STUDY GUIDE MA History (Revised Scheme) MUGHAL RULE IN INDIA (1526-1707) Code: 5677 Units: 1-9 Department of History Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities Allama Iqbal Open University IslamabadCode No. 5677 (All Rights Reserved with the Publisher) Printing Quantity Price Printing Coordinator Printer Publishers 2017 2000 Rs. 70/- Management Committee for P.P.U Kashish Printers, Lahore. Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad,PREFACE The curriculum for an academic person at AIOU is designed on modern lines through the use of latest information. theories and techniques. An extensive consultative process is also a part of the activity. Development of the study material to help students scattered throughout the country is taken as a challenge. AIOU takes pride in undertaking this major task for an effective learning of the students. The scheme of study for M.A, History has been revised to update the courses and their contents and make them relevant to the emerging social. economic. political and global trends, needs of the society and advances in this particular discipline. The courses included in the program will not only be one of the sources of latest information but also help leamers gain insight into historical process for international understanding in the wake of globalization. Focusing on ancient civilizations. middle ages and modern world the graduates of history would be sensitized, educated and trained in using appropriate approaches in looking into the events. These graduates will be expected to have a world view and serve the humanity without any social, regional or intellectual bi It is hoped that this program will facilitate the process of learning and develop skills to understand. write and analyze history for their personal as well as professional endeavors. A good course book is essential as a core for the study of the subject. The present book is an attempt to present the latest material, It gives an update account of historical events. I appreciate the efforts of the Chairperson. Department History. in general and Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dr. Abdub Hateez. in particular. for production of such a fine book for students. I congratulate them on successful launch of the book. \ dre (Prof. Dr. Nazir Ahmed $ Vice Chancellor nei) iii*COURSE TEAM Chairperson: Dr. Samina Awan Course Development Coordinator: Dr. Samina Awan Writers: Dr. Samina Awan Associate Professor Department of History, AIOU Ms. Fozia Umar Lecturer Department of History, AIOU Reviewer: Dr. Iqbal Chawla Course Team: Dr. Samina Awan Dr. Kishwar Sultana Mr. Abdul Basit Mujahid Dr. Kausar Parveen Ms. Sadia Aziz Ms. Fozia Umar Editor: ~ Mr. Abdul Wadood Title Designer: Mr. Anwar ul HaqCONTENTS Page # AIOU System..... xiv Introduction of the Course... xiii Objectives of the Course ... xiii Course Outline. xv Unit-1: Introduction to Primary Sources... 1 Unit-2: Political and Social Conditions of South Asia on the Eve of the Mughal Invasion: Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur ..... 7 Unit-3; Naseeruddin Muhammad Humayun... 7 Unit-4: Consolidation of Mughal Empire: Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar... 25 Unit-5: Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir...............0. aD Unit-6: Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan... 45 Unit-7: Mohiyuddin Muhammad ‘Arka Alamgir. 31 Unit-8: Mughal Administration ... 59 Unit-9: Culture, Art and Architecture........... 67 Bibliography TS:AIOU SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF THE COURSE This is a three credit hours course consisting of nine units. A unit is a study of 12-16 hours of coursework for two weeks. The course work of one unit will include study of compulsory reading material and suggested books. You. should make a time table for studies to complete the work within the allocated time. For this course. tutorial meetings are arranged in the Study Centers established by the University to provide opportunity to the students for mutual discussion/ interaction with one another and also to the concerned tutor. Instead of formal lectures, the tutorial meetings are meant to solve student's problems individually in their studies. Every course has a study package including compulsory reading material posted by the mailing section of the University. For the books suggested at the end of each unit. you can visit a nearby library/study centre or the Central library at the main campus in AIOU GUIDELINE TO STUDY MATERIAL Before attending a tutorial you are required to prepare yourself in the following manner to get a maximum benefit of it. You are required to follow the following steps. Step 1 Go through the: Course Outline Course Introduction Course Objectives Structure of the Course Assessment Recommended Books: Suggested Readings NOY Step 2 Read the whole unit and make notes of those points which you could not fully understand or wish to discuss with your course tutor. viStep 3 Go through the self-assessment questions at the end of each unit. If you find any difficulty in comprehension or locating relevant material, then discuss it with your tutor. Step 4 Read thoroughly. the books sent to you by the Department of History. AIOU. In case of any explanation needed regarding the ‘comprehension of the text, consult your tutor. Step 5 First read the entire assignments you are required to do for this course. Highlight all the points which you find difficult to.tackle, and then discuss in detail with your tutor. This exercise will save you from lot of trouble and ensure good results in the form of good marks. Assessment For each course you will be assessed as follow: * 2. Assignments (continuous assessment). . Final Examination (three-hours written examination will take place at the end of the semester) Participation in the Workshop Group discussion in the Tutorial Presentation each component is given below: A minimum of 40% in each assignment. A minimum of 40% of the final written examination. An aggregate of 40% of both the components i.e.. assignments and final examination is required to pass the course. 4. The assignment is compulsory for the appearance in final examination. The grade will be determined as following: D 40% - 49% C 50% - 59% B 60% - 69% A 70% =. 