41_MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 4-1 Maxwell’s Equations "Te modem theory of electromagnetism is based on set of, four fundamental relations known a8 Maxwell's equations: vxE=-2, ab i on om Here K and D are the electric feld intensity and flu density, interrelated by D = cH where ¢ isthe electical permittivity WE and B are magnetic field intensity and flux density, interrelated by B = jcH where 1 is the magnetic permeability: py is the electic charge density per unit volume: and J is the current density per unit area. The fields and foxes F, D, B, Ht were introduced in Section 1-3, and py and J willbe discussed Im Section 4-2, Maxwell's equations hold in any material Including ftee space (vacuum). In general, all of the above ‘quantities may depend on spatial location and time f. In the interest of readability, we willnot, however, explicitly reference these dependencies [as in E(x, y,z )] except when the context calls for it By formulating these equations. published in a classic treatise in 1873, Jamies Clerk Maxwell established the frat unified theory of electricity and magnetism, His equations deduced from experimental observations reported by Coulomb, Gauss, Ampére, Faraday, and others, not only encapsulate the connection between the electric field and electic charge and ‘between the magnetic field and electric current, but also capture the bilateral coupling between eleczic and magnetic fields and fluxes, Together with some auxiliary relations, Maxwell's equations comprise the fundamental tenets of electromagnet theory. Under static conditions, none of the quantities appearing in Maxwell's equations are functions of time (i.e, 3/41 = 0). This happens when all charges are permanently fined in space, or if they move, they do 0 at a steady rate s0 that py and ‘Fare constant mn time Under these circumstances, the time Aerivatives of B and D in Eqs. (4.1b) and (1d) vanish, and Maxwell's equations reduce to Blectrostaties VD= py, a2 (426) Magnetosatics v-B=0, 3a) VxH=J, (430) Maxwell's four equations separate into two uncoupled pairs ‘with the frst pair involving only the electric field and flux E ‘and D and the second par involving only the magnetic field and fax Hand B, > Blecric and magnetic fields become decoupled inthe atic ease, ‘This allows us to study clecsicity and magnetism as (wo distinct and separate phenomena, as long as the spatial distributions of charge and current flow remain constant in time, Werefer to the study of electric and magnetic phenomena under static conditions as electrostatics and magnetostatics respectively. Elecuostatcs is the subject of the present chapter, and in Chapter S$ we lean about magnetostates. ‘The experience gained through studying electrostatic and magnetostatic phenomena wil prove invaluable in tacking the ‘re involved material in subsequent chapters, which deal with sme-varying elds, charge densities, and curents. ‘We study electostatics not only as a prelude to the study of time-varying elds, but also because it is an Important ld in its own right Many elecwonic devices and systems ate based on the principles of electrostatics. They include x-ray machines, oscilloscopes, ink-jet electrostatic printers, liquid crystal displays, copy machines, micro tlectromechanical switches and accelerometers, and many solid-state-based control devices, Elecwostatic principles also guide the design of medical diagnostic sensors, such as the tlectrocardiogram, which records the heart's pumping pattern, and the eleetoencephalogram, which records bain activity, as ‘well as the development of numerous industrial applications.180 CHAPTER 4_ ELECTROSTATICS 4-2. Charge and Current Distributions In electromagnetics, we encounter various forms of electic charge distnbutions. When put in motion, these charge distributions constirute current distibutions. Charges and cunrents may be distibuted over a volume of space, across a surface, of along a line. 4-2. Charge Densities Ave soni sel, th cbage dation in mati i dscte, meaning that cane