DESIGN, SIMULATION AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A 2.

4 GHz 1x4

CIRCULAR PATCH ANTENNA ARRAY FOR BREAST CANCER DETECTION

BY

ROLAND AYEBAKURO EBINYO

14/ENG04/031

A REPORT TO BE SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

AFE BABALOLA UNIVERSITY, ADO-EKITI

EKITI STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG)

MAY, 2019
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that ROLAND AYEBAKURO EBINYO with Matric No.

14/ENG04/031 carried out this research work under my supervision, in partial

fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in the Department of Electrical,

Electronics and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Afe Babalola

University, Ado-Ekiti.

Engr. Ojo A. O. _________________________

Project Supervisor Signature & Date

Prof. Dada J. O. _________________________

Head of Department (HOD) Signature & Date

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the support and encouragement of my parents throughout

the process of finishing this project. Their never-ending support and words of

encouragement have been very helpful and instrumental in helping me cross the finish

line.

I would also like to specially thank my supervisor Engr. Adedayo Ojo for his immense

support and guidance every step of the way and ensuring that I produce a good job. I

would also like to appreciate the Provost and the entire staff of the college of

engineering for providing a conducive environment for us to do our work freely. I am

very grateful.

iii
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to God who has been a constant source of strength and provision

through this very tasking period.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certification ii

Acknowledgements iii

Dedication iv

List of Figures vii

List of Tables viii

List of Abbrevations ix

Abstract x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study 4

1.4 Scope of Study 4

1.5 Organization of Report 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Current Medical Imaging Techniques and Limitations 6

2.3 Microwave Breast Imaging (MBI) System 8

2.4 Challenges and Future Works 20

2.5 Conclusion 21

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 22

v
 3.1 Introduction 22

3.2 Software Tool 22

3.2.1 ANSYS HFSS 22

3.3 Microwave System 25

3.3.1 Antenna array design 25

3.3.2 Breast model design 26

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS 28

4.1 Introduction 28

4.2 Simulated Results 28

4.2.1 Return loss 29

4.2.2 Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) 29

4.2.3 Radiation pattern 30

4.2.4 Antenna gain 31

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 32

5.1 Conclusion 32

5.2 Recommendations 32

REFERENCES 33

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Pages

Figure 2.1: An overview of a flexible antenna array as a bra for breast cancer

detection modeled in HFSS 13

Figure 2.1: Elementary flexible CPW antenna (a) Front View (b) Bottom View 14

Figure 2.3(a): Microwave imaging measurement system 16

Figure 2.3(b): Microwave Sensor Array Configuration 16

Figure 2.3(c): Schematic diagram of experiment 17

Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of the wide-slot antenna 19

Figure 2.5: Designed antenna and its dimension 20

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of the steps in HFSS simulation 24

Figure 3.2: Illustration flow of Ansoft HFSS 24

Figure 3.3: Structure of the proposed antenna 25

Figure 3.4: Breast model design using HFSS 27

Figure 4.1: 3D Representation of the designed antenna 28

Figure 4.2: Return loss 29

Figure 4.3: Voltage standing wave ratio 30

Figure 4.4: Radiation pattern 30

Figure 4.5: Gain of the antenna array 31

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Physical dimensions of the elementary antenna 13

Table 3.1: Antenna parameters 25

Table 3.2: Dielectric of breast components at 2.4 GHz 27

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

HFSS: High frequency structure simulator

MBI: Microwave breast imaging

MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging

VSWR: Voltage standing wave ratio

CAD: Computer aided detection

VNA: Vector network analyzer

ix
 ABSTRACT

A microwave medical imaging system processes scattered electromagnetic waves in

the microwave region to generate images. It is an alternative imaging tool that can be

applied in biomedical applications to assist the diagnosis of diseases inside the human

body. Microwave imaging offers many desirable characteristics as a cancer assessment

tool such as non-ionizing radiation, lower cost than current methods. In this project, the

design of a breast model, and that of a circular patch antenna array resonating at 2.4

GHz for the detection of breast cancer is carried out using a High Frequency Structure

Simulator (HFSS) which was employed to design and analyze the antenna array.

Simulated results were obtained such as; the gain at 2.4 GHz is 8.1944 dB, voltage

standing wave ratio at 2.4667 GHz is observed to be 1.42, the return loss within the

bandwidth of the antenna array is -10 dB, and the radiation pattern is also presented.

The results show that the antenna provides good efficiency, satisfactory bandwidth,

lesser weight, and cost, which will in turn improve the general health care system.

x
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Breast Cancer constitutes a major public health issue globally, with over 1 million new

cases diagnosed annually; resulting in over 400,000 annual deaths and about 4.4 million

women living with the disease. According to cancer prevalence statistics in 2012, 14.1

million people were diagnosed with cancer worldwide and 8.2 million people died from

cancer. In Turkey, 97,000 men, 62,000 women and overall 159,000 people were

diagnosed with cancer every year (Turkey Public Health Agency, 2012) (Çal et al.,

2015). It also affects one in eight women during their lives. Breast cancer is a malignant

(cancerous) growth that begins in the tissues of the breast. Cancer is a disease in which

abnormal cells grow in an unrestrained way. It is the most common cancer in women,

but it can also appear in men. Breast cancer is now an epidemic, posing a serious threat

to the health of women of all races globally. In Nigeria, cervical cancer was the

commonest cause of cancer- related deaths among women for several decades, but

breast cancer is now the leading cause of cancer related deaths among Nigerian women.