79% A+ 80% & above viiAssignments Assignments are written exercises that are required to be completed at your own home or place of work after having studied different parts of the suggested reading material within the scheduled period of study. (See the assignments scheduled). For this course you will receive 02 assignments in the mailing package. You are advised to complete your assignments within the provided schedule. This is a compulsory course work and its successful completion will make you eligible to take final examination at the end of the-semester. To complete your work successfully, you are provided with tutorial support as mentioned above. You will send your solved assignment to the tutor, whose name is notified to you for assessment and necessary guidance. Your tutor will retum your assignments afier marking and providing academic guidance and supervision. To qualify each assignment, you need to obtain a minimum of 40% marks. Note: the students are informed about the names of tutors and study centres in the beginning of the semester. If you do not receive such information. please contact your Regional Office and concerned department. Workshop Revi You may find the following suggestio The workshop of post-graduate course will be held at the end of each semester at the following Regional Campuses: Islamabad Lahore Peshawar Karachi Gujranwala Mulian > AUusuUno It is compulsory to attend the workshop. A student is not declared pass until he/she has attended the workshop satisfactorily and actively. The duration of the workshop for 3 credit course is three days. ‘ion before the Final Examination is very important that you revise as systematically as you have been studying. helpful. Go through the course unit one by one, using your study notes to remind you of the key topics, concepts or theories. If you have not already made notes. do so now. viii* Note the key terms associated with each topic. * Go through your assignments and check your weak points in each case. * Test yourself on each of the main topics. writing down-the main points or revising them verbally. . Make sure to attend the last tutorial and discuss all the points that you find difficult to comprehend. ¢ Try to get together with a small group of fellow-students. Each person revises his topics intensively and, then ina group session summarizes them for the other members, who should raise queries and questions. This approach will make your studies interesting and provide you an opportunity to revise thoroughly. © The paper in the final exam will be on the pattern of questions given at the end of each unit, Still you should go through previous papers. This can be of. particular help in actually understanding questions and deciding how to frame an answer. i * — Before your final exams. make sure > You get your roll-number slip, » You know where the examination centre is, » You know the date and time of the examination. Note: - * You can get information regarding your assignments, workshop Schedule. Assignment results, Tutors and final examination from the AIOU website: www.aiou.edu.p! * You are advised to regularly visit the university website to update yourself about the activities of the university.INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE The course Mughal Rule in India (1526-1707) is an introduction of the Mughal India for the students with a special focus on the Primary Sources such as Baburnama, Akbarnama, Humayunama, Tuzk-e-Jahangari, Badshahnama and Maghfinama. The early units will explore the political and social conditions of South Asia on the eve of the Mughal Invasion by Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur and his battles. He was succeeded by Naseeruddin Muhammad Humayun with a brief Interlude of Sher Shah Suri and his Dynasty’s rule in India. Unit 4 discusses the Consolidation of Mughal Empire by Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar through various means. He did this through conquests and. by adopting various policies in different regions of the empire such as Deccan Policy, Rajput Policy and Religious Policy, Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir rein and main events like Khusro’s revolt and Revolts of Khurram and Mahabat Khan will be examined and the role of Noor Jahan during this period will also be discussed in unit S. Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan’s Central Asian and Deccan Policy and his relations with English East India Company in South Asia are the topics discussed ” in Unit 6. The unit also throws light on the War of succession during this period. Unit 7 examines Mohiyuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir’s Theory of Kinship and military expeditions along with his policy towards Marathas and Sikhs. Unit 8 of this study guide, “Mughal Administration” will examine the salient features of the overall Mughal Government particularly all the Central, Provincial and Local administration. The unit analyses the Mughal Fiscal System. Mughal Army, Judicial System and Public Works. Unit 9 will elaborate on economic, social, religious and cultural trends under the Mughal rule.OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE After the study of this course you will be able to: 1 Understand the cause and effect relationship in history. ne Comprehend the paradigm of continuity and change in history. Analyse the Mughal administration and get acquainted with the primary sources on the given period. 4. Examine the political and social impact of Mughal rule in India and the growth in art and architecture under the Mughal patronage. xiUnit-1 Unit-2 Unit-3 Unit-4 Unit-5 COURSE OUTLINE Introduction to Primary Sources 1.1 Baburnama Akbarnama Humayunama Tuck-e-Jahangari Badshahnama Maghfinama Duwi Political and Social Conditions of South Asia on the Eve of the Mughal Invasion: Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur 2.1 Barly Life 2.2. First battle of Panipat and the Foundation of Mughal Empire 2.3 Wars with Rajputs 2.4 Character and Achievements. Naseeruddin Muhammad Humayun 3.1 Early Life 3.2 Brief Interlude: Sher Shah Suri and his Dynasty 3.3. Humayun in Exile. and Reoccupation of Delhi 3.4 Character and Achievements 3.5. Sher Shah Suri Consolidation of Mughal Empire: Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar 4.1. Early Life 4.2 Second Battle of Panipat 3 Court 4.4 Bairam Khan and his Downfall 4.5 Conquests 4.6 Deccan Policy. Rajput Policy, Religious Policy: Din-i-Ellahi 4.7 Administration: Zenith of Mughal Rule Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir 1 Early Life 2 Khusro’s Rrevolt 3 Noor Jahan 4 Revolts of Khurram and Mahabat Khan 5 Character and Achievements xiiUnit-6 Unit-7 Unit-8 Unit-9 Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan 6.1 Early Life 6.2 Central Asian Policy. 6.3 Deccan Policy 6.4 Relations with English East India Company in South Asia 6.5 War of succession 6.6 Character and Achievements Mohiyuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir 7.1 Barly Life 7.2. Theory of Kinship 7.3. Military Expeditions 7.4 Policy towards Marathas and Sikhs 7.5 Character and Achievements Mughal Administration 8.1 Salient Features of the Mughal Government 8.2 The Central Government 8.3 Provincial Administration and Local Government 8.4 Mughal Fiscal System 8.5 Land Revenue System 8.6 Other Sources of Income 8.7 The Mughal Army 8.8 Judicial System 8.9 Public Works Culture, Art and Architecture 9.1 Economic, Social, Religious and Cultural Trends 9.2. Architecture 9.3. Painting 9.4 Music 9.5 Literature 9.6 Sports 9.7 Dress 9.8 Education 9.9 Science and Arts xiiiUnit-1 INTRODUCTION TO PRIMARY SOURCES Written by: Dr. Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla 1Introduction ... Objectives... 