ext aly Where elcons thd nel ae md nowt chen chetomagetc, we ol ae nese is sjing peneronn t's ieh Tsetse, yplly eo ae odo mogtade iota he ping bstvmn set ns Atcha Isotope owe ea dear te dco ate tthe caren sd eh et chug ota tu cham eine AU ef were tiny atte win Accodagly, we ine he volume charge dns 31 at cag ee Bmoap a Cm we qin cag cotinedin Inger py peda On spa Icon (692) and oh p= AL) 2. Phyo: eee te eage Sg per tt voine fora volume A vated a (3.2) wit OU Bons lage cheng to contin slnge ber atoms ye oa enoagh tbe roared as pot ae actonopie tale under Condon Thevasancl py wilipatalratonssaled i ipa! dbuon er ply He abo The Shag cetied in 0 as In some cases, particularly when dealing with conductors, sleet charge may he distibuted across the surface of material, in which case the quantity of interes is the surface ‘charge density p,, defined as ba _ 4a tim St 22 ch sByae ae OP a6) where Ag is the charge present across an elemental surface aca As. Similarly, ifthe charge is, forall practical purposes, confined (0 line, which need not be straight, we characterize its distribution in terms ofthe line charge density, defined . aa _ da ym 22 = 2% Crm an dara ple 4-1: Line Charge Distribution Calculate the total charge © contained in a eylindrieal tube oriented along the z axis as shown in Fig 4-l(a), The line charge density is o¢ = 2c, where zis the distance in meters from the bottom end ofthe tube. The rabe length is 10 em Solution: The total charge O is 10cm |_-line charge y (6) Line change distribution Surface charge p, () Surface charge distribution Fig 4-1. Charge stitutions for amples 61 and 4.2.42_ CHARGE AND ¢ URRENT DISTRIBUTIONS, Example 42: Surface Charge Distribution ‘The cirevlar disk of electric charge shown in Fig. 4-1(b) is characterized by an arimutally symmetric surface charge density that increases Hinealy with rom zero atthe center to 6 Cima? atr = 3 em, Find the total charge preseal on the disk surface Solution: Since pis symmetrical with respect tothe azimuth let depends oy on andi given by or 10% Cin, sero ET = where ris in meters. Tn polar cootdinates, an elemental area is ds-=r dr dp, and for the disk shown in Fig. 4b), the limits of integration are from 0 2 (rad) for $ and from 0 19 ‘marr, Hence, [ow ‘ ato =| f exon aras oo Steere S Exercise 41: A square plate residing in the is situated in the pace defined by ~3 m = x 3m When a current is due to the actual movement of electrically charged matter, itis called a convection current, and Js called a convection current density. ‘A wind-tiven charged cloud, for example, gives rise to ‘ convection current. In some cases, the charged matter ‘constituting the convection curtent consists solely of charged particles, such as the elecwon beam of a scanning electton ‘microscope or the ion beam ofa plasma propulsion system, ‘When 8 current is due tothe movement of charged particles relative to ther host material, Jis called a conduction current density. In a metal wire, for example, there are equal amounts of positive charges (in atomic nucle) and negative charges (in the electron shells ofthe atoms). None of the positive charges and few ofthe negative charges can move; only those electrons inthe outermost electzon shells ofthe atoms can be pushed from fone atom tothe next i a voltage is applied across the ends of the wire > This movement of electrons from atom to atom constitutes a conduction current. The electrons that emerge from the wire are not necessarily the same electrons that entered the wie atthe other end. Conduction current, which is discussed in more detail in Section 4-6, obeys Ohm's law, whereas convection curent docs Concept Question 4-1: What happens to Maxwell's equations under static conditions? Concept Question 4-2: How is the current density J ‘elated tothe volume charge density 2, Concept Question 4-8: Whats the difference between convection and conduction currents? 