This is not due to a decrease in cervical cancer but an increase in the occurrence of

breast cancer. Breast cancer is commonly seen in four stages that signifies its evolution.

In stage I, the disease is restricted entirely to the breast. The cancer usually starts as a

very tiny growth that cannot yet be felt but can be detected with imaging tests such as

X-ray mammography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). At this first stage,

treatment is usually curative and more than 95% of those so detected will survive the

disease beyond 5 years. Stage II is a cancer that has involved lymph nodes in the armpit

of the same side of the breast, while stage III disease is one that has involved the

muscles under the breast. Stages II and III therefore require a very aggressive treatment

1
using different modalities to contain the spread of the disease. It is however difficult to

cure a patient in stage IV because the disease has spread and may have involved other

organs in the body such as the lungs, liver, bones, the brain or the spine.

There are many risk factors that have been associated with breast cancer. Being a

female, the risk increases with the age of the woman; the older a woman, the increased

chances of getting breast cancer. History of breast cancer in close relatives especially

in mothers and siblings has been associated with the risks of getting breast cancer, early

onset of menstrual periods before the age of 12 years or reaching menopause after the

age of 55 years has both been associated with risks of developing breast cancer,

prolonged period of estrogen exposure in females, overweight, using hormone

replacement therapy, taking birth control pills, drinking alcohol, not having children or

having your first child after age 35 or having dense breasts. (Osaro, 2016)

Breast cancer is fast becoming one of the commonest cancer affecting women in

Nigeria. A previous report indicates that 1 in 5 (23%) case of breast mass diagnosed in

Zaria is malignant in nature (Yusufu, 2003). The overall survival rate among Nigerian

women with breast cancer is low and patients with early breast cancer tend to have

better survival than those with advanced disease. The majority of breast cancer patients

in Nigeria tend to be young pre-menopausal women with advanced breast cancer (Terfa,

2010). Most Afro-Caribbean women are not as fortunate as their counterparts in the

developed world. They are more likely to be diagnosed with advanced breast cancer

(Ghafoor, 2003). The overall survival rate is 70.4% at 36 months among African

women compared to a survival rate of 95% and above seen among women in developed

economies (Smigal, 2006). Unlike developing countries, survival rates for breast cancer

in developed countries have been improving in the last 20 years and more women are

being successfully treated than ever before (Jemal, 2004). Management of patients with

2
breast cancer is a major challenge to physicians in Nigeria and other developing

countries. There are many factors that play a role in the poor prognosis of women with

breast cancer in Nigeria; lack of advanced technology (diagnosis and monitoring), late

presentation of patients to the hospital, poor access to cancer medication and the

aggressive characteristics of breast cancers seen among Nigerian women, patronage of

traditional healers who put incisions on the breast lesion perhaps causing more

metastasis, ignorance due to lack of awareness, poor education and poverty.

(Chlebowski, 2005).

1.2 Problem Statement

The cost of Healthcare is rising but the quality and affordability is not rising at the same

time. One of such indications is the amount of people (men and women) that die due to

either improper diagnosis of this chronic disease (cancer), or due to the lack of

equipment and man power to carry out the entire process of diagnosis (because it cannot

be afforded). Cancer has become a major source of morbidity and mortality globally

(Sylla, 2011). In 2008, there were 12.7 million new cases and 7.6 million cancer related

deaths globally (Ferlay, 2010). A majority of the 56% of newly reported cancer cases

occurred in developing countries and it is projected that by 2030, 70% of all new cases

of cancer will be found in developing countries (Boyle, 2008). Breast cancer is the

number one cancer killer of Nigerian women. The steady rise in breast cancer cases in

Nigeria is an indication of inadequate or ineffective control measures to curtail the

disease or possibly due to diversion of global attention to HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis

in the country. In Nigeria, some 100,000 new cases of cancer occur every year, with

high case fatality ratio (Ferlay, 2010). These statistics are staggering and unacceptable

for the 21st century. It is therefore important for the quality of healthcare to be improved

to justify the amount being issued out by various governments to keep their populace

3
healthy. The question therefore remains pressing as to whether cheap, safe,

miniaturized and portable antenna systems can be designed of an array of patch

antennas to tackle this health menace – a question this project seeks to address.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of this project is to design, simulate and evaluate the performance of a 2.4 GHz

1x4 circular patch antenna array for the detection of breast cancer as a means of

improving healthcare.

The specific objectives of this project are to:

1. design, using transmission line feed approach, a 1x4 circular array of patch

antennas with an operating frequency of 2.4 GHz for the detection of breast cancer.

2. obtain, through simulation, the most effective and optimum antenna structure within

the range of applicable frequencies.

