learners and develops
their positive attitude
towards the subject.

Cooperative Theory of
Learning Constructivism
Theory

Figure 2. Theoretical Framework

assimilated hierarchically and organized into a usable

cognitive format by relating new information to previous

knowledge. The newly learned information will expand on

initial concepts, and in turn, the initial concepts supply

meaning, purpose, and explanation to the new information.

Finally, unlike memorization, information learned in this

manner can be applied to new and unique situations in which

the learned concept is featured.

    Moreover, this theory essentially describes integrating

earlier knowledge and experiences into current instruction.

Students' experiences and prior knowledge are integrated

with complex ideas and facts to create personal and

distinctive understandings. Learning becomes meaningful when

students understand how they learn relates to other

knowledge.

    Ausubel's theory on meaningful learning is a valid

reason for this research. Students explore, find, reflect,

teach, and participate within the learning environment as

they study and teach mathematics. Through interacting with

one another and the outside world, students transition from

being apprentices to becoming teachers themselves. To ensure

fair, learning-centered work, students collaborate in

diverse groups that the teacher can reorganize as necessary.

It offers exercises for resolving contradictions and testing

theories to create mathematical meanings. In classes, eager

students work together to solve problems and understand

concepts. Students are in charge of their education; they

actively set goals and assess their development. The goals

of instruction encompass both individual and group teaching

approaches and are interactive and constructive.

    Students engage with, instruct, and learn from teachers

and their classmates. When new issues arise, it enables

pupils to broaden their knowledge and gives mathematical

thinking flexibility. In this study, it is hypothesized that

using a variety of activities to excite students' minds will

help them construct meaningful learning theories for

mathematics. 

Edward C. Tolman presents purposive Learning Theory.

He, too, is preoccupied with behavior and the need for

adaptation. His theory is based on associating stimulus

situations with concepts, perceptions, and expectancies. He

is more concerned with achievement than with the means of

achievement. He accepts that associations occur due to the

contiguity of stimulus patterns and perception or condition,

but he is most interested in the nature and complexity of

response. According to him, people act on their beliefs,

attitudes, and the environment as it changes in addition to

simply reacting to inputs. They also work toward goals.

    According to this approach, pupils learn through doing

in order to reach a particular objective. Along the way, as

students carry out activities, work through issues, and

experiment, they find solutions and responses to issues that

will help them achieve their goals. Engaging in such

activities enhances their job and teaches the processes

necessary to accomplish the objective. The attitudes,

circumstances, experiences, and realizations encountered

along the route are used to overcome obstacles in the way of

the goals, making it clear that attaining the purpose will

be successful.

    Holistic Learning Theory, presented by John Heron, is a

"sensory-rich" approach that seeks to stimulate the student

as a "whole." According to its core principle, effective

learning should engage all personality elements, including

intellect, emotions, and intuition. Teaching models often

prioritize student interaction at all levels, in contrast to

hierarchal structures emphasizing obedience and intellectual

superiority.

    "The underlying holistic principle is that a complex

organism functions most effectively when all its parts

function and cooperate effectively. The synergy theory

asserts that the sum of its pieces is larger than the whole

and is closely related to this principle. In mainstream

education, a "whole person" approach to learning is much

more likely observed within the sensory-rich nursery or

primary school activity room than in the intellect–dominated

university lecture theatre.

         As a means of teaching math, it allows the pupils

to build mathematical concepts as a method of math

instruction. It encourages students to research issues, look

for patterns, and think critically. In order to comprehend a

complicated idea, students must observe, relate, question,

inform, and integrate all the ideas while working through

specific issues. Naturally, these will take place if the

problems picked are novel, well-constructed, or well-chosen.

'

Constructivism is a learning theory that claims that

learners are not blank slates or empty vessels. Also, from a

constructivist's perspective, learning is an active process.

Assimilation is fitting a new experience into an existing or

previously formed schema, and accommodation is a continuous

effort to adapt to the surroundings (the process of creating

a new schema). Whenever a child's new experience challenges

his schema, the child will have to exert effort through

assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium.