1. Primary Sources Ll Te, Seeded. Lt 15 16 Compulsory Readings Suggested Readings. Self-Assessment Questions .. CONTENTS Buburname Akbarnama Humayunama Tuzk-e-Jahangari Badshahnama Alamgirnamah . Anu esINTRODUCTION This unit discusses the Primary sources on Mughal history. India during the Mughal dynasty (1526-1857) was exceptionally well illuminated by a large body of historical literature, mainly in Persian, Indo-Mughal historical literature is not only large. but also varied: histories of India, dynastic and regional histories, memoirs, biographies, biographical dictionaries, historical gazetteers, collections of historical letters. and administrative documents are all well presented. OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, you will be able to: I. Identify the primary sources on Mughal India. vv ght the main themes of Baburnama and Akbarnama, two very cant sources on Mughal India. e-Jahangari, Badshahnama and Analyse the writings as Humayunama, Tuc Alamgirnamah.PRIMARY SOURCES India during the Mughal Dynasty (1526-1857) was exceptionally well illuminated by a large body of historical literature, mainly in Persian. Indo-Mughal historical literature is not only large, but also varied: histories of India, dynastic and regional histories, memoirs. biographies, biographical dictionaries, historical gazetteers. collections of historical letters, and administrative documents are all well presented. The Islamic phase of history-writing in India started with a remarkable Arabic work translated into Persian by Ali Bin Hamid Kufi in 1216- 17 now known as Chachnama. Indo-Persian historiography properly began with Hasan Nizami’s book, Tajal Ma’athir, completed 1217 dealing with first two Sultans of Delhi, with first major work by Minhaj bin Siraj Juzdjani’s Tabagat-i- Nasiri, completed in 1259. The establishment of the Mughal dynasty with Babur;s victory at Paniput 1526, inaugurated a new era in history writing. 1.1 Baburnamah Babur s autobiography known as Tuck i Babri, Waqa-i-Babri or Baburnamah is the best and more ‘faithful account’ of ‘most celebrated hero' of Mughal history. Babur continued the writing of his Turky memoirs Tuzk-i-Babri in India. He has given us a fascinating account of India and a frank description of the events of a large part of his region of four years in India. These memoirs were translated into Persian by a commendable accuracy by Abdur Rahim khan-i-khanan (1589-90). 1.2 Akbarnamah With Yazdi s Zafarnama setting the model for Timurid history writing, the next greatest historical work by Abul fazal Akbarnama, on the same design but went much beyond that, first text completed in 1004/1596. This official history of Babur, Humayun and Akbar not only used a large amount of archival material, but also a number of specially commissioned memoir among which only few survive. such as those of Gulbadan Begum. 1.3 Humayunamah Gulbadan Begum, Humayun s_ sister, wrote her personal memoire as Humayunnamah. Bayazid Bayat completed an historical narrative as Tarikh-i- Humayun. Material like Tuhfa-i-Akbarshahi by Abbas Sarwani- was also especially sponsored.(written after1579). Abul Fazl has a much larger vision of history than mere annals, and he therefore, appended to his narrative history. what came to be considered a separate work, the A’in-Akbari containing massive fiscal. financial and social data, a detailed provincial gazetteer and a cultural history of India. The work provides fairly firm baseline for a quantitative history of India. It is also remarkable in being without any religious bias and in treating Indian culture as a composite one to which both Hindu and Muslim traditions have contributed. a1.4 Tuzk-i-Jahangiri Jahangir (r, 1605-1627) followed the tradition of Babut in writing his memoires -, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri. These are in Persian and appear to have begun to be writterr like a diary soon after his succession to continue up to1624. Jahangir writes in simple bui literary prose, -with a surprising degree of frankness and his deep interest in Art and in natural history as well as the lives of ordinary people particularly enlivens his memoires for a modern reader. 1.5 Padshahnamah With Shahjahan (r. 1628-1658) begins another series of official histories. First ~ Muhammad Amin Qazwini was commissioned to write the Padshahnamah, based on official records. His account covered the first ten years of Shahjahan;s shift from solar to lunar calendar for dating events, and perhaps other ons. led Shahjahan to commission Abdul Hamid Lahauri to write the history of these ten years afresh. Lahauri ultimately produced a very detailed account of the twenty years of Shahjahan s reign under the title, Padshahnama. The account of third decade was written as a continuation. by his pupil Muhammad Waris. 1.6 Alamgirnama Aurangzeb (r. 1669-1707) had the history of his ten years reign, entitled the Alamgir Nama written by Muhammad Kazim. (See sources in Ali, Athar M, Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture, Oxford: 2006) All these official histories have some features in common. They are accurate as to dates and details, for which official records are their main source; they pay. much attention to geography: and their authors are anxious to convey. their reader the imperial view. whether in accommodation or criticism of individuals or an assessment of causes and consequences of various events. Their model is Abul Fazl, for the narration of events, though they obviously do not share his views on religion (now no longer official), nor his very large vision of History that had embraced, as we have seen, the full range of economic and cultural life. Since Aurangzeb did not allow any further official history to be written after 1668, the era of private histories began. The most notable was Khafi Khan’s well known, Muntakhab ul Lubab. (1731), a general history of India. Sagi Mustaid Khan's Mazathir-i-Alamgiri (1710-11) is designed to provide an ostensibly official history of Aurangzeb’s reign, and therefore follow the style of such histories. but is much briefer. Aurangzeb s reign is also marked by the appearance of Hindu historians writing in Persian.' (See Ali, Athar M., Mughal India: Studies in Polity. Ideas, Society and Culture). * Read Chapter-1 Shaikh Abdur Rashid, The Mughal Empire, (111) in 1 H Qureshi, (ed.), A Short History of Pakistan, (Karachi: Karachi University. 1961), pp. 427-434.COMPULSORY BOOKS Ali, Athar. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008. Qureshi, 1. H.!ed. 4 Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Rizvi, Athar Abbas. Landmarks of South Asian Civilizations: From Pre-history to the Independence of Subcontinent. Delhi: Manohar, 1983. SUGGESTED READINGS Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,. The Mughal State 1526-1750 New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Eralay, Abraham. The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors London: Phoenix, 2004. Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan. Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008 Mukhia, Harbans, The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Qureshi, I H. The Administration of Mughal Empire. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Sarkar, Jadunath. Mughal Administration. Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar, 2009. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the significance of the primary sources for the narration of Mughal History. 2. _ List the names of primary sources on Mughal India and give an analysis of any one of it. 3. “Ain-i-AKbari elaborates all the necessary information and policies of Akbar’s era”. Comment.Unit—2 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF SOUTH ASIA ON THE EVE OF THE MUGHAL INVASION: ZAHEERUDDIN MUHAMMAD BABUR Written by: Dr. Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla 7CONTENTS Introduction ..... Objectives... 9 1. The Regional Dynasties of Northern India ... 12 2. Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur 12 3. _ Early Life and First Battle of Panipat and the Foundation of Mughal Empire ... 13 4. Wars with Rajputs .. soeela 5. Character and Achievements... 14 Compulsory Readings ... 1S Suggested Readings... 15 Self-Assessment Questions .. 16INTRODUCTION This Unit is a comprehensive survey on the social and political conditions of India on the eve of Mughal invasion. The Arabs were the first to conquer India and they laid the foundation of Muslim rule in South Asia. The later rulers included Tughlags. Salateens, the Syed’s and the Lodhi’s. OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit. you will be able to: 1. Comprehend the circumstances under which Babur invaded India. 2. Describe the reasons for the success of the Mughals against Indian rulers. 3. Causes and course of wars with the Rajputs.Arabs: In 711 Muhammad bin Qasim. ‘an enterprising young Arab general invaded Sindh and within two years he had occupied all of the region and a part of the Punjab. He had ‘marched through Iran and Balochistan. It was first great invasion through the desert and it made Sindh an outlying province of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus. Despite resistance from the local feudatory chauhans, Arabs could not be dislodged from Sindh where they established a strong administration in co-operation with the local people. Arab travelers began to visit Sindh and had deep impact of their culture and religion on Sindh, The Mongols: The Mongols who were the forefathers of the’Huns, were nomads and their original home was in North-Western China. From the back of their horses, with a new kind of bow, they spread destruction and havoc wherever they went. Their most remarkable leader was Chingiz Khan (1206-27) who was the real founder of their power and Dynasty. His grandson Hulagu Khan (1256-65) conquered Baghdad in 1258 and founded the Mongol kingdom of Iran. Although barbarous but they were not strict in religion. They patronized art, literature and science in their courts and Buddhism revived for short time in Iran and central Asia. After Hulagu, Mongols were divided into many branches and ruled different parts of the vast kingdom inherited by the first Chingiz and then Hulagu. From secure foothills of the Hindu Kush, they made repeated efforts to attack the region around the Indus to take hold of the Punjab and Delhi but always kept out of the heart of the kingdom of Delhi by the Sultans, although they continued to- give hard times to them. Delhi Sultans: In the middle of the tenth century a Muslim-Turkic dynasty had established an independent kingdom in Central ubuktgin (977-97) had defeated his neighbor Hindu Shahi kingdom of Jayapala. His successor Mahmud Ghaznavi (998-1030) raided upon India almost seventeen times, capturing Thanesar, Mathura and Qanauj. He destroyed the great temple of Somnath, in Kathiawar which was not only a religious centre but also a monetary, social as well as political centre. After getting an approval from the Abbasid Caliph, Mahmud of Ghazna annexed Punjab, Multan and grat part of Sindh to his empire. He established Lahore as the capital of his northern Indian conquests, where his successors ruled for more than a century and half. Lahore was more secure and prosperous than barren Ghazna and poets and scholars preferred to settle ir Lahore. In 1150, Ghazna was captured and burnt to ashes by the rival rulers of another Turkic dynasty. The Rajputs who ruled Norther India in eleventh and twelfth centuries did not know any other occupation except war with each other. Punjab served as base for further Turkic conquests, as the Muhammad bin Sam of Ghaur seized Lahore. Prithviraj Chauhan who ruled from Delhi to Aimer, defeated Muhammad Ghauri in 1191 but next year Muhammad attacked with stronger force and defeated Prithvi near Tarain, about 80 kilometers from Delhi. After Delhi, Doab, Qanaui, 10number of taxes on merchandise. He imposed Jizya on all the non-Muslims including Brahmins, who were earlier exempted of that. He raised the salaries of the officers which proved fatal for the sources of the states. He granted vast tracts of land to the officers which made them dependent on the state. He tried to encourage Hindus to convert into Muslims but it did not work. He died in 1388 with a line of weak successors. In 1399, the invasion of Timur from Central Asia brought a new wave of conquests. The branch of the Mongols known as Chughtayas who ruled Central Asia, became Muslims. The celebrated Timur (Tamerlane in English) who died in 1405, aged 70 overran Iran and Mesopotamia and devastate India and European Russia belonged to this branch of the Mongols. He established many mosques and colleges in his capital Samarkand and flourished arts and science. 1. © The Regional Dynasties of Northern India The invasion of Timur completed the disintegration of the Sultanate of Delhi. Bengal had been dependent since Muhammad Tughlaq’s times, Gujarat had become independent. These were all Muslim states, as was Kashmir, because in 1339 a Persian adventurer had seized the power from its Hindu ruler through a palace intrigue. Timur appointed Khizr khan as Governor of Multan and its dependent areas. In 1414, he proclaimed himself as Sultan of Delhi. He claimed to be descendant of Muhammad (PBUH) so his dynasty was called Saiyid Dynasty as as a generic name to prophet’s descendants. Saiyids were not very strong as in 1451, its ruler Alam shah was resigned and throne was given to Bahlol Lodhi. The Lodhis were Afghan tribe famous for their profession, trade in horses. Bahlol continued to rule until his death in 1489, with the consent and advice of tribal chiefs and included Bihar and Eastern UP into Delhi kingdom. His son Sikandar was also able to get the support of tribal chiefs but Ibrahim lodhi (1517-1526) had lost that reconciliatory skill inevitable for a strong central.government. After a few rebellions, Babur was invited to attack Delhi by some of his chiefs. Babur, descendant of Timur, ruled Kabul valley in Afghanistan defeated Ibrahim in the battle of Paniput in 1526. 2, Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur The greatest thriving of northem Indian culture, art, and majestic vigor certainly took place during the period of influence of the Mughal monarchs of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Mughals were Central Asian descendents of the great Mongol warriors Ghengis Khan and Timur (Tamerlane), whose horsemen swept across the + 12Eurasian grasslands in the 13th and 14th centuries, conquering everything between Beijing and Budapest. But until 16th century, the great Mongol empire has split although their descendents fought over the territorial leftovers and tried their best to save their personal small sultanates. 