43 (One ofthe primary goals of this chapter isto develop dexterity in applying the expressions for the electri feld intensity E and associated electric flux density D induced hy a specified distribution of charge. Our discussion will be limited to tlectrosatic fields induced by stationary charge densities ‘We begin by reviewing the expression for the electri Sield intgoduced in Section 1-3.2 on the basis of the results fof Coulomb's experiments on the electrical force between charged bodies. Coulomb's law, which was first introduced for electial charges in air and later generalized to material media, implies tht: (1) An isolated charge g induces an electric eld E at every point in space, and at any specific point P, Ks given by 4 re Coulomb's Law E=8 (vim), a3) where is a unl vector pointing from g to P (Big. 4-3), Ris the distance between them, and ¢ isthe electrical permitivity af the medium containing the observation point P. (2) Ta the presence of an electic field E ata given point in space, which may be dueto asingle charger adistribution the force acting on a tet charge ' when placed F-gE ®. ala) With F measured in newtons (N) and q! in coulombs (C), the unit of Bis (N/C), which will be shown later in Section 5 to be the same as vole per meter (Wit) igure 4-3 Bleetiesield ines due to a carte g43 COULOMB'S LAW 13, Fora material with lecteal permittivity ¢, the electric eld Siilay, the electric field at P due to gz alone is ‘quantities D and Fare related by 5 £) = BRR) in a17) Dak 19) r= RP with <= 400 4.16)» The electric Feld obeys the principle of linear ‘where superposition. « = B85 x 10° = (1/36) x10 Em) Hence, the total electric field E at P due to gy and q, together is the electrical permitivity of free apece, and «= feo is called the relaive permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the material, For most materials and under a wide range of conditions eis independent ofboth the magnitude and direction of E [as implied by Ea, (4.1 >» Ie is independent of the magnitude of K, then the ratena is said (abe near becatse D and E ase related nearly, and if tis independent of the direction of K, the material is said tobe isotropic. “Materials usually donot exhibit nonlinear permitivity behavior except when the amplitude of E is very high (at levels approaching dielectric breakdown conditions discussed later in Section 47), and anisotropy is present only in certain materials with peculiar erystalline structures. Hence, except for unique materials under very special circumstances, the quantities D and E are effectively redundant; for a material with known ¢, knowledge of either D or Kis suicient to specify the ater in that material, 43.1 Electric Field Due to Multiple Point Charges “The expression givenby Ls. (13) forthe eld Ede to single point charge can be extended to multiple charges, We begin by Considering two point charges, q and qs with position vectors Ry and Ry (tueasured from the ongin in Fig, 4-4), The eletic field B isto be evaluated at a point P with poston vector R [At Pte elect field due fog alone is given by Fa (413) with , the distance between gy an P, replaced with R—Ry| ‘snd the unit vector replaced with (R —R,)/R— Ry. Ths, gR-R) Fre a (vim. (4.178) aR Ry RRP 1 « meer ae Generalizing the preceding resultothe cate of WV point charges, the electric eld at pont Pith positon vst R due to charges qt -+.say loewed at pints with positon vectors Ri Ry, Ry equals the vector sum ofthe electric elds ince byl he individual hares ot oh gi R) (im). 4.19) Figure dof Theelecti field Mat P de totwo charges is equal to te vector sum of Ban Ea184 CHAPTER 4_ ELECTROSTATICS Example 43: Electric Feld Due toTwo ercise 4-4: Two identical charges relocated on the Point Charges sr ais atx = Sand x =7. At what point in space ie the net let fel zero? nswer: At point c0 ‘Two point charges with qi —2% 10 ang AMAWET: Atpoint 5.0.0), (See) 43107 C ae located in free space at points with Cartesian coordinates (.3,—1) and (-3,1,-2), respectively. Find (a) the elect field K at (3, 1, ~2) and (0) the force on a $ x 10-* C charge located at that point, All distances are in meters. Solution: (a) From Eg (4.18), the