123 Bfae

Navigation and Avionics

Broadening of Fundamentals in Aerospace Science and Technology
Altimetry, Anemometry and Flight Control Systems
Carlos Aizcorbe
Raschiq Moschtaq
Martí Subirats Chalaux
Content
1. Altimetry
2. Anemometry
3. Flight Control Systems
2
Altimetry
Fundamentals
• It is an area of study which involves the methods and technologies to
determine the altitude of a specific object
3
Altimetry
Fundamentals
• Altitude: The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object
considered as a point, measured from mean sea level (ICAO)
• Indicated Altitude: Is the altitude read it in the altimeter, established

by the local barometric pressure at sea level
• Absolute Altitude: It is the altitude measured from the portion of

ground directly located below the airplane’s position
• True Altitude: It is the height above the sea level
• Pressure Altitude: Altitude determined by the atmospheric pressure

at the International Standard Atmosphere conditions
4
Altimetry
Fundamentals
5
Altimetry
Altimeters – GPS
• Similar to the 2D position obtained by GPS, it is also possible to obtain
the 3D location. Instead of using the information provided by 3
satellites, in this case the information retrieved from 4 satellites is been
used. This information consists of the time that a pulse signal sent by
the satellite takes to reach the A/C position.
6
Altimetry
Altimeters – Radio/Radar
• It is a system used for accurately measuring and displaying the height
above the terrain directly beneath the aircraft. It sends a signal to the
ground and processes the timed information. Its primary application is
to provide accurate absolute altitude during approach and landing.
7
Altimetry
Altimeters – Inertial Guidance

• This system uses accelerometers sensors, which once are fixed on a
body, provide the corresponding acceleration of this body on its 3 axis x
y & z. From physics laws we know that knowing acceleration we can
integrate with respect to time to obtain the velocity and then integrate
once again to obtain the distance. The advantage of the Inertial
Navigation System is that it doesn't depend on external sources. In fact,
it can be used in areas without atmosphere (e.g. space)
8
Altimetry
Altimeters – Barometric
• This kind of altimeter consists of a sensitive barometer that measures
the air pressure at the corresponding A/C altitude. Knowing the
relationship between the air parameters as density, temperature and
pressure we can determine the altitude of the A/C.
• Integrating the equation below and solving for z, we get
#(') '
𝑑𝑃 𝑔+ 𝑑𝑧
" = "
#$ 𝑃 + 𝑅 𝑇𝑜 + ∇𝑇𝑧
;∇<
8 =
𝑇+ 𝑃2345673
𝑧= −1
∇𝑇 𝑃534893:39
• Where ∇T is the thermal gradient which is negative because the
temperature descends as altitude increases
9
Altimetry
Altimeters – Barometric - Example
• Evaluate the accuracy of the former equation considering the value for
h = 10 km
10
Altimetry
• first obtain the thermal gradient by the table as below

𝑇+ − 𝑇@+A2 15℃ − (−49.9℃) 8K
℃
∇𝑇 = = = 6.49𝑥10
𝑧+ − 𝑧@+A2 0𝑚 − 10.000𝑚 𝑚
• Then substitute the other variables with the information of the table
OPQ(8R.ST@+UV )
8
288.15 2.65 W.P@
𝑧= −1
−6.5𝑥108K 10.13
𝑧 = 9.978𝑚
11
Altimetry
• Plot altitude-pressure with Matlab
12
Altimetry
Altimeters – Types of Calibrations

• Air Traffic works with codes for different reference levels
• QFE: Reference level is terrain. Measurement provides absolute

altitude. Altimeter subscale setting to indicate height above aerodrome
elevation
• QNE: Altimeter subscale sets 101325 pascals as the standard

atmospheric pressure and in that way, provides the same reference
level to all A/C for navigation reasons
• QNH: Altimeter subscale setting to indicate altitude by atmospheric

pressure adjusted to real sea level pressure.
13
Altimetry
Altimeters – Types of Calibrations
14
Altimetry
Altimeters – Transition Altitude & Level