3. Early Life and First Battle of Panipat and the Foundation of Mughal Empire One of these sultans. Babur, ruler of a minor kingdom of Ferghana (now in modern-day Kyrgystan and eastern Uzbekistan), tried hard to permanently regain the Timur's favourite land, Samarkand. During his unsuccessful efforts to conquer Samarkand. Babur turned his concentration toward the Sultanate of Delhi in northern India, which had been ruled successively by five dynasties of Muslim rulers since the late 12th century. As history shows later, Babur's campaign against the Delhi Sultanate proved a catalystic approach to the foundation of one of the greatest dynasties in the history of South Asia: the Mughal Empire. In 1526, Babur's forces crushed Ibrahim Lodi's army, mostly due to Babur's usage of artillery and gunpowder, both of which were in short supply on Lodi’s side. After completing a cleanup campaign against several regional Hindu armies (including a formidable force of Rajputs from the west), Babur had the Delhi sultanate to himself, with no serious challengers, In doing so, Babur laid the foundation for his own dynasty of Mongol warriors, known to the contemporary world as Mughals. 4. Wars with Rajputs On the eve of Babur s conquest in India, he had two challenges to face, his nobility did not like the Hindustani environment and wanted to go back to Central Asia. their hometown. The Rajputs were rallying against Mughals under the leadership of Rana Sanga, the ruler of Mewar, to expel them from India. Victory at Panipat provided Babur a firm ground to consolidate his conquests. But now he was faced with a few problems: His nobles and commanders were eager to return to Central Asia because they did not like the climate of India. Culturally also, they felt very alienated. The Afghans. though defeated at Panipat, were still a formidable force in eastern parts of UP, Bihar and Bengal. They were re-grouping to reclaim their lost powers. To begin with, Babur succeeded to convince his nobility to stay back and to help him to consolidate his newly established state. Rana Sanga was supported by a 13number of Rajput Chiefs against Mughals, including Hasan Khan of Mewat and Mahmud Lodhi, younger son of Sikandar Lodhi. Babur's decision to stay in India and to consolidate his empire must have proved a big threat to Rajputs as they all joined Rana Sanga in his final battle with Babur. In the battle of Kanwahah, Rana Sanga was defeated forever near Fatehpur Sikri in 1527. Babur got succeeded again by using his superior military tactics, There was no great challenge for Babur in Northern India then. Babur was successful in capturing Bhira (1519-1520), Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524) in Punjab. 5. Achievements Madhi Masjid, Delhi Shaikh Yusuf Qattal's Tomb, Delhi (1527) Rambagh, AgraCOMPULSORY READINGS Ali, Athar. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008. Qureshi, I. H. ed. A Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Rizvi, Athar Abbas. Landmarks of South Asian Civilizations: From Pre-history to the Independence of Subcontinent. Delhi: Manohar, 1983. SUGGESTED READINGS ‘Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,. The Mughal State 1526-1750 New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Eralay, Abraham, The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India’s Great Emperors. “London: Phoenix, 2004. Matta; Basheer Ahmad Khan. Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008. Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Qureshi, I. H. The Administration of Mughal Empire. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Sarkar, Jadunath. Mughal Administration. Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar, 2009. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Examine the causes of Babur’s invasion on India. Discuss Babur’s strategy at the Battle of Panipat? Elaberate the problems Babur faced after the Battle of Panipat? “Who were the two rulers from Rajputana defeated by Babur?Unit-3 NASIRUDDIN MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN Written by: Dr. Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla 17CONTENTS Introduction ..... Objectives. 19 1. Early Life... 20 2. Brief Interlude: Sher Shah Suri and his Dynasty . 20 3. _ Humayun in Exile, and Reoccupation of Delhi 21 4. Character and Achievements.. 21 5. Sher Shah Suri... 22 Compilsory Readings ... 24 Suggested Readings... 24 3 Self-Assessment Questions .. 24INTRODUCTION Humayun 1507-56 was the second Mughal emperor of India (1530-1556), son and successor of Babur. He inherited a freshly won empire with a host of troubles; the Afghan nobles, the Rajputs and worst of all, internal deceit. OBJECTIVES After the study of this Unit, you will be able to: 1. List the challenges faced by Humayun after Babur’s death. 2. Analyse the circumstances that led to the defeat of Humayun and revival of Afghan power. 3. Describe the events leading to recapture of India by Humayun.1. Early Life After the death of Babur in 1530, Humayun’s situation was quite desperate. The main problems faced by Humayun were: . The newly conquered territories and administration was not consolidated. © Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect, and esteem of Mughal nobility. * The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had joined Babur’s service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun’s accession. . He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on theone hand and Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other. *. _Asper the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers. The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power — Humayun was in control of Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Afghanistan and Punjab under him. Following his father's advice, Humayun treated his brothers kindly and appointed them to high positions. Kamran was appointed as the Governor of Kabul, Kandhar and later even Punjab. Askari was the Governor of Sambhal, and Hindal the Governor of Alwar. In return, his brothers betrayed him in his hour of need. All of them desired of the throne. This was a nuisance that each successful Mughal king had to deal with. Humayun almost lost the empire his father had fought so hard and handed down to him. In the first ten years of his rule, he faced so many challenges not only from his younger brothers but also from the Afghan General Sher Shah Suri who had served under Babur. The Afghans though defeated by Babur were not vanquished. Sher Khan the King of Bengal defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa in 1539 A.D. In 1540 A.D., he again defeated Humayun at Kanauj, and went on to capture Delhi and Agra. Thus Sher Khan re-established the Afghans rule in Delhi, Humayun was compelled to flee from India, Humayun fled to Sindh and finally obtained shelter from Shah Tahmasp of Iran (Persia) in 1544, After the death of Sher Khan's son, Humayun, with Persian support, invaded (1555) India and reestablished Mughal authority. He died soon after, and Babur became emperor. 