electric field E with ¢ = (Gree space) is R=Ry 1p @ Sag [" pear ® me) ‘The vectors Ry, Ry, and R are Rake s3— R= -B 49-2 R=B 49 Hence 1 f2g2= 72-8) 4609) as fal” ar 216 =8-2 sw, EERE 10 vim. (b) The force on gy it = set0-S ye ELAR ages Fe gba sx 1 x B29 2-58-41 0 BE ao” Exercise 4-3: Four charges of 10 C each are located in fee space at points with Cartesian coordinates (~3, 0, 0), @, 0.0), (0, 3,0), and (0.3.0). Find the force on & 20-uC charge located at (0,0, 4). All distances are in meters, Answer: F = 0.25, (See) Exercise 45: Inahydrogen atom he electron and proton are separated by an average distance of 5.3 x 10~!! m. Find the magnitude of the electrical force F, between the wo particles, and compare it withthe gravitational Torce F, beeen them Answer: F. = 82% 10-'N, and Fz =36x 10-7, See) 4:3.2 Blectric Field Due (o a Charge Distribution ‘We now extend the results obtained forthe field due to disrere point charges to continuous charge dstnbutions, Consider a volume Uthat cantins a distribution of electric charge with volume charge density, which may vary spatially within U? (ig. 4-5). The diferenial electric Held al a point P due to a differential amount of charge dq = p, dU’ contained in a Aiferentil volume dv is ag peau’ ROR emt ® Geer? 420) where R'is the vector from the differential volume dU” to point P. Applying the principle of linear superposition, the « gure 45 Bletne eld due toa volume charge dtibaton,43 COULOMR'S LAW ll ec eld aie negating eB to all differential charges in U'. Thus, i ay P-0.0.0 (rhe itso) Itis important to note that, in general, both R’ and #’ vary as a fut of pontine opt veine We che tbc actos in 5 hf cage py on dg doa aga nc aw charge ey tng = eh” ‘cg, dst Sel te nd an Cage ‘et 1 py ade af feat. « A feed. aa (tac debt) pg asa Efe. aie in abt Fiore 4 Rig ie iin ye 5 ‘los pmo) le Example 44: Elec Fa of Ring of tn nc enn ly op es arge (Gxample 44), Asn ota of ai bi casey nr ne Chg ey ponte play Tn sn or spa aniaposne ney sae rove (4.0 nrg) Theseemetasenee dl = dant cumin ndtieny Waspanth(r0,m) Gf, FBR) Theses ag = and Along the axis ofthe ring at a distance b from is center Solution: We start hy considering the eletic field generated by a differential ring segment with cylindsical coordinates fom segment 1 to point P = (0, 0,) ie R186, CHAPTER 4 ELECTROSTATICS from which it follows that vere BL IR, ‘The electric feldat P = (0,0, h) dueto thechargein segment I therefore is 1g peal ae ob (of +98) fre PR PP « The field dE has component 4B, along —F and compo- nent dE, along # From symmetry considerations, the field dty generated by diferent segment? in Fig. 60), which is located diametscally opposite to segment 1, is ‘entice to dE except that the componcat of dE i opps that of dB Hence the F component inthe sum canes and the’ contbutions add. The sum ofthe tw contibion is ph de Ines DPT dB + dE a2 Since for every rng segment inthe semicircle defined over the azimuthal range 0 = = 7 (the right-hand half ofthe circular ing) there is a corresponding segment located diametrically opposite at (@ +»), we can obtain the total field generated by the rng by integrating Eg, (4.22) over a semicitle as pebh j aaorrnyn | pub oe RTE k dren +P PP e . (423) where Q = bye isthe total charge onthe ring, Electric Field of a Circular Disk of Charge Example 4-5: Find the electric field at point P with Cartesian coordinates (0,0, ) due toa circular disk of radius a and uniform charge density os residing in the x=y plane (Fig. 4-7). Also, evaluate due to aninnite sheet of charge density p, by Ieting a —» oe fe P= (0,0,4) igure 4-7 Citealar disk of charge with surace charge Aensty py. The let ld st P= (0,9, pointe along the + dietion (Example 4-5), ‘Solution: Building onthe expression obtsinedin Example 4-1 forthe on-axis electric field due to a circular ring of charge, we can determine the field due tothe izcular disk by treating the disk as a set of concentric mings, A ring of radius r and widls dr has an area ds = 27 dr and contains charge 1g = p.de =2npyr dr. Upon sing this expression in 1g, (4.23) and also replacing 6 with r, we obtain the following expression forthe feld due tothe ring deat enor an tres ey Orewa) ‘The total field at P is obtained by integrating the expression cover the limits r = 010r oa f oe 20) FERPE be ia a Afi-—4). 