3. evaluate the performance of the antenna array on High Frequency Structure

Simulator (HFSS) and acquire analysis, results and graphs.

1.4 Scope of Study

The scope of this study is limited to the application of Microwave Imaging Technique

in the detection of breast cancer. This project also looks at the merits of Microwave

Imaging Technique over many other methods such as X-ray mammography, MRI

(Magnetic Resonance Imaging), Ultrasound and Tomography, as these methods have

some negative side effects especially for younger women because of their ionized

radiation. The use of Microwave Imaging Method for early diagnosis is rather

interesting and promising. This method also offers more advantages such as less cost,

more safety (non-ionized radiation) and easier availability.

4
1.5 Organization of Report

The work undertaken in this project report is organized as follows: The chapter above

(chapter 1) provides a brief summary of the project background, including the

challenges that inspired this project, and the aim and objectives of the project. The

second chapter provides a review of literatures related to the work in this project. The

fundamental principle of microwave breast imaging is described. The current imaging

techniques used for medical applications and their limitations are also discussed. The

third chapter describes in detail, the design and simulation of the most important

component in microwave imaging systems: the antenna. The main challenges facing

the design of a suitable antenna for microwave imaging systems are the requirements

for a small size, reasonable high gain and with high radiation efficiency, high dynamic

range and low profile. The fourth section (chapter 4) discusses the results obtained in

the design process of this project as well as explanation and discussion of each result

obtained. The last chapter presents a brief conclusion of the reported project and

recommends steps for future work.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature on the current imaging techniques for medical

applications and their limitations in this sector. Also, this chapter illuminates the

incentive involved in using microwave imaging as a new imaging technique. The

fundamental principles and advantages of the microwave breast imaging (MBI) system

are also described.

2.2 Current Medical Imaging Techniques and Limitations

Medical imaging refers to any process that generates images that displays the interior

part of the human body. The resultant images can be used to diagnose and treat patients

with serious medical conditions, such as breast cancer etc. There are many different

types of breast imaging techniques, such as X-ray mammography, ultrasound, magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) that are currently

used in clinics and hospitals. However, each of these modalities have their own

advantages and limitations when applied to the medical condition investigated in this

project, which is the breast cancer.

X-ray mammography is the most common modality applied by doctors for diagnosing

different kinds of diseases and injuries, and it is also used for early breast cancer

detection. It uses low energy x-rays to create images of the breast. It offers the

advantages of good sensitivity, high quality resolution and a short time required for

image creation. However, it has many drawbacks for patients with breast cancer, such

as difficulties in the detection of tumors in patients with dense breast tissues due to the

reduced contrast between normal and tumor tissues, it also results in overtreatment,

unnecessary, and sometimes invasive follow-up testing and psychological harm

6
associated with false positive test results. Furthermore, x-ray mammography requires

compression of the breast to lie as flat as possible during the examination, which causes

pain to the patient, and it also exposes the patient to ionizing radiation (Hall, 1988).

Ultrasound imaging uses non-harmful acoustic/sound waves to view the internal

structure of the human body. Its frequencies are higher than 20 kHz, they normally

operate within a frequency range of 1 MHz to 15 MHz to determine whether the area

under consideration consists of a normal or an abnormal tissue. A transducer placed on

the skin sends ultrasound pulses into the body, which are used to generate ultrasound

images. The technique is painless and very safe from radiation exposure, and is useful

as it is able to detect a simple non-cancerous cyst with high accuracy. However, this

technique is operator-dependent and false positive or false negative results are common.

Furthermore, ultrasound is mostly used as a secondary technique, after a mammogram

result shows a suspected mass.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-ionizing imaging technique used to

produce medical images of the internal body structure by applying a magnetic field with

radio waves. It has the ability to differentiate between a soft tissue from a brittle tissue.

MRI has the ability to detect small breast cancerous tissues that x-ray mammography

may not show, and it can also produce a valuable image of dense breast tissue that other

techniques do not show. Moreover, MRI is used for screening evaluation before a

surgical approach. However, MRI screening costs are high, and this make this technique

scarcely suitable as an early detection method.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is an imaging technique that observes how an

injection mixture of radioactive materials with glucose or glycoprotein is used and

synthesized in the human body. The cancer cells consume nutrients, because those grow

7
much faster than normal cells, and when cancer cells consume nutrients, positrons are

ejected. PET generates an image by detecting these positrons. Unlike X-ray, CT, and

MRI, PET can diagnose cancer in the very early stages, because PET detects the

movement of molecules in early disease cells. However, it has low resolution (Kwon

and Lee, 2016).

In summary, the major drawbacks with existing modalities involve safety, accuracy and

cost. Microwave-based imaging has the potential to provide a system with a practical

accuracy, safe and low-cost implication. The purpose of microwave breast imaging

(MBI) is that since tumors provide a large dielectric constant at microwave frequencies,

MBI could be used do differentiate between a normal tissue and a malignant tissue

(tumor), with the aid of their individual dielectric properties. This, in turn, causes a

strong back scattered signal that can be detected by the microwave imaging system.