2. Brief Interlude: Sher Shah Suri and his Dynasty Sher Shah’s period barely spread over five years (1540 - 1545), but is a landmark in the history of the Sub-continent. Sher Shah was a capable military and civilian administrator. He set up reforms in various areas including those of army and revenue administration. Numerous éivil works were carried out during his short 20reign. After the death of Sher Shah in 1545 his son Islam Shah ruled up to 1553 A.D. Then Muhammad Adil Shah came to power. Muhammad Adil was not a capable ruler. His minister Hemu Bagal got significance and virtually controlled the kingdom. As a result of the onslaught by Ibrahim Shah and Sikander Shah the Sur Empire was broken up. 3. Humayun in Exile, and Reoccupation of Delhi In northern India, after the death of his father, Humayun became the Mughal emperor but soon he sensed great danger to his new empire from the emerging power of Sher Shah. In 1538, Humayun marched towards Bihar and Bengal with a huge army to subdue Sher Shah, Wisely, Sher Shah did not confront Humayun’s massive army face to face and ‘melted’ into the Bihar interior, allowing the Mughals an easy occupation of Bengal. But whilst Humayun was busy in Gaur, Sher Khan established his control over the territory between Bihar and the capital Delhi, thus cutting off all the lines of communication between Delhi and Bengal. After some time, when Humayun started for Agra from Bengal, his way was blocked by Sher Shah at Chausa. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa, near Boxer. in June 1539. Soon afterwards, Sher Khan sent an army to Gaur and succeeded in overthrowing the Mughal garrison. In the meantime Humayun made another attempt to recover his fortune and confronted the Afghans in Kanauj in May 1540, but was defeated again. Humayun fled to Persia. He lived the next 15 years of his life, from 1540 to 1555, self-exiled in Persia. Later on, with the help of the King of Persia, he captured Kabul and Kandhar. He was finally able to re-ascend the throne at Delhi and Agra after defeating Sikandar Suri. After recovering his throne, Humayun devoted himself to the affairs of the kingdom and towards improving the system of government. He laid the foundation of the Mughal style of painting. 4. Character and Achievements Humayun only just managed to regain his father's territories before his death and the accession of his 13 year old son, Akbar, whose 49 year reign laid the foundation of empire, and the development of a new style of architecture. Humayun's defeat. however, had a profound influence on Mughal culture. In his years of exile in the Persian court, Humayun developed a deep understanding and love for Persian culture, and instilled that in his son Akbar. After his and his son's reconquest of India, the culture that they built around themselves was based heavily on Persian models: philosophy, literature, painting, and architecture, all show deeply embedded Persian models. 21Humayun's Architectural Legacy: Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb, Delhi (1528-36) Imam Zamin's Tomb, Delhi (1537) Hasan Khan's Tomb, Sasaram (c. 1535) Sher Shah's Tomb, Sasaram (c. 1540) Purana Qila, Delhi (c. 1530-45) Qala-i-Kuhna Masjid, Delhi (1541) Sher Mandal, Delhi (c. 1541) Gate of Sher Shah's Wall, Delhi (1540s) Salimgarh, Delhi (1546) Isa Khan's Mosque and Tomb, Delhi (1547) Sabz Burj, Nila Gumbad, Delhi Bu Halima's Garden, Delhi | Unfortunately. after recovering his empire, Humayun was not destined to rule for long. In January 1556, he met his tragic end by slipping from the famous building known as Din Panah.The death of Sher Shah in 1545 gave Humayun an opportunity to regain his empire from the Aghans. He finally managed to achieve this by 1555. The return of the Mughals led to a long-lasting Mughal supremacy almost all over India. However, the process of consolidation of the Mughal Empire was carried out not by Humayun, but by his son, Akbar, the greatest of the Mughals. Bengal once again came under the influence of Mughal supremacy during his time. 5. Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah was born in the Rohtas district of Bihar India in the family of Mian Hassan Khan Sur, a prominent figure in the government. His grandfather, Ibrahim Khan Sur, was recruited much earlier by Sultan Bahlul Lodi of Delhi. Farid Khan started his service under Bahar Khan Lohani, the Mughal Governor of Bihar. Because of his gallantry, Bahar Khan rewarded him the title Sher Khan (Tiger Lord). After the death of Bahar Khan, Sher Khan became the regent ruler of the minor Sultan, Jalal Khan. Later sensing the growth Sher Shah's power in Bihar, Jalal sought assistance of the independent Sultan. Ghiyasuddin sent an army under 22General Ibrahim Khan. But, Sher Khan defeated the force at the battle of Surajgarh in 1534, Thus he achieved complete control of the area. In 1538, Sher Khan attacked Bengal and defeated Ghiyashuddin Shah. But he lost to capture the kingdom because of Mughal emperor Humayun. In 1539, Sher Khan faced Humayun in the battle of Chausa. He forced Humayun out of India. Assuming the title Sher Shah, he ascended the throne of Delhi. Sher Shah built the longest highway in South Asia grand Tunk Road as was called by the British rulers. He introduced many reforms in the areas under his control including coin system currency. He built many monuments like Rohtas Fort, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan, Sher Shah Suri Mosque in Patna, Bihar. History of Sher Shah was written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a wagia-navis under Mughal Emperor Akbar around 1580, provides a detailed documentation ON Sher Shah's administration. 23COMPULSORY READINGS Ali, Athar. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008. Qureshi, I. H. ed. A Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Rizvi, Athar Abbas. Landmarks of South Asian Civilizations: From Pre-history to the Independence of Subcontinent. Delhi: Manohar, 1983. SUGGESTED READINGS Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,. The Mughal State 1526-1750 New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Eralay, Abraham. The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India’s Great Emperors. London: Phoenix, 2004. Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan. Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008. Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Qureshi, I H.. The Administration of Mughal Empire. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992 Sarkar, Jadunath. Mughal Administration. Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar, 2009. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. = SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Analyze the factors that led to the failure of Humayun’s victory over Sher Shah. 2. — Discuss the emergence of Sher Khan as the leader of Afghans? 3. _ List the territories which were conquered by Sher Shah during his rule. 4, Write a comprehensive note on important-achievements of Sher Shah. 24Unit-4 CONSOLIDATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE: JALALUDDIN MUHAMMAD AKBAR Written by: Dr. Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla 25CONTENTS Page # Introduction 27 Objectives... 27 1. Early Life... 28 2. Second Battle of Panipat 28 3; Count... 28 4. Bairam Khan and his Downfall... 29 5. Conquests....... 29 6. Deccan Policy, Rajput Policy, Religious Policy: Din-i-Ellahi 29 7. _ Administration: Zenith of Mughal Rule 31 Compulsory Readings ... 33 Suggested Readings.... 33 Self-Assessment Questions .... 