2eo UT Verret = 2a) with the plus sign for h > 0 (P above the disk) and the minus sign when f= 0(P below the dish),44 GAUSS'S LAW 187 For an infinite sheet of charge with a = 90, B=48 (425) 20 (infinite sheet of charge) ‘We note tha for an infinite sheet of charge Kis the same at al points above the x-y plane, anda similar statement applies for Points below the x= plane, Concept Question 4-8: When characterizing the elec teical permitivity ofa material, what do the terme linear and iztropie mean? Concept Question 4-5: Ifthe electric field is zero at given poin: in space, does this imply the absence of electric charges? Concept Question 4-6: State the principle of linear fuperposition as it applies to the electric field duc to a distribution of electric charge. Exercise 4-6: An infinite sheet with uniform surface charge density p, is located at z= 0 (xy plane). and another infinite sheet with density —p, is located at ‘m, both in free space. Determine E everywhere. Answer: B= Oforz < 0;E and E = Oforz > 2m, (See ® ipyjeofor0 <2 <2m, 4-4 Gauss’s Law Tn this section, we use Maxwells equations fo confirm the expressions fr the electric field implied by Coulomb's law, and propose alternative tcaniques for evaluating electric fields Induced by electric charg. To that end, we restate Fa, (4.1): vD= py 426) (Gitferential form of Gauss's law) which i eferred oa the differential form of Gauss’ law. The adjective “diforeatil” refers to the fact thatthe divergence operation involves spatial derivatives. As we see shorty Hg, (4.26) ean be converted o an integral form. When solving electromagnetic problems, we often go back and forth between ‘equations in differential and integral form, depending on which of the two happens to be the mare applicable or convenient to use. To convert Eq, (4.26) into integral form, we multiply both sides by dD and evaluate ther integrals over an arbitrary volume v' [vva= [aaa Here, @ isthe total charge enclosed in DU. The divergence theorem, given by Hg, (398), stats that the volume integral of the divergence of any vector over a volume U equals the total ‘outward Hux of that veetor through the surface $ enclosing U, ‘Ths, forthe vector D, [ovw=fou ‘Comparison of Eq (4.27) with Eq (4.28) lead to Ss ° (Gntegral form of Gauss law) 429) 429) > The integral form of Gauss's law is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 48; foreach difereatil surface clementds, D-deis the electri eld lux flowing outward ff U through ds, and the total fax through surface 5 ‘equals the enclosed charge Q. The surface S is called a Gaussian surface. « ‘The integral form of Gauss law can be applied to dstemineD deo ingle toate point charge q by enclosing the Tater with a closed, spherical, Gaussian surface Sof acbitrary radius R centered at q (Fig. 49), From symmetty Considerations and assuming that q is positive, the direction ‘of D mst be adaly outward along the unit vector Rand Dr, the magnitude of D ust be the same a all points on 5: Ts, any point on , D=RDp, 430)188 CHAPTER 4_ ELECTROSTATICS Total charge inv’ Gaussian surface S enelosing volume V gure 4.8 The integral form of Gaue' aw sates tbat the outward fox of D through a surface is proportional to the closed charge 2. Reds. Applying Gauss’s law gives frrde= f RDe-has f Deis = Daterk) =4 43 Solving for Dp and then inserting the result in Eg, (4.30) gives the following expression forthe electric field induced by an Isolated point charge in a medium with permitivity € Gaussian surface igure 49 leer eld D de o point charge g ‘This is identical with Eq, (4.13) obtained from Coulomb's law, after ll, Maxvsells equations incorporate Covlomb's law. Fr this simple case of an isolated point charge it does not ratte whether Coulomb's law or Gausss law is