 One of the constructivists, Jerome Bruner, contends that

learning is an active process in which students create new

ideas or concepts based on previously acquired knowledge.

Important ideas, including representations, spiral

curriculums, and exploration learning, were established by

Bruner. Along with representation, Bruner suggested three

stages to represent knowledge – enactive representation,

iconic representation, and symbolic representation. This led

to an understanding that teachers must utilize concrete,

pictorial and symbolic activities to facilitate learning.

Before a learner understands an abstract mathematical

operation, the learners may explore activities that utilize

concrete and pictorial materials.

    Furthermore, Bruner states that a theory of instruction

should address four significant aspects: predisposition to

learn, the structure of knowledge, effective sequencing, and

reinforcement. A child's learning is affected by

motivational, cultural, and personal factors. Thus,

instructions must be concerned with the experiences and

contexts to motivate the learners and make each learner

willing to learn. The lessons must be structured well so

learners can quickly grasp the concept. Also, lessons should

be designated to facilitate extrapolation and fill learning

gaps. The role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom

is to let the learners construct their knowledge such that

they have a well–organized set of concepts. Instead of

merely imparting knowledge and information to students,

teachers should engage them in meaningful experiences that

allow them to create meaning.

    Cooperative learning is one of the teaching-learning

strategies promoting positive outcomes and substantial

effects on student learning. This strategy is a learner-

centered, teacher-facilitated strategy wherein a pair or

small groups of learners interact with each other in the

group to achieve a shared goal toward the completion of the

learning task. Jacobs (2016) states that cooperative

learning involves asking learners to work together in

groups. Instead, conscious thought goes into helping

learners make experiences as successful as possible. This

implies that it is not enough that the teachers organize the

learners in groups and give them tasks to accomplish. The

teacher must see that the learners make the most of their

collaborative activity.

    Johnson & Johnson, as cited in Tran (2013), suggests

five elements of cooperative learning to engage learners in

learning tasks. These include (1) positive interdependence,

(2) face–to–promotive face interaction, (3) individual

accountability, (4) interpersonal and social skills, and (5)

group processing. Johnson & Johnson further state that if

these elements are present in cooperating groups, the

learners achieve better and demonstrate superior learning

skills. This implies that in the teaching-learning process,

the role of the teacher is merely a facilitator of the

learner's learning and not a person who gives long lectures

to the learners. 

    Suppose these five theories are applied to teaching

mathematics using suitable and varied activities. In that

case, they will contribute to the improvement of the

student's mathematical skills and develop their positive

attitude toward the subject, which will result in a much

better performance of learners in mathematics.

These theories support the present study because it explains

the essence of providing better learning experiences to the

learners and how to address problems that are significant in

contributing to the development of learners' mathematical

skills.

Conceptual Framework

As shown in Figure 3, the conceptual paradigm applied

the system approach, which consists of the input, the

process, and the output.

In this research, the inputs were the school factors

along the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains,

which the teachers in Mathematics have to consider in the

process of using activities in the development of

mathematical skills in the development of numeracy abilities

of Grade 3 students in public elementary schools along the

various numeracy skills and processes of Grade 3 Mathematics

Teacher in public elementary School covered by the

Municipality of Oas.

In order to attain the mastery level set by the

Department of Education, the researcher will use the

descriptive survey method of research and its process by

utilizing a questionnaire/ checklist to gather the needed

data. Accumulated data were subjected to statistical

treatment using statistical tools, which are the weighted

mean, frequency count percentage technique, and chi-square.

Through this process, the activities that would improve the

choice and use of materials in teaching mathematics to

Activities in Improving Numeracy Skills in

Mathematics 3 in Public Elementary Schools

Descriptive Survey Method Utilizing Questionaire

– Checklist to gather data on Activities in
Improving Numeracy Skills in Public Elementary
Schools along:
a.Knowing and Understanding
b.Computing and Solving
c.Estimating
d.Visualizing and Modeling
e.Representing and Communicating
f.Conjecturing and Reasoning
g.Proving and Decision Making
h.Applying and Connecting
 Activities in Improving Numeracy Skills in

Mathematics 3 in Public Elementary Schools along

different eight skills were Determined, Gathered

and Complied

Figure 3. Conceptual Framework

achieve the educational objective of developing numeracy

skills among the Grade 3 students along the three domains

were determined.

