Chapter (10):

CURRENT AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

• Most applications of electricity and magnetism involve moving charges or electric

current in conductors.
• When an electric current flows through substances, it can produce three main effects.

10.1 Current and Effects of Current

• There is a potential difference between two charged plates.
• If the two plates are joined by a wire the electrons will flow from a plate of lower
potential to that of higher potential through the wire.

What is an Electric Current?

The flow of electrons from a place of lower potential
to a place of higher potential is called an electric
current.
• In general, an electric current is a flow of
electric charge from one place to another.
• The electrons will flow until the potential
difference between the plates become zero.
• Conductors contain a large number of free
electrons.
• If the potential difference is established between the two ends of a conductor, electrons
will flow from the end of lower potential to that of higher potential.
• The electrons flow as the electric field in the conductor exerts a force (F = qE) upon
them.
• The electrons keep flowing as long as there is a potential difference between two points.
• As the potentials of the plates become equal in a very short time the flow of the electrons
through the wire is momentary.

Define Electric Current.

The amount of charge passing through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in one second is
called an electric current.
𝑄
𝐼= 𝑡

where I = electric current

Q = electric charge
t = time taken

• Electric current is a scalar quantity.

• In the SI system, the unit of Q is coulomb (C) and the unit of t is second (s). Therefore,
the unit of I is coulomb per second (C s-1).
• 1 C s-1 is called 1 ampere (A) in honour of the French physicist, Andre Ampere.

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1 ampere
If the amount of charge 1 C passes through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in 1 s, the
current is 1 A.

ampere
The unit used to measure electric current.
• Sub-multiple units of ampere are milliampere (mA) and microampere (A).
• 1 milliampere (mA) = 10-3 A
• 1 microampere (A) = 10-6 A

The direction of current

The direction of current is conventionally defined as the direction of the flow of positive
charges.
• The electrons flow from the point of lower potential to the point of higher potential.
• The direction of current is opposite to that of the flow of negative charges (electrons).
• The direction of current is just a generally accepted convention.
• Even though we speak of the direction of current, electric current is a scalar quantity.

Electron current
The actual current in a circuit, it is a flow of electrons from a position of low potential to one
of high potential.

Conventional current
A flow of positive charges in a circuit from a position of high potential to one of low potential.

Three Effects of current

When an electric current is passed through substances it can produce three main effects. They
are heating effect, chemical effect and magnetic effect.
Heating Effect:
A small bulb glows when a battery is connected
to it. As an electric current flows through a
tungsten wire in the bulb the wire becomes hot
and emits light. Thus, a metal conductor produces
heat energy when a current passes through it.
Practical application of the heating effect of
current is utilized in electrical application such as
electric stove, electric iron and immersion heater.
Chemical effect: Heating effect of current
When a current is passed through copper sulphate
solution with copper plates A and C dipping into
it, some copper is seen deposited on the plate C
(negative plate) after some time. Electric current
produces chemical effect. The chemical effect of
current is used in charging batteries, purifying
metals, electro-plating and in the manufacture of (a) (b)
aluminium by chemical methods. Chemical effect of current

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The Magnetic Effect
When a current flows through a coil of insulated wire iron core
which is wound round a bar of soft iron, the bar
becomes a magnet and attracts steel pins. The electric
current produces magnetic effect. The magnetic effect
of current is used in electromagnets. Electromagnets
are used in electrical devices such as electric bell,
telephone and electric motor.
(a) (b)
Magnetic effect of current
10.2 Ohm’s Law and Electrical Resistance
• When there is a potential difference between the two ends of a conductor, a current
flows through it.
• In 1826, the German physicist George Simon Ohm carried out experiments with
different resistant wires to discover how the current through each depended on the
potential difference applied across its ends.
• Ohm got a law which gave the relation between the potential difference between the
two ends of a conductor and the current flowing through it.

Ohm’s Law
If a conductor is kept at a constant temperature, the current flowing through it is directly
proportional to the potential difference between its ends.
In symbols,
IV
1
𝐼= 𝑅 𝑉

V=IR

where V = potential difference, I = electric current, R = electrical resistance

p.d (V) current (A)

0 0
1 0.2
2 0.4
3 0.6
4 0.8
5 1.0 Electric circuit to measure current and
voltage
Relationship between potential difference and current

Resistance of a Conductor using Ohm’s law

At a given temperature, the resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential
difference between its ends to the current flowing through it.
𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼

where R = resistance
V = potential difference
I = current

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Resistance
A property of materials which resist the flow of electric current through them to some greater
or lesser degree.
• The SI unit of resistance is ohm().

ohm
The unit of electrical resistance. 1 ohm is the resistance of a sample of conducting material
across which a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow.