34 26INTRODUCTION This Unit will focus on the early life of Akbar and his administration. The unit will be looking forward the causes, course and consequences of the battle of Panipat, Bairam Khan and his downfall and the Deccan policy adopted the Akbar for the consolidation of his empire. OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, you will be able to: we Give an account of the expansion and consolidation of the Mughal empire under Akbar. Comprehend the religious policy of Akbar. Analyse the administration under Akbar.1, Early Life Fortunately for him, Akbar did not inherit the luckless habits of his father. Instead, the young emperor began what was to be the greatest reign of the Mughal dynasty. A powerful and brave character in his own right, tales of his superhuman strength and astute warriors mind preceded Akbar wherever he went. Such reputation undoubtedly helped him expand the empire, as he conquered nearly all of modem-day northern India and Pakistan, and successfully converted independent states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan into his great Mughal Empire. 2. Second Battle of Panipat ‘Akbar (ruled 1556-1605) was proclaimed emperor amid gloomy circumstances. Delhi and Agra were threatened by Hemo Bagal—the Hindu general of the Sir ruler, Adil Shah—and Mughal governors were being driven from all parts of northern India. Akbar’s hold over a fraction of the Punjab—the only territory in his possession—was disputed by Sikandar Sir and was precarious. Thete was also disloyalty among Akbar’s own followers. The task before Akbar was to reconquer the empire and consolidate it by ensuring control over its frontiers and, moreover, by providing it with a firm administrative machinery. He received unstinting support from the regent, Bayram Khan, until 1560. Second Battle of Panipet is a major Battle and a turning point in Indian History, this Battle established Mughal Supremacy over Indian Subcontinent for over 150 years - BairaM Khan the Loyal Mughal General of Humayun was responsible for Establishing Mughal Empire after the death of Humayun. This battle between Mughals and the Afghan forces of the Lodhis with their Hindu king Hemu was a fiercely fought battle as the outcome would determine the future course of the Mughal victory at Panipat (November 1556) and the subsequent recovery of Mankot, GwaliAr, and Jaunpur demolished the Afghan threat in upper India 3. Court Although he was. himself illiterate, Akbar's courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri were centers of the arts, letters, and learning. He was much impressed with Persian culture, and due to his interest, the later Mughal empire had a strong Persian stamp on its culture. Apparently disillusioned with orthodox Islam and hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, he promulgated (1582) the Din-i-[lahi [divine faith], an eclectic creed derived from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centered on Akbar as prophet, but had an influence outside the court. Akbar, 28generally considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, had gathered literary and cultural jewels from all over the world. His court was famous for his nauratan, nine learned nobles he confided. 4. Bairam Khan and his Downfall Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who rendered loyal service in expanding and consolidating the Mughal domains before he was dismissed by the young king. Akbar, however, soon became restless under Bayram Khan’s tutelage. Influenced by Maham Anaga, and his mother, Hamidah Bani Begam, he was persuaded to dismiss him (March 1560). Bairam Khan remained at the helm of affairs of the Mughal Empire for almost four years, which is popularly known as Period of Bairam Khan’s Regency. During this phase he appointed his favourite nobles on important positions. Bairam Khan emerges as the most powerful noble. A group of nobles were opposed to him. They managed to influence Akbar also. By this time Akbar also wanted to assume full control. He removed Bairam Khan. Bairam Khan revolted and was defeated. Akbar pardoned him and asked him to retire. He decided to go to Mecea for pilgrimage. He was killed by an Afghan near Ahmedabad. His son later on became an influential noble under Akbar and is famous as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana. 5. Conquests Akbar, however. continued the policy of conquest. A magnetic personality and an outstanding general, he gradually enlarged his empire to include Afghanistan, Balochistan, and’ nearly all of the Indian peninsula north of the Godavari River. To unify the vast state, he established a uniform system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating the conquered chieftains. From about the middle of 1562, Akbar took upon himself the great task of shaping his policies, leaving them to be implemented by his agents. He embarked on a policy of conquest, establishing control over Jodhpur, Bhatta, and the Gakkhar country between the Indus and Beas rivers in the Punjab. Next he made inroads into Gundwana, during this period he ended discrimination against the Hindus by abolishing pilgrimage taxes in 1563 and the jizya on non-Muslims in 1564. 6. Deccan Policy, Rajput Policy, Religious Policy: Din-i-Ellahi After 1590. Akbar gave shape to a Deccan policy to bring these states under Mughal control. During this period the Deccan states were facing internal tensions 29and regular conflicts. In 1591, Akbar sent offers to the Deccan states asking them to accept Mughal sovereignty, but there was not much success. Now Akbar decided on a policy of agression. The first expedition was dispatched to Ahmednagar under the command of Prince Murad and Abdul Rahim Khan Khanan. In 1595, the Mughal forces invaded Ahmednagar. Its ruler Chand Bibi decided to face the Mughals. She approached Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur and Qutub Shah of Golkonda for help but with no success. A fierce conflict followed. After heavy losses on both sides, a treaty was worked out and Chand Bibi ceded Berar to Mughals. After some time Chand Bibi attacked Berar to take it back. At this point Nizamshahi, Qutabshahi and Adilshahi troops decided to present a joint front. The Mughals suffered heavy losses but could retain their position. Meanwhile, serious differences between Murad and Khan Khana weakened Mughal position. Akbar, therefore, recalled Khan Khanan and deputed Abul Fazl to Deccan. After Prince Murad’s death in 1598, Princé Daniyal and Khan Khanan were sent to Deccan. Ahmednagar was captured. Soon the Mughals also conquered Asirgarh and adjoining regions. Adil shah of Bijapur also expressed allegiance and offered his daughter in marriage to Prince Daniyal. Meanwhile Chand Bibi also died. Now Mughal territories in Deccan included Asirgarh, Burhanpur, Ahmedanagar and Berar. Rajput Policy The most momentous events of 1562 were Akbar’s marriage to a Rajput princess, daughter of Raja of Amber, and the conquest in Rajasthan. The marriage led to a firm alliance between the Mughals and the Rajputs. It seems that Akbar was fully aware of the importance of Rajput kingdoms and wanted them as allies in his ambition of establishing a large empire. He tried to win over the Rajputs wherever possible and inducted them into Mughal service. He also entered into matrimonial alliances with the Rajput rulers like Bharmal. Raja Bharmal of Amber was the first to enter into alliance with Akbar. The Rajput kingdoms like Merta and Jodhpur were also occupied without much resistance. However, Aharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar posed most serious challenge to the Mughal emperor and did not submit before Akbar. After a prolonged struggle and siege of the fort of Chittor, Akbar succeeded in defeating the Mewar forces. A large number of Rajput soldiers got killed in the war. However, it could not be fully subdued and some resistance from Mewar side continued for a long time. After the fall of Chittor Ranthambhor and Kalinjar were captured. Marwar, Bikaner and Jaisalmer also submitted to Akbar. By 1570 Akbar had captured almost the whole of Rajasthan. The most important achievement of Akbar was that inspite of the subjugation of the whole of Rajasthan there was no hostility between the Rajputs and the Mughals. 