• Transition altitude. Is the altitude after take-off in which the aircraft
switch the local references to the standard 1013hPa (QNE).
• Transition layer. The airspace between the transition altitude and the
transition level.
• Transition level. The lowest flight level available for use the standard
1013hPa as a reference (QNE).
15
Content
1. Altimetry
2. Anemometry
16
Anemometry
Anemometry
• Greek "anemos" = wind
• Concludes the principle of measuring the airspeed of an aircraft
• Measuring method in aircraft: Pitot-Static-System
17
Anemometry
Pitot-Static-Tube
Pitot Tube Static Port
• obtains ram air pressure • obtains static pressure
• fulfills conditions of stagnation • ideal conditions:
point: atmospheric pressure =
V = 0 m/s static pressure
à ram air pressure =
total air pressure
18
Anemometry
Pitot-Static-Tube
A combination of a Pitot tube and a static port
19
Anemometry
Pitot-Static-Tube
• aim: unpertubated flow • aim: sense atmospheric pressure
• located „far“ from aircraft skin • inlet-wholes buried inside aircraft
• mostly on nose or wing structure
• redundancy: more than one tube • redundancy: several ports on
aircraft surface
• localization based on costly
aerodynamical tests
20
Anemometry
Pitot-Static-Tube
Location of a Pitot Location of

tube on the wing of Static ports in
a small aircraft nose area
Location of Pitot
tubes on the Location of Static ports
nose of a B777 on fuselage of a B787
21
Anemometry
Air Data Computer (ADC)

• An ADC is a avionics component that assimilates the inputs from an
aircraft‘s external and system sensors and returns a series of
calculated results critical to the control of the aircraft
• The computer uses all these inputs to extrapolate a series of real time
results which are then displayed on one or more display units (DUs) in
the cockpit.
• Flight envelope and environmental information typically includes true
and indicated airspeeds, ground speed, altitude, rate of climb, total and
static air temperatures, and density altitude variables among others
22
Anemometry
Air Data Computer (ADC)
Input Data: Output Data:

Pitot-Static-System Flight Data
pressure, density, airspeed, altitude,

temperature etc. elevation etc.
23
Anemometry
Bernoulli‘s Equation
(1)
(2)
24
Anemometry
25
Anemometry
1 O
𝜚𝑣 + 𝜚𝑔𝑧 + 𝑝5 = 𝑝\ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (1)
2
1 O
𝜚𝑣 + 𝑝5 = 𝑞 + 𝑝5 = 𝑝\ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (2)
2
2 𝑝\ − 𝑝5 (3)
𝑣=
𝜚
26
Anemometry
(1)
(2)
(3)
However, in commercial aviation: 𝑀c76d53 ≅ 0.8