• At a given temperature the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length

and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
𝑙
R A
𝑙
R = ρA
where R = resistance of the conductor
l = length of the conductor
A= cross sectional area of the conductor
 = resistivity of the conductor

Resistivity of a conductor
The resistivity of the conductor is defined as the resistance of a conductor having one unit
cross-sectional area and one unit length.
𝐴
ρ=R
𝑙
where  = resistivity of the conductor
R = resistance of the conductor
l = length of the conductor
A= cross-sectional area of the conductor

• The unit of resistivity is ohm metre ( m).

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

• The resistance of a conductor increases with increasing temperature.
• The resistances of carbon (a non-metal), semiconductors such as silicon and
germanium, and electrolytes decrease with increasing temperature.
• Resistances of most conductors are found to increase with increasing temperature.

Rt = R0 (1+  t)
where Rt = resistance at t C, R0 = resistance at 0 C
 = temperature coefficient of resistance
t = temperature of the conductor
• The unit of  is per C (C-1).
• If the length or the cross-sectional area of a substance changes, its resistance will also
change. But its resistivity remains the same. A particular substance has only a single
value of resistivity. Thus, resistivity is more fundamental than resistance.
• As the resistivity varies slightly with temperature it can be taken as a constant.
• Resistance of a conductor depends on length, cross-sectional area, the resistivity of the
conductor and the temperature of the conductor.

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Resistor
A resistor is a circuit component which is made from a substance having resistance.
• Radio and television receivers contain a large number of resistors.
• Resistors have resistances of anything from a few ohms to millions of ohms.
• Resistors are supplied with leads (wire ends) for convenience in connection.
• There are two types of resistors, fixed resistors and variable resistors.
• A rheostat is a variable resistor.

Fixed resistor variable resistor

10.3 Resistors in Series

The resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series.
Since the resistors are connected in series, the same
current (I) flows through each resistor.

By Ohm’s law, V1 = I R1, V2 = I R2, V3 = I R3

If the equivalent resistance of R1, R2 and R3 connected in
series is R,
V=IR Resistors in series

V = V1 + V2+ V3
I R = I R1 + I R 2 + I R 3
R = R1 + R2 + R3

If n resistors of resistances R1, R2, R3,…, Rn are connected in series and the equivalent
resistance is R, then R = R1 + R2 + R3+ … + Rn

The equivalent resistance of the resistors in series is equal to the sum of the resistances of the
individual resistors.

10.4 Resistors in Parallel

The resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel.
Since the resistors are connected in parallel,
the same potential appears across each resistor.
Let I1 = current flowing through the resistor R1
I2 = current flowing through the resistor R2
I3 = current flowing through the resistor R3.
By Ohm’s law,
the potential difference across the resistor R1, V = I1R1, and I1 = V/R1
the potential difference across the resistor R2, V = I2R2, and I2 = V/R2
the potential difference across the resistor R3, V = I3R3, and I3 = V/R3
If the equivalent resistance of R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel is R, then V = IR or I = V/R
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

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 • If n resistors of resistances R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn are connected in parallel and the
1 1 1 1 1
equivalent resistance is R, then 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ + 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛
• The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

10.5 Electromotive Force and Electric Circuits

• When a potential difference is set up between the two ends of a conductor, a current
flows through it.
• A steady current will flow through the conductor if a steady potential difference is
maintained between its ends.
• The steady potential difference can always be maintained between the ends of the
conductor by using batteries and generators.
• Batteries and generators are called the sources of electromotive force.
• The sources of electromotive force convert energy from some other form into electrical
form.
• Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy in a battery.
• In generators, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
• A source of electromotive force has positive and negative terminals.
• The main function of the source is to send the positive charges from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal within the source (or) to send the negative charges
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal within the source. In doing so work
has to be done by the source.

Symbols for a battery

Electromotive Force
The electromotive force of a source before its terminals are connected to an external circuit is
the work done in moving a unit positive charge from its negative terminal to the positive one.

The electromotive force of a source connected to an external circuit is the work done in moving
a unit positive charge round the complete circuit.

Unit of Electromotive Force

If 1 joule (1 J) of work is done in moving a unit positive charge from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal of a source, then the electromotive force of that source is 1 volt (1 V).

• Generally, a source of electromotive force has an internal resistance.

• The internal resistance ‘r’ is connected in series to the battery.
• Internal resistance of the battery is in series with the external resistance.
• The work done in moving a unit positive charge from one end to another of the resistor
‘R’ is ‘IR’.
• The work done in moving a unit positive charge from one end to another of the internal
resistance ‘r’ of the battery is ‘Ir’.
• The work done in moving a unit positive charge round the complete circuit is
‘E = IR + Ir’.