2.3 Microwave Breast Imaging (MBI) System

The principle of operation behind microwave imaging technique is the significant

dielectric constant in the microwave frequency region between the various tissues of

the human body and the surrounds in the microwave frequency region (Mohammed,

2014). It can be an alternative imaging tool used for imaging the human body. The

recent discoveries in microwave imaging for breast cancer detection has been driven by

its improved performance and a wide availability of low-cost microwave imaging

systems. The also offer many encouraging characteristics such as a wide range of

frequencies to work with, the ability to focus energy beams and a range of simulation

options (Mohammed, 2014; Ji et al., 2017).

For several years now, there have been three approaches to microwave imaging namely,

passive, active and hybrid methods. Several researchers have investigated these

8
methods in other to acquire a suitable microwave imaging system for breast cancer. The

principle of operation of passive microwave imaging depends on measuring the

difference in temperature between the normal tissue and tumor both in the breast. In

active microwave imaging, an antenna or array of antenna is used to transmit a low-

power microwave pulse signal that penetrates the human skin to reach the tissue from

several locations or points and records the back scattered response. An appropriate

signal processing method is then employed in obtaining a 2-D or a 3-D image of the

tissue. In hybrid microwave imaging, microwave signals are used to illuminate the

breast tissues. The tumor absorbs energy and converts it to heat more than the normal

breast tissue. The tumor also has a higher conductivity compared than the normal

tissues, this results in the absorption of energy and expansion of the abnormal tissue

more than the normal tissue. This expansion creates pressure waves which are then

detected by an ultrasound transducer (Mohammed, 2014).

MBI is based on the dissimilarity of electric parameters between the tumor and the

normal breast tissue within the microwave spectrum. This method reconstructs the

image of the breast from received signals that are scattered and reflected within the

breast. With a higher frequency comes a higher resolution, and also an increase in tissue

loss. Thus making it difficult to obtain a clear image, so a limit of upper frequency of

the band is needed for acceptable penetration into the tissue.

The Specific Absorption Rate is normally used when safety standards are being set for

the maximum allowed exposure to the human body. SAR describes the amount of

power to be absorbed in the tissue per volume. Standard C95.1-1999 states that, in the

case of devices operating at 100 kHz to 6 GHz, it should not exceed 1.6 W/kg for human

tissue of average 1 g (Gandhi, 2001). When compared to a mobile phone using the same

frequency band, microwave breast cancer imaging method should be free from health

9
hazardous exposure to the patient, because of suffering less exposure than from a

mobile phone. Microwave breast cancer imaging method may detect a tumor that is

small in size and also has the advantage of low cost. In addition, it can also obtain an

image quickly compared to other imaging methods.

There are two approaches to the microwave imaging method for detecting cancerous

cells: microwave tomography and ultra-wideband (UWB) radar based imaging. Both

approaches use the scattering of microwave signals. The system transmits the

microwave signals into the breast and then measures the scattering signals reflected

from the tumor. They have also been used in several other applications such as muscle,

blood and the brain, and have achieved encouraging results.

The microwave tomography method is used in determining the dielectric profile

(conductivity and permittivity) of the breast tissues using measured data collected form

the antenna or array of antenna surrounding the breast. In this method, a forward and

reverse electromagnetic field problem is solved to detect and locate cancerous tissues

in the breast. A forward problem is solved assuming a known distribution of complex

dielectric constant values of the imaged object. The calculated values of the electrical

quantities are then compared to the measured values. This process is repeated

continuously after changing the electrical parameters to new values by a process known

as OPTIMIZATION and updating the comparison with the measured data. This process

is stopped when a certain low error between the measured and calculated parameters is

achieved (Mohammed, 2014; Baran et al., 2014).

The UWB radar technique of microwave imaging uses an antenna or antenna array to

transmit and receive a short pulse signal from different locations. The time delay

between the transmitted and scattered signals and the amplitude of the scattered signals

10
contain information about the position and size of the target. A region with increased

backscattering is known as an area with abnormal tissues or a tumor. Different imaging

algorithms have been applied by different research groups for UWB radar systems such

as microwave imaging via space-time beamforming, tissue sensing adaptive radar, and

the confocal or delay-and-sum imaging algorithm. The last approach is the most

common algorithm applied for the UWB radar technique (Baran et al., 2014;

Mohammed, 2014).

The UWB radar technique, when compared to the microwave tomography has the

ability to detect and localize the presence of the tissue with high scattered signals

instead of reconstructing the dielectric properties of the tissue as in mammography.

Therefore, this technique is considered to be less computationally complex than

microwave tomography.

In recent years, numerous experimental systems for microwave breast imaging have

been developed due to their simple structure, compact size, and ease-to-fabricate.

Among this systems, micro-strip antenna is one of the most popular type developed for

applying in microwave breast imaging because of its compact size, inexpensive and it

can be printed onto a printed circuit board. A microstrip antenna normally contains a

patch (metal foil e.g. copper) placed on the surface of the top board and a ground plane

on the bottom side of the board, and the patch is normally designed in different shapes

such as square, rectangular, circular and elliptical (Wang, 2018).