--> need for additional terms considering 𝜚(𝑝 ℎ )
10
Anemometry
Velocity Definitions
• TAS = True Airspeed
• IAS = Indicated Airspeed
• CAS = Calibrated Airspeed
• EAS = Equivalent Airspeed
• GS = Ground Speed
28
Anemometry
– true velocity with respect to the airflow
– specifically important for cruise performance
– basis for navigation
29
Anemometry
Subsonic 2(𝑝\ − 𝑝5 )
incompressible 𝑇𝐴𝑆 = (4)
𝜚i
Subsonic O
compressible 𝑝\ − 𝑝5 Q
(5)
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎 5 +1 −1
𝑝5
Supersonic O
5𝑇 𝑝\ − 𝑝5 Q
𝑇𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎k +1 −1 (6)
𝑇+ 𝑝5
whereby,
𝑚
𝑎k : 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (340.29 )
𝑠
𝑇k : 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (288.15 𝐾)
30
Anemometry
– indicated on the Airspeed Indicator (ASI) in cockpit (only small aircraft)
– referring to the density on sea level 𝜚{|
– varies significantly from true airspeed (𝜚i ≠ 𝜚{| )
– flight manuals/operations based on IAS, as aircraft structure reacts to
dynamic pressure
31
Anemometry
incompressible 𝐼𝐴𝑆 = (7)
𝜚{|
Subsonic O
𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎+ 5 +1 −1 (8)
𝑝{|
32
Anemometry
– IAS corrected for position and instrument errors*
– correction tables for specific A/C type
– actual indicated airspeed in aircraft with ADC
*errors:
- position of Static ports, so that 𝑝5 ≠ 𝑝•
- ram air in Pitot tube disrupted
- instruments: measurement tolerance
33
Anemometry
incompressible 𝐶𝐴𝑆 = (9)
𝜚{|
Subsonic O
𝐶𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎+ 5 +1 −1 (10)
𝑝{|
@
Supersonic O O.S Q
O
𝑝\ − 𝑝5 Q 𝐶𝐴𝑆
𝑝{| + 1 × 7 𝑎+ −1
(11)
𝐶𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎+
6O.S ×6K.S
34
Anemometry
– CAS corrected for the compressibility of the air at stagnation point in Pitot
tube
– EAS is defined as the speed at sea level, that would produce the same
incompressible dynamic pressure that is produced at the TAS and the
altitude at which the vehicle is flying
– „aerodynamical“ velocity, fictive
35
Anemometry
Subsonic 𝜚i
𝐸𝐴𝑆 = 𝑇𝐴𝑆× (12)
𝜚{|
O
5𝑝5 𝑝\ − 𝑝5 Q
(13)
𝐸𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎k +1 −1
𝑝{| 𝑝5
Supersonic @
O K.S K.S
5𝑝5 𝑝{| 𝐶𝐴𝑆 (14)
𝐸𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎+ 1 + 0.2 −1 +1 −1
𝑝{| 𝑝5 𝑎+
36
Anemometry
– horizontal speed of A/C relative to ground
– wind velocity as well as direction must be taken into account
– most important speed from ground perspective
– no importance in aerodynamics, loads, performance etc.
37
Anemometry
𝐺𝑆 = 𝑣⃗ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 + 𝑣⃗ (15)
O (16)
𝐺𝑆 = 𝑣 O + 𝑣‡dˆ‰ − 2×𝑣×𝑣‡dˆ‰ cos 𝛼
38
Anemometry
Questions
1. Blocked Pitot-Tube: indicated velocity on ASI decreases or increases?
39
Anemometry
Questions
2. Flight with TAS = 140 kt at mean sea level:
CAS = ?, EAS= ?
40
Anemometry
Questions
2. Flight with TAS = 140 kt at mean sea level:
CAS = ?, EAS= ?
---> at SL, it is: IAS = CAS = EAS = 140 kt
41
Content
1. Altimetry
2. Anemometry
42
Flight Control Systems

Flight Control Systems are the means by which a pilot controls the
direction and attitude of an A/C in flight.
We can consider that the flight control systems consist of a combination of

these subsystems:
1. Control Surfaces (Primary and Secondary)

2. Mechanical, hydro-mechanical and fly-by-wire control systems
3. Cockpit controls
43
Primary Control Surfaces
Required to safely control an A/C during flight
• Elevators
• Ailerons
• Rudder
44
Primary Control Surface

Elevators / Pitch
• Stability, producing
downward force to
compensate the nose-
heavy A/C
• Make the A/C climb or
descend
45

Ailerons / Roll
• Increase the lift on one wing

in order to allow the A/C to
roll
• While lift is increased on one
wing, it is decreased on the
other one in order to set a
higher roll-moment
46

Rudder / Yaw
• It produces a yaw-moment
which moves the nose of the
A/C left and right
• Its main purpose is to
counteract the drag caused
by the lowered aileron during
a roll
• Compensates engine
failures
47
Secondary Control Surface

• Flaps: High-lift devices, provide lift and drag (take-off &
landing --> low speeds)
• Slats/Slots: Direct the air correctly in order to improve the