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The circuit equation
E
I=
R+r

• Circuit equation can be rewritten as IR = E – Ir.

• The potential difference between the two terminals of the battery when it is connected
to an external circuit of resistance R is V = IR
• The potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of a battery when
it is connected to an external circuit is V = E – Ir = IR.
• When a battery having an internal resistance is part of a complete circuit the potential
difference between the terminals of the battery is always less than its emf.

Available Voltage
The potential difference across the terminals of a battery connected to an external circuit is
called the available voltage of that battery.
• Charging a battery means supplying it with electrical energy from some external source.
• Chemical energy of the battery which has been used up is supplied back by external
electrical energy in charging.
• In charging a battery, the external electrical energy required for unit positive charge is
equal to the emf E of the battery plus the energy per unit positive charge dissipated in
the battery as heat, which is Ir.
• In charging a battery, the potential difference between the terminals must be E + Ir.

Ammeter
An ammeter is a device which is used to measure the
electric current.
• Milliammeters and microammeters are used to
measure very small currents.
• The ammeter must be in series with the load.
Connection of ammeter in a circuit

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a device which is used to measure the
potential difference.
• Millivoltmeters and microvoltmeters are used
to measure very small voltages.
• The voltmeter must be in parallel with the load.
Connection of voltmeter in a circuit

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10.6 Batteries in Series and Parallel
Batteries in Series
When two or more sources of emf are connected in series, the resultant emf is the algebraic
sum of the individual emfs.

(a) series aiding (b) series opposing

Series Aiding
When two batteries are connected in series and the currents leaving
the batteries are in the same direction, such a connection is called
series aiding.

Resultant emf = E1 + E2
Total internal resistance = r1 + r2

𝐸1 + 𝐸2
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Series Opposing
When two batteries are connected in series and the currents leaving
the batteries are in the opposite directions, such a connection is called
series opposing.

Resultant emf = E1 - E2 (if E1 > E2)

Total internal resistance = r1 + r2

𝐸1 − 𝐸2
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Batteries in Parallel

Resultant emf = E
𝑟
Total internal resistance = 2

𝐸
𝐼= 𝑟
𝑅+2

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Exercises
1. (a) What is an electric current ?
(b) How is an electric current defined?
(c) Is an electric current a scalar quantity or a vector quantity?
(d) Write down the unit of electric current.

2. A charge of 6 C passes through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in 2s.

(a) Find the current flowing through the conductor.
(b) How many electrons will pass through that area in 1s?

3. A current of 4 A flows through a conductor of resistance 20  for 5 min.

(a) How much charge will pass through a cross-sectional area of the conductor?
(b) How many electrons will pass through that area?

4. (a) State Ohm’s law.

(b) Using Ohm’s law define the resistance of a conductor.
(c) When the parallel combination of two resistors having different resistances is
connected to a battery, which resistor will draw a grater current?

5. Choose the correct answer from the following.

An electric iron draws a current of 15 A when connected to a 120 V power source. Its
resistance is (a) 0.125  (b) 8  (c) 16  (d) 1800 .

6. A current of 2 A flows through a conductor when the potential difference between its
ends is 12 V. If the potential difference is reduced to 3 V, how much does the value of
current drop?

7. (a) What is “resistivity” of a conductor? Write down the unit of resistivity.

(b) Which is more fundamental, the resistance or the resistivity? Explain.

8. When the length of a wire is doubled and its diameter is halved will the resistance of
the wire be the same as before?

9. Choose the correct answer from the following.

A certain piece of copper is to be shaped into a conductor of minimum resistance. Its
length and cross-sectional area should be (a) l and A. (b) 2land A/2. (c) l/2 and 2 A.
(d) can assume any value so long as the volume of copper remains the same.

10. A rectangular silver slab has dimensional 1 cm×1 cm×100 cm. What is the resistance
between its two square surfaces? The resistivity of silver is 1.62×10-8 m.

11. A tungsten wire has a length of 100 m, a diameter of 2 mm and a resistivity of

4.8×10-8 m. Find its resistance.

12. A copper wire and a silver wire have the same length and the same potential
difference across their ends. If the currents through the wires are the same, find the
ratio of the radii of the wires. The resistivity of copper is 1.72×10-8 m and that of
silver is 1.62×10-8 m.

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13. A wire of length 100 m is made of silver of resistivity1.62×10-8 m, and has a radius of
1 mm.
(a) Find the resistance of the wire.
(b) A second wire is made from the same mass of silver but has double the radius.
Find its resistance.