A proposed miniature microstrip UWB antenna for application in medical imaging. The

simulated results show that the antenna has a reflection coefficient of -10 dB from about

1.3 GHz to 6 GHz in HFSS software and from 2.01 GHz to 4.4 GHz in CST with all

desired UWB radiation features. It has a good stability over the entire frequency band

11
provided in the two principal planes E and H. The antenna also had a good gain suitable

for the intended application. Due to its excellent characteristics, the low cost antenna

structure might be a good choice for a microwave thermography system or microwave

radiometer for early detection of malignant breast cancer. Furthermore, these attributes

make the proposed antenna very suitable for UWB wireless systems that require low-

profile antennas (Amal et al., 2015).

Kahar et al. in 2015 proposed an UWB microstrip monopole antenna for imaging of

heterogeneous breast model. A heterogeneous breast model was developed to validate

the proposed antenna with different locations from skin and tumor. Simulation results

showed that the antenna has high gain, phase linearity, and good polarization

characteristics. High current density was observed in the most deep-seated tumor as

well as for the smallest tumor, keeping SAR values on breast tissues well within safe

limits (Kahar et al., 2015).

A flexible sixteen antenna array was used for the detection of breast cancer. A

methodology was presented for designing a wearable single and dual polarization

antennas on a flexible substrate for breast cancer detection operating over 2-4 GHz

frequency bands. This method improved on previous microwave imaging systems in

that it is highly flexible, light in weight, and cost-effective to fabricate. The simulations

were performed on a high frequency structure simulator (HFSS), exploiting a layered

(inhomogeneous) model with different dielectric constants and loss tangents to capture

the effect of surrounding tissues. The validity of the model, the antenna design

procedure and the fabricated arrays were verified by measuring on a phantom, the

representative of actual biological tissues. Figure 2.2 shows an overview of a flexible

antenna array as a bra for breast cancer detection modeled in HFSS (single arm spiral

and monopole antenna arrays) (Bahrami et al., 2015).

12
 Figure 2.2: An overview of a flexible antenna array as a bra for breast cancer

detection modeled in HFSS (single arm spiral and monopole antenna arrays)

(Bahrami et al., 2015)

A novel CPW micro-strip antenna array was successfully designed and simulated using

CST Microwave Studio and HFSS Software. The performance criteria obtained from

the software includes return loss, VSWR, radiation pattern, and surface currents provide

a clear indication that the proposed design has the required performances to be

investigated in a microwave radiometry system as well as for wearable applications,

due to its miniature size (5.3 cm x 5 cm), low profile and weight and very thin substrate.

Also the important gain (6 dBi) and the large bandwidth (480 MHz around the center

frequency of 3 GHz), provided by the developed antenna; are good features to improve

the radiometer sensitivity at very low power densities transmitted by the self-radiation

of abnormal breast tissue (Afyf et al., 2016). Table 2.1 shows the physical dimensions

of the elementary antenna, and Figure 2.3 shows Elementary flexible CPW antenna, (a)

Front view, (b) Bottom view.

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 Table 2.1: Physical dimensions of the elementary antenna

Parameters Values Parameters Values

(mm) (mm)

W 15 𝐿𝑆 9

L 20 𝑊𝑆 0.5

𝑾𝑨 14 𝐻𝑆 0.125

𝑳𝑨 12 𝑇𝑀 0.035

𝑳𝑮 5 G 0.25

𝑾𝑭 3.122 𝐿𝐹 7

Figure 2.3: Elementary flexible CPW antenna (a) Front View (b) Bottom View (Afyf

et al., 2016)

In 2016, Karli et al. developed a compact micro-strip antenna for implementation in a

UWB microwave imaging system. The design was numerically and experimentally

tested on various breast phantoms for identifying breast tumors. The experimental

results demonstrated that the proposed antenna has sufficient sensitivity and

effectiveness to detect tumors when the antenna is in contact with the breast skin. Such

14
design may enhance the accurate detection of breast tumors when it is applied in the

imaging measurement system (Karli et al., 2016).

An application of a cost-sensitive ensemble classifiers to the microwave imaging

system to identify abnormalities in the breast (Coates et al., 2017). A hemispherical

ceramic dielectric radome was designed for performing breast scans on subjects, which

houses the target breast and the 16-element microwave sensor array. A gel (such as

ultrasound gel) or liquid was filled in the space between the skin and the randome walls,

due to the fact that the radome was designed for a largest breast size. During data

collection, a Gaussian-modulated pulse wave was generated and shaped by a passive

microwave filter in the frequency range of 2~4 GHz. The transmitted and reflected

signals from the breast were measured and recorded by all microwave sensors located

in the sensor array. The total of 240 signals were recorded from 16 sensors per scan

with less than 2 minutes. The proposed cost-sensitive ensemble classification

techniques were evaluated with measurements from breast phantoms and patients using

their developed microwave screening system. Experimental results showed that the

ensemble selection-based algorithm significantly outperforms other detection

techniques for the clinical trial data set. However, only healthy patients were involved

in this study (Coates et al., 2017).