Definition of Terms

Some terms were defined conceptually and operationally

for a better understanding of the concepts or ideas

presented in the research.

Activities - in the state or quality of being active;

action. It also refers to a specific action, projector

pursuit in school, or any task given by a teacher

(Thesaurus.com, 2022).
 Improvement - the fact of something getting better, or

the act of making something better; a situation that is

better than it was before, or a change that makes a

situation better (Cambridge Dictionary, 2022).

Mathematics - the logical study of quantity, form,

arrangement, and magnitude; especially the methods for

disclosing, by using rigorously defined concepts and

symbols, the properties of quantities and relations (The New

International Webster's Concise Dictionary of English

Language, International Encyclopedic Edition, 2002).

Skills - ability or proficiency in execution or

performance. It also refers to specific art, craft, trade,

or job in which one has a learned competence (The New

International Webster's Concise Dictionary of English

Language, International Encyclopedic Edition, 2002).

Numeracy Skills - are basic mathematical skills that

include a range of abilities to understand and analyse

numerical information and to make the right conclusions and

decisions. They also include the ability to express ideas

and situations using numerical or mathematical information

(Valchev, 2022)

Public Schools - learning institutions that are funded

by local, state and/or federal governments. They offer

general education opportunities to children in kindergarten

through grade 12, and extracurricular activities are also

part of many public school programs (What Are Public

Schools?, 2022).

Exposition – is a kind of method that interprets or

explains a comprehensive topic or subject matter. The

teacher is complete in charge and guides the lesson. He/ She

is also charge of the discussion and asks questions by

calling on learners to answers (Macasieb, Unabia, & Casuga,

2016)

Discussion/Lecture Method - teaching method in which

information is presented orally to a class with minimal

class participation. It is the practice of having the

teacher or lecturer at the front of the classroom talking to

students. This is seen as one-way communication since the

lecturer is the only one speaking. Effective use of this is

a short talk about providing students with the background

information they need to do the work (What is lecture

method?, 2022)

Exploration - is an active learning approach which

helps children learn through curiosity and inquiry. Learning

through exploration as a process changes the way one

approaches a particular situation. Indeed, one can assert

that it is the most effective way of learning (Verma, 2019)

 Puzzles - A puzzle is also a game or toy in which you

have to fit separate pieces together, or a problem or

question which you have to answer by using your skill or

knowledge: It is a problem that challenges one's ability to

think outside the box and come up with original solutions.

Puzzles can be thought-provoking and entertaining (Cambridge

Dictionary, 2022)

Analysis - examining and evaluating the relevant

information to select the best course of action from various

alternatives (Definition of Analysis).

Logical Reasoning - is a type of problem-solving that

involves working through a set of rules that govern a

scenario. This set of rules or steps is referred to as an

algorithm. Logical reasoning involves testing different sets

of steps - or algorithms - to determine which sequence of

rules leads to the correct solution (What Is Logical

Reasoning?).

Guided Discovery - also known as an inductive approach,

is a technique where a teacher provides examples of a

language item and helps the learners to find the rules

themselves. It is regarded by many teachers as an important

tool. It encourages independence, makes learning more

memorable, and if analysis is done in groups is a meaningful

communicative task. It is important, however, to understand

that some learners are resistant to this approach (Guided

discovery)

Riddles - Riddles are questions or statements that

offer a puzzle to be solved. They often involve critical

thinking on the reader’s part in order to figure out the

answer, and this offers challenging entertainment (What is a

Riddle? Definition, Examples of Riddles in Literature, n.d.).

Math Quizzes - is a small test administered to know the

students’ knowledge or it is a short duration test used to

know the student’s knowledge and understanding in the field

of Mathematics. It is one of the activities with the help of

which a mathematics teacher can motivate and encourage the

children to become truthful, active, and alert and to arose

in him/her critical thinking importantly frankness straight

forwardness (Pedagogy of Mathematics, 2018).