14. A wire of 10  is stretched to double its original length. If the resistivity and density of
the wire do not change, find its resistance after stretching.

15. (a) A silver wire 2 m long is to have a resistance of 0.5 .

What should its diameter be? The resistivity of silver is 1.62×10-8 m.
(b) A 2  resistor is to be made from 100 cm3 of copper, of resistivity 1.7×10-8 m.
If the copper is drawn into a wire of circular cross-section, what is its diameter?

16. If a copper wire and an iron wire have the same volume and same resistance, compare
their lengths. Assume that the resistivity of iron is four times that of copper.

17. (a) Draw diagrams to show that resistances of 20  and 12.5 can be obtained by
using one 10  resistor and two 5  resistors.
(b) What resistances can be obtained by using three 1  resistors?

18. Which of the following resistances can be obtained by connecting a 6  resistor with
a 12  resistor? Explain.
(a) 0.25  (b) 0.50  (c) 2.0  (d) 4.0  (e) 9.0 .

19. Find the equivalent resistance when three 6  resistors are connected
(a) in series and (b) in parallel
(c) Find the equivalent resistance when two resistors in parallel are connected to
the remaining resistor in series.

20. What are the maximum and minimum resistances that can be obtained by combinations
of three resistors with resistances of 0.5 , 1  and 1.5 ?

21. (a) What is the difference between the e.m.f. of a battery and the potential
difference across its terminals?
The emf of a battery connected to an external circuit is the work done in
moving a unit positive charge around the complete circuit.
The potential difference across the terminals is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from its positive terminal to the negative terminal through the
external circuit.

(b) Under what condition are they the same?

They are the same when the battery has no internal resistance or when it is not
connected to an external circuit.

22. When a battery is connected to a 2  resistor it drives a current of 0.6 A through the
resistor. When it is connected to a 7  resistor it drives a current of 0.2 A through the
resistor. Find the e.m.f. and the internal resistance of the battery.

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23. A cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and an internal resistance of 1  and is connected to 2 
and 3  resistors in series. Find the current in the electric circuit and the potential
difference across the ends of each resistor.

24. Find the current flowing through each resistor and the potential difference across the
1  resistor in the circuit diagram given below.

R 1
=6
R 2
=4
R 3
=1
E = 12 V
r = 0.6 

25. When a platinum resistance thermometer is placed in a mixture of ice and water at
0°C its resistance is 10 . When it is placed in a furnace of unknown temperature its
resistance is 100 . If the temperature coefficient of platinum is 0.0036°C-1, find the
temperature of the furnace.

26. If the ratio of the resistances of a tungsten wire at 100°C and 150°C is 6/7 what is the
temperature coefficient of the wire?

27. A battery has an e.m.f. of 6 V and an internal resistance of 0.5 . How many batteries
are necessary to pass a current of 1 A through a 22  resistor in an electric circuit?

28. Two batteries each having an e.m.f. of 6 V and an internal resistance of 2  are
connected : (a) in series and (b) in parallel. Find the current in each case when the
batteries are connected to a 1  resistor.

29. When two 6 V batteries, having the same internal resistance and connected in series,
are connected to a 5  resistor, the current in the circuit is 2 A. When these batteries
are in parallel, a current of 1.5 A flows through when connected to another resistor.
Find the resistance of the resistor.

30. When a 12 V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected to a resistor, a current

of 3 A flows through it. When another battery of e.m.f. 6 V is in the circuit in series
with the first one, the current flowing through the resistor remains at 3 A. Find the
internal resistance of the second battery.

31. A resistor is in series with an ammeter in an electric circuit. The reading on the
ammeter is 0.1 A when the potential difference across the resistor is 3.5 V. A second
resistor is joined in parallel with the first, the current rising to 0.2 A and the potential
difference dropping to 3.15 V. What are the resistances of the resistors?

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32. In the electric circuit shown below, find the reading of the ammeter A when the
switch is : (a) open (b) closed. (Neglect the internal resistance of the battery.)

33. Find the readings of the ammeter A in the electric circuits shown below.

34. In the circuit shown below, find the reading of the ammeter A, when all the resistors
have the same resistance R.

35. In the circuit shown below, find the readings of the ammeters A2 and A4.
Which resistor has greater resistance?

36. In the circuit shown below, find the readings of the ammeters A1 and A5.

37. In the circuit shown below, find the readings of the voltmeters V1 and V2.

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38. In the circuit given below, find the readings of the voltmeter V1 and the ammeter A2
and the values of the resistors R1 and R2.

39. The circuit given below contains three ammeters A1, A2 and A3 and three variable
resistors R1, R2 and R3. The value of which resistor must be increased in order to
increase the reading of the ammeter A2. Explain.



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