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Figure 2.4(a): Microwave imaging measurement system (Coates et al., 2017)

Figure 2.3(b): Microwave sensor array configuration (Coates et al., 2017)

16
 Figure 2.3(c): Schematic diagram of experiment (Coates et al., 2017)

Furthermore, a feasibility study of elastography based confocal microwave imaging

(CMI) technique using electromagnetic method for the detection of breast cancer which

can avoid ionization by mammography. CMI uses the contrast of electrical properties

between malignant tissue (tumor) and normal tissue to detect the presence and location

of the tumor. However, recent research results show that gland and tumor have similar

dielectric constants and electrical conductivity, so it is difficult differentiating them.

This work suggests a new method based on elastography for the identification of tumor.

The high Young’s Modulus constant of the two tissues resulted in a different level of

deformation by compression which provided sufficient features used to determine

whether the reflected signal belongs to a gland or tumor. Two dimensional finite-

difference time-domain (FDTD) algorithm was the simulation method used. The breast

model was an infinitely long 60mm diameter cylinder with 2mm thickness skin. The

simulation area is a 100x100 mm square terminated by Mur second-order absorbing

boundary condition (ABC). The antenna has a distance of 40 mm from the center of the

model, and 8mm away from the skin. The polarization in simulation is transverse

magnetic (TM), that is, the electric field is along the infinite axis. This method provided

17
a means of identifying if the scattered signal is a tumor or gland, and provides more

accurate results to the surgeons (Ji et al., 2017).

In 2017, T. Gholipur performed an immense simulation and experimental studies using

a wide-slot ultra-wideband antenna and an optimized matching liquid within the

frequency range of 2.5 GHz to 7 GHz for breast cancer detection. The slot antenna is

small with 13 mm x 14 mm x 0.625 mm dimensions so that many of them can be placed

around a breast. The simulations were carried out in CST software, the measurement

was performed with a ZVC Rhode & Schwarz VNA up to 7 GHz and the complex

permittivity of the materials were measured by the transmission line method. This work

indicates that matching the permittivity’s of the liquid and normal breast tissue does not

provide maximum scattering power from inside the breast at the receiving antenna. The

measurements as well as the simulations suggest that the optimized emulsion for the

matching liquid is the mixture of 83% sunflower oil and 17% distilled water. A phantom

was built in order to investigate the penetration of microwave signal into the breast

tissues. Results from the simulation and experimental measurement show that the

matching liquid provides, nearly, the maximum scattering power from inside the breast

tissues in intervals [2.4, 7 GHz] that is an appropriate frequency range for breast

imaging (Gholipur et al., 2017).

18
 Figure 2.5: Schematic diagram of the wide-slot antenna (Gholipur et al., 2017)

Recently, Guo et al. provided a general overview of ultrasound imaging techniques for

breast cancer detection and ultrasound-guided biopsy and fusion with modalities.

Ultrasound uses sound waves to see the internal structure of the human body with

frequencies higher than 20 kHz. For breast cancer imaging, ultrasound is applied as an

adjunct to mammography, as it is superior in flexibility. Also, breast ultrasound

provides quite useful and comprehensive information, including lymph nodes in the

axilla, between the pectoral muscles and in the subclavian region, the neck and the

medial thoracic chain. Guo et al. also suggested that it is necessary to integrate new

technologies for breast cancer diagnosis and treatment services such as computer-aided

detection (CAD). CAD makes ultrasonic quantitative analysis possible and provides a

reliable and operator-independent technique for breast ultrasound diagnosis (Guo et al.,

2018).

Also in 2018, Selvaraj et al. carried out a feasibility study of breast tumor detection

using a wideband antenna operating at a frequency of 2.4-4.7 GHz, this antenna was

fabricated and tested. A tumor size of <13 mm is detected when the phantom size is

19
130 mm, the proposed method that is used to identify the depth and location of the

tumor is with the aid of a GPR (ground penetrating radar) algorithm. The design and

simulation of the wideband antenna and the proposed breast phantom model were

developed using the Computer Simulation Technology (CST) software, and the

backscattered signal is reconstructed as an image using the MATLAB Simulation

software. The experimental results correlates with the simulated results. In the

experimental analysis, the location of the tumor is identified when the tumor is large in

size due to the low sensitivity of the antenna. In future, the same procedure is followed

for the detection of tumor in heterogeneous breast tissue (Selvaraj et al., 2018).

Figure 2.6: Designed antenna and its dimension (Selvaraj et al., 2018)

2.4 Challenges and Future Works

In recent times, microwave imaging has been considered as a preferred method to the

current X-ray mammography for breast cancer detection in its early stages. Asides

microwave imaging algorithms, microwave sensors and sensor arrays also play an

integral role in microwave imaging systems for the diagnosis of breast tumors. Some

major limitations of the microwave imaging method include low dielectric property

contrasts between the healthy and malignant tissues, working frequency selection,
20
limited image resolution, and development of a high sensitivity microwave antenna.