used to obtain the expression for K, However, it docs matter as (0 which approacia we follow when we deal with multiple point charges fof continuous charge distributions. Even though Coulomb's Taw canbe used to find fo any specified distribution of charge, Gauss’ slaw is easie to apply than Coulomb'slaw, butts utility 4s limited to symmetrical charge distributions > Gauss's law, as given by Ea. (4.29), provides convenient method for determining the flux density D when the charge distibution possesses symmetry properties that allow us to infer the variations of the ‘agnitude and diection of D as a function of spatial location, thereby facilitating the integration of D over a cleverly chosen Gaussian surface. < Because at every point on the surface the direction of ds is long ts outward normal, oly thenormal component ofD atthe surface contributes tothe integra in Eg (4.29). To successfully apply Gauss law, the surface 5 should be chosen such that, from symmetry considerations, across each subsurface of S, Dis constant in magnitude and ts direction is either normal or purely tangential tothe subsurface, These aspects are illustrated in Example 4-6, Example 4-6: Electric Field of an Infinite Line Charge Use Gaus 's aw toobiain anexpression for due(oaninfinitely Jong line with uniform charge density oy that resides along the axis in fee space, ‘Solution: Since the charge density along the line is unigorm, Infinite in extent and residing along the 2 axis, symmetry considerations dictate that Dis in the radial diection and cannot depend on ¢ ar 2. Thus, D=#D,. Therefore, we construct a finite cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and bight, concentric aroun the line of charge (ig. 4-10), The total charge contained within the cylindet is Q = ph. Since Dis along f, the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder do ot contribute to the surface integral on the left-hand side of45_ ELECTRIC SCALAR POTENTIAL Figure 4-10 Gaussian surface around an iniitely lng ine of| charge (ample 5). Hq, (4.29); that i, only the curved surface contributes to the sett J fimcte daca nn ogo oh, whic yields Dm; we Ben ine = OD (lintel charge) ote that Eg (4.33) appleble foray infinite ine of care, regardless of is locaton and direetion, as long as Fis properly dslined asthe radial distance vector fom te line charge (o the observation point (Le, Fis perpendicular tote line of charge) Concept Question 4-7: Explain Gauss's law. Under what circumstances i it useful Concept Question Gaussian surface? How should one choose a 189 Exercise 4-7: Two infinite lines, each carrying a uniform charge density e, reside in fre space parallel tothe z exis atx = Landx = —1, Determine E ata arbiteary point along the y axis. Answer: B= Spry/ [realy? + U]. (See®) Exercise 4-8: A thin spherical hell of radius a caries uniform surface charge density py. Use Gauss's law to determine K everywhere in tee space, = Ofer R a, (See) Answer: Exercise 4-9: A spherical volume of radius a contains @ uniform volume charge density py. Use Gauss’s law to determine D for (a) R = a and () R > a. Answer: Electric Scalar Potential circuit usually is described in terms ofthe eurrents flowing through its branches and the voltages at nodes. The volage diference V between two points in ‘ciscuit represents the amount of work, ot potential enerey, required to move a unit charg from one tothe other. > The em “otage” it shor for “vgs ptt” and synonymous with electric poten Even though when analyzing a circuit we may not consider the electric elds present in the circuit, it isin fact the existence fof these fields that gives rise to voltage differences acrost circuitelements suchas resistor or capacitors, Therelaionship between the electric field K and the electric potential V is the subject ofthis section 4 1 Electric Potential as a Function of El Field tric We begin by considering the simple case ofa positive charge q in a uniform electric field E=—9E, in the ~y direction (ig. 411), The presence ofthe eld E exerts a force F. = 9E