A/C characteristics by changing the wings aerodynamics
• Spoilers: Distinguish the lift and produce drag (landing,

descent, roll-yaw)
*Note that not all A/C have these Secondary Controls*
48
Examples of Secondary Control Surfaces
Slat Flap
Spoilers
Flaps
49
How the pilot (or autopilot) can change the

surface according to what we have seen?
Nowdays, we have 3 ways:
• Mechanically
• Hydro-mechanical
• Fly-by-wire (with electrical signals or even with optic fiber)
This provides a connection between the pilot (or autopilot) with the Control
Surface System
50
Mechanical
• The most basic method to maneuver an A/C, used in small A/C
• Some mechanical parts: pushrods, tension cables, pulleys,

counterweights, and sometimes chains
• The introduction of bigger A/C and the increase of Flight Envelopes

made the muscular effort of the pilot not suficient enough
51
Hydro-mechanical
• Powered system that assist the pilots
• Appears the actuators
• The connection between the pilot

controls and the valve (which
activates the actuator) is established
mechanically
• More reliability, safety, weight per unit

power than mechanical control
systems
52
Rudder pedals and FCC

Control stick
Actuators
Wires
Fly-by-wire
• The connection between the pilot control (or autopilot) and

actuators is established by electrical signals
• Less weight, improved reliability, damage tolerance and more
effective control for a hihgly manoeuverable A/C
53
Cockpit Controls
• Autopilot: device used to guide an A/C without direct assistance from the pilot
• PFD (Primary Flight Display): provides increased Situational Awareness (SA) to

the pilot, easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon, airspeed, altitude, vertical
speed, trend, trim, rate of turn etc.
• MFD (Multifunction Display): provides information in addition to primary

flight information. It is used within the flight deck. Information such as a moving
map, approach charts, Terrain Awareness Warning System and weather
depiction.
• EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System): displays engine

parameters and alerts crew about system configurations or faults.
54
Example of PFD
55
PFD Autopilot
EICAS
MFD
56
Altimetry, Anemometry and Flight Control Systems
Thank you for the attention!
Carlos Aizcorbe
Raschiq Moschtaq
Martí Subirats Chalaux

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Navigation and Avionics

Navigation and Avionics

Altimetry, Anemometry and Flight Control Systems

Broadening of Fundamentals in Aerospace Science and Technology

3. Flight Control Systems

• Indicated Altitude: Is the altitude read it in the altimeter, established

• Absolute Altitude: It is the altitude measured from the portion of

• True Altitude: It is the height above the sea level

• Pressure Altitude: Altitude determined by the atmospheric pressure

Altimeters – Inertial Guidance

Altimeters – Barometric - Example

Altimeters – Barometric - Example

• first obtain the thermal gradient by the table as below

Altimeters – Barometric - Example

• Plot altitude-pressure with Matlab

Altimeters – Types of Calibrations

• QFE: Reference level is terrain. Measurement provides absolute

• QNE: Altimeter subscale sets 101325 pascals as the standard

• QNH: Altimeter subscale setting to indicate altitude by atmospheric

Altimeters – Types of Calibrations

Altimeters – Transition Altitude & Level

3. Flight Control Systems

Location of a Pitot Location of

Air Data Computer (ADC)

Air Data Computer (ADC)

Input Data: Output Data:

pressure, density, airspeed, altitude,

However, in commercial aviation: 𝑀c76d53 ≅ 0.8

---> at SL, it is: IAS = CAS = EAS = 140 kt

3. Flight Control Systems

Flight Control Systems

We can consider that the flight control systems consist of a combination of

1. Control Surfaces (Primary and Secondary)

Primary Control Surfaces

Required to safely control an A/C during flight

Primary Control Surface

Primary Control Surface

• Increase the lift on one wing

Primary Control Surface

Secondary Control Surface

• Slats/Slots: Direct the air correctly in order to improve the

• Spoilers: Distinguish the lift and produce drag (landing,

*Note that not all A/C have these Secondary Controls*

Examples of Secondary Control Surfaces

How the pilot (or autopilot) can change the

• Some mechanical parts: pushrods, tension cables, pulleys,

• The introduction of bigger A/C and the increase of Flight Envelopes

• Powered system that assist the pilots

• Appears the actuators

• The connection between the pilot

• More reliability, safety, weight per unit

Rudder pedals and FCC

• The connection between the pilot control (or autopilot) and

• PFD (Primary Flight Display): provides increased Situational Awareness (SA) to

• MFD (Multifunction Display): provides information in addition to primary

• EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System): displays engine

Altimetry, Anemometry and Flight Control Systems

Thank you for the attention!

Broadening of Fundamentals in Aerospace Science and Technology

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Note that not all A/C have these Secondary Controls