Past studies suggest that it is important to design an antenna with a high sensitivity and

an antenna array in order to improve the image resolution and reduce cost. However,

the increment of the array of antenna may reduce the accuracy of tumor detection due

to mutual coupling signals caused between sensors.

To curb these challenges, researchers recommend that more investigations should be

provided on the development of a high dynamic measurement system with emphasis to

high sensitivity, low cost and compact microwave antenna arrays to achieve high

quality images.

2.5 Conclusion

Currently, there are several types of imaging techniques and processes that are capable

of capturing the internal structure of the human body such as x-ray, MRI scanning and

ultrasound. However, each of these techniques has its own limitation such as being

expensive, immobile, time-consuming and exposure to ionizing radiation. In recent

years, research groups have started to work on the development of promising

microwave imaging techniques that are portable, less expensive, safer and more

comfortable for the detection of breast cancer.

21
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes in detail, the design and simulation of the most important

component in microwave imaging systems: the antenna. The main challenges facing

the design of a suitable antenna for microwave imaging systems are the requirements

for a small size, reasonable high gain and with high radiation efficiency, high dynamic

range and low profile. Several types of antenna were reviewed in the literature by

researchers seeking the best performance, moderate directivity, compact size, low

profile and low-cost antenna (Mohammed, 2014).

3.2 Software Tool

Preliminary procedures in the literature are used as a first step in designing the antennas

for the microwave imaging system. A model is then developed based on the design

principles. A modelling software that has the ability to analyze the electromagnetic

properties is used for this function. The electromagnetic full-wave simulator used to

carry out the design in this project is the high frequency structure simulator (HFSS).

The following sub-section briefly discuss the design tool and its application.

3.2.1 ANSYS HFSS

The ANSYS HFSS is an interactive software package that is used to simulate 3-D full

wave electromagnetic fields. “HFSS offers multiple state-of-the-art solver technologies

based on finite element, integral equation or advanced hybrid methods to solve a wide

range of applications. Each HFSS solver incorporates a powerful, automated solution

process, needing only to consider the specific geometry, material properties and the

desired output type. Therefore, HFSS can automatically generate an appropriate,

efficient and accurate mesh to solve the problem using the selected solution technology.

22
The ANSYS HFSS includes two modes of operation: 3-D interface and HFSS for

ECAD. The first mode of operation enables users to model complex 3-D geometry or

import CAD geometry. Typically, this mode is used to model and simulate high-

frequency components, such as antennas, radio frequency/microwave components and

biomedical devices. Engineers can extract scattering matrix parameters (X, Y, Z

parameters), visualize 3-D electromagnetic fields (near field and far field), and generate

ANSYS full-wave SPICE models that link to circuit simulations.

Another mode of operation of HFSS is ideal for designers who work in layered

geometry or the layout of high-speed components, interconnects. Beyond the

convenient electrical layout environment, HFSS includes a fast 2.5-D planar

electromagnetic solver based on the method of moments. This provides the flexibility

to use a fast solver optimized for planar structures in the initial design phase, and then

turn to the reliable 3-D accuracy of the HFSS finite elements for optimization and

design verification. Signal integrity engineers use HFSS for ECAD to integrate

established EDA design flows and evaluate signal and power quality, including

transmission path losses, reflection loss from impedance mismatches, parasitic

coupling, ground bounce and radiation” (Mohammed, 2014).

There are three (3) available types of solutions HFSS needs to calculate. They are driven

modal, driven terminal and eigen-mode. Also, there are six (6) general steps in creating

and solving a proper HFSS simulation, which are; create model/geometry – parametric

model generation, assign boundaries/excitations, setup the solution – defining solution

setup and frequency sweeps, solve – the solution process is fully automated, and post-

process the results – creating 2D reports and field plots.

23
 Apply
Generate 3D
boundaries/exc Solution setup Solve Post process
structure
itations

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the steps in HFSS simulation

To fully understand hoe the steps or process shown in the block diagram above co-exist,

a detailed illustration is shown below:

Design

Solution Type

1.1 Boundaries

1. Parametric model
Geometry/Materials
4.1 Mesh
1.2 Excitations
Operations

2. Analysis
Solution Setup
Frequency Sweep
Mesh
Analyze Solve
Refinement

3. Results
2D Reports
Fields NO
Converged

4. SOLVE LOOP YES

Update Finished

Figure 3.2: Illustration flow of Ansoft HFSS

24
3.3 Microwave System

The microwave system mainly comprises of the antenna array design and the design of

the breast model wherein these two fundamental designs forms the basis of the

microwave system. They are discussed in sub-sections below.

3.3.1 Antenna Array Design

The antenna is a fundamental element in the microwave imaging system. To accurately

detect a malignant tissue, a modified antenna is required. The antenna array design

process starts with a circular inset-fed micro-strip patch antenna resonating at 2.4 GHz.