Inquiry Approach - is an approach to learning that

emphasizes the student’s role in the learning process.

Rather than the teacher telling students what they need to

know, students are encouraged to explore the material, ask

questions, and share ideas. It uses different approaches to

learning, including small-group discussion and guided

learning. Instead of memorizing facts and material, students

learn by doing. This allows them to build knowledge through

exploration, experience, and discussion (WHAT IS INQUIRY-

BASED LEARNING (AND HOW IS IT EFFECTIVE)?, 2018).

Problem – Based Learning - is a teaching method in

which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to

promote student learning of concepts and principles as

opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In

addition to course content, PBL can promote the development

of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and

communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for

working in groups, finding and evaluating research

materials, and life-long learning (PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

(PBL), n.d.)

Cooperative Learning - involves students working

together to accomplish shared goals, and it is this sense of

interdependence that motivate group members to help and

support each other. When students work cooperatively they

learn to listen to what others have to say, give and receive

help, reconcile differences, and resolve problems

democratically. (PALMER, PETERS, & STREETMAN, n.d.)

Practical Work - is a teaching strategy where hands-on

and minds-on activities are used to develop concepts,

investigate relationships among these concepts, solve

problems, and engage the teacher and the learners in

mathematical thinking. In practical work, the learners are

active participants in the learning process. They manipulate

objects, experience real life situations and from the

insights derived from these, they discuss, explore and

construct mathematical ideas. Such a dynamic activity

provides a concrete basis for the development of abstract

mathematical ideas and higher order thinking skills among

the learners (High School Mathematics Education Group,

2003).

Demonstration - demonstration method in teaching can be

defined as giving a demo or performing a specific activity

or concept. In other words, the demonstration method is a

teaching-learning process carried out in a very systematic

manner. Demonstration often occurs when students have a

difficult time connecting theories to actual practice or

when students are unable to understand the application of

theories (Demonstration Method - An Introduction, 2022).

Game – Based Learning (GBL) - is a teaching method that

uses the power of games to define and support learning

outcomes. A GBL environment achieves this through

educational games that have elements such as engagement,

immediate rewards and healthy competition. All so that while

students play, they stay motivated to learn (Nisbet, 2021).

Interactive Presentation - An interactive presentation

is the means used to combine and bundle multiple types of

interactive content all in one place to present to an

audience, often in real time. With an interactive

presentation, you can combine interactive content with

storytelling and questions to engage your audience (What is

an interactive presentation and how is it different?, n.d.).

Explicit teaching - Explicit instruction is a way to

teach in a direct, structured way. When teachers use

explicit instruction, they make lessons crystal clear. They

show kids how to start and succeed on a task. They also give

kids plenty of feedback and chances to practice (Greene,

n.d.).

CPA Approach - Concrete Pictorial Abstract (CPA)

approach is a system of learning that uses physical and

visual aids to build a child’s understanding of abstract

topics. Pupils are introduced to a new mathematical concept

through the use of concrete resources (e.g. fruit, Dienes

blocks etc). When they are comfortable solving problems with

physical aids, they are given problems with pictures –

usually pictorial representations of the concrete objects

they were using. Then they are asked to solve problems where

they only have the abstract i.e. numbers or other symbols.

Building these steps across a lesson can help pupils better

understand the relationship between numbers and the real

world, and therefore helps secure their understanding of the

mathematical concept they are teaching (Johnson, 2022).

Number Bonds - are the pairs of numbers that are added

to make another number. Because of this, they are often

referred to as number pairs. They are perfect for helping

children quickly solve addition and subtraction questions as

well as helping them with their times tables (What are

Number Bonds?, n.d.).

Math Modelling - is the process of using a model to

solve any given math problem. Mathematical models can range

from simple ones to more complicated ones. A simple

mathematical model can be used to simply visualize the

problems, while a more complicated one can be used to solve

the problem itself (Unit 1: What is Mathematical Modeling?

And Why Should We Teach it in Middle School?, 2021).