All the patches are connected to 100 Ω line each, with the equivalent junction of each

pair being 50 Ω. All elements (patch) are spaced 62.5 mm apart. As shown in the figure

below, a quarter wave transformer is placed between a 50 Ω equivalent point and 100

Ω line whose resultant impedance is calculated as:

𝑍 = √𝑍𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 (3.1)

Figure 3.3: Structure of the proposed antenna

The table below shows the materials, properties, components and dimensions used in

the design of the antenna:

25
Table 3.1: Antenna parameters

MATERIAL PROPERTIES COMPONE- DIMENSI-

NT ON (mm)
Relative Relative Bulk Mass
Permittivit Permeabilit Conductivit Density
y y y

X= -67.075
FR4_epoxy 4.4 1 0 1900 Substrate Y= -240.7
Z= 1.6
X= -129.575
Vacuum 1 1 0 0 Radiation Box Y= -303.2
Z= -64.1
X - Axis
1 0.999991 58000000si 8933 Source Y= -3
emens/m Z= -1.6

Copper Sheets 1 0.999991 58000000si 8933 Patch Radius = 17

emens/m
Z - Axis
1 0.999991 58000000si 8933 Ground X= -67.075
emens/m Y= -240.7

3.3.2 Breast Model Design

Over the years, different breast designs gave been used by researchers (Bahrami et al.,

2015; Kahar et al., 2015). All these models are characterized by essential dielectric

properties which are the relative conductivity and permittivity. Further research has

proven that there is an important difference between the dielectric properties of a

healthy breast tissue and that of a malignant breast tissue (tumor), especially in the

microwave frequency. However, in this project a semi-spherical shape was adopted to

design the breast model composed of a nipple, gland, skin, fatty tissue, and tumor. The

figure below shows a well labelled design of the breast model, and the table shows the

breast model parameters.

26
 Nipple
Skin

Glands
Tumor

Fatty
Tissue

Figure 3.4: Breast model design using HFSS

The table below shows the parameters and dimensions used in implementing the design

of the breast model.

Table 3.2: Dielectric of breast components at 2.4 GHz

Breast Conductivity(S/m) Permittivity

Components

Skin 0.4 4

Fatty Tissue 0.8825 2.5

Tumor 0.8985 4

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction

This system was designed and simulated on HFSS. The merits of applying microwave

system in the detection of breast cancer has been well demonstrated in this project. This

chapter discusses the results obtained in the design process of this project as well as

explanation and discussion of each result obtained. The figure below shows a 3D

representation of the designed antenna array.

Figure 4.1: 3D Representation of the designed antenna

4.2 Simulated Results

Here, the simulated results of the antenna will be discussed, wherein the Return Loss,

Radiation Pattern, Gain, and VSWR will be explained. The results are obtained from

HFSS simulator after validation check of all the design setup, excitations, boundaries

and all required parameters.

28
4.2.1 Return Loss

The simulated scattering parameter as shown in figure 4.2 below. The 𝑆11 parameter

(return loss) for the proposed antenna resonates at 2.46 GHz having a value of -15.09

dB, the bandwidth of the antenna can be said to be those range of frequencies over

which the return loss is greater than -10 dB (which corresponds to a VSWR of 2).

Figure 4.2: Return loss

4.2.2 Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)

The simulated results of VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) for the circular antenna

array is shown in figure 4.3 below. This depicts good impedance matching between the

antenna and the feed line. The range of values for VSWR is from 1 to infinity. A VSWR

value under 2 is considered suitable for most antenna applications. As observed in the

graph below, the deep of the minimum VSWR obtained at 1.42 is below 2.

29
 Figure 4.3: Voltage standing wave ratio
4.2.3 Radiation pattern

The radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of the radiated field at a

constant distance. The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also

describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is three-

dimensional, but usually the measured radiation patterns are a two dimensional slice of

the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or vertical planes. These pattern

measurements are presented in either a rectangular or a polar format (Kaushal et al.,

2014). The radiation pattern of the simulated antenna is represented in figure 4.4 below.

Figure 4.4: Radiation pattern

30
4.2.4 Antenna gain

The gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio between the maximum radiation intensity

in a given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna in the

same direction, the achieved gain of the micro strip patch antenna is 8.1944 dB for 2.4

GHz. The antenna gain is shown in figure 4.5 below.

Figure 4.5: Gain of the antenna array

31
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Over the years, there has been a huge interest among researchers in employing

microwave imaging techniques in as an alternative tool used in producing images of

the internal part of the human body (diagnosis) for biomedical applications, such as the

detection of breast cancer. Detection techniques based on microwave imaging offers

several advantages such as low cost, high portability, safety due to their non-ionizing

radiation compared to the currently available imaging techniques such as x-ray

mammography. Recent research on this topic suggest that microwave imaging

technique will become a successful alternative imaging tool for biomedical

applications.

In this project, an assessment of microwave imaging systems for breast cancer detection

was presented. Also, a breast model, and a 1x4 circular microstrip antenna array were

designed and simulated on HFSS, with the simulated results discussed in the Chapter

four of this report.

5.2 Recommendations

In light of this project, it is recommended that researchers come up with more complex

designs of antennas by employing via and slots as the performance of the antenna

depends on these factors. Also, the effects of other structures and properties and

different substrate materials on the performance of the antenna can be investigated.

32
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