30Religious Policy: Din-i-Ellahi Beyond his ability as an effective conqueror, Akbar was a keen administrator who developed a centralized federal government that delegated tasks to powerful bureaucracies. But above all, he is perhaps best known for recognizing the importance of tolerance, which was paramount to his dynasty's long-term viability. A ruling class of Muslims could only last so long if its Hindu subjects lacked the opportunities and respect necessary for their own success. Therefore, Akbar removed the tax on Hindus, despite the traditional mandate in Islam to the non-believers, and invited scores of religious scholars, including Hindus, Jews, and Christians, to debate him personally in his private chambers, often late into the night. Akbar's wives were also of different religious backgrounds - each marriage was thus a strategic union that would allow the adherents ‘of India's many faiths to feel that they too were apart of the royal household. Over time, Akbar's fascination with religion grew to almost an obsession when he fashioned his own faith, called Din Ilahi. Din Ilahi was an eclectic mix of the other religions Akbar had studied during those late-night theological debates. He borrowed what he saw as the best components of each and blended them into the melange that became Din Ilahi. The new faith, however, never caught on among the Hindus and Muslims outside of his court, but despite this failure, Akbar continued to support religious tolerance among his people. 7, Administration: Zenith of Mughal Rule ‘Akbar by the mid-1560s had also developed a new pattern of king-noble relationship that suited the current need of a centralized state to be defended by a nobility of diverse ethnic and religious groups. He insisted on assessing the arrears of the territories under the command of the old Tarani (Central Asian) clans and, in order to strike a balance in the ruling class, promoted the Persians (Irani), the Indian Muslims, and the Rajputs in the imperial service. Akbar placed eminent clan leaders in charge of frontier areas and staffed the civil and finance departments with relatively new non-Tarani recruits. The revolts in 1564-74 by the members of the old guard—the Uzbeks, the Mirzas, the Qagshils, and the Atgah Khails—showed the intensity of their indignation over the change. Utilizing. the Muslim orthodoxy’s resentment over Akbar’s liberal views, they organized their last resistance in 1580. The rebels proclaimed Akbar’s half- brother, Mirzi Hakim, the ruler of Kabul, and he moved into the Punjab as their king. Akbar crushed the opposition ruthlessly. All economic matters fell under the jurisdiction of the Vizir assisted principally by three ministers to look separately after the state holding lands, the salary drafts, and the records of fiscal transactions. At almost all levels, the revenue and financial administration was run by a cadre of technically proficient officials and clerks drawn mainly from Hindu service castes—Kayasthas and Khatris. More significantly, in local and land revenue administration, Akbar secured support from the dominant rural groups. With the exception of the villages held directly 31by the peasants, where the community paid the revenue, his officials dealt with the leaders of the communities and the superior landrights holders zamindars. Who, as one of the most important intermediaries, collected the revenue from the peasants and paid it to the treasury, keeping a portion to himself against his services and zamindari claim over the land. (See Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,. The Mughal State 1526-1750, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004) Nine years into his reign, Akbar established a new capital at Agra, where he built the marvelous Fort named Agra. But by the 1570s, he moved it again, 40 miles west of Agra, to a new capital called Fatehpur Sikri. A local mystic, Salim Chisti, had successfully prophesized the birth of Akbar's first male son in 1569, so in honor of Chisti, Akbar built a mosque and eventually: the new capital by the site of the home of the holy man. Fatehpur Sikri was the architectural gem of his reign, but after less than 20 years there, Akbar packed his bags again and moved far north to Lahore, to present-day Pakistan. But again, the time at this capital was fleeting, and eventually Akbar resettled in Agra.Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of Agra at Sikandra. The throne was then assumed by his son Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir. Akbar's Architectural Legacy: Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1560s) Arab Sarai, Delhi (1560s) Khair-ul Manazil Masjid, Delhi (1561) Adham Khan's Tomb, Delhi (c. 1562) Dargah of Nizam-ud-din, Delhi (1562-2) Ataga Khan's Tomb, Delhi (1566) Afsarwala Mosque and Tomb, Delhi (1566) Agra Fort, including Amar Singh Gate and Jehangiri Mahal, Agra (1565~70) Ajmer Fort and Pavilion, Ajmer (1570-2) Lahore Fort and Palace, Lahore (1556) Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri (1571) Shaikh Salim Chishti's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri (1571-80) Islam Khan's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri Palace, Fatehpur Sikri (1571-85) Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri (1575-6) Allahabad Fort and Palace, Allahabad (1583) Muhammad Ghaus's Tomb, Gwalior Hari Parbat Fort, Srinagar (1586) Nasim Bagh, Srinagar 32COMPULSORY BOOKS Ali, Athar. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008. Qureshi, I. H. ed. A Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Rizvi, Athar Abbas. Landmarks of South Asian Civilizations: From Pre-history to the Independence of Subcontinent. Delhi: Manohar, 1983. SUGGESTED READINGS Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,, The Mughal State 1526-1750 New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Eralay, Abraham. The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India’s Great Emperors. London: Phoenix, 2004. Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan. Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008. Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Qureshi, | H. The Administration of Mughal Empire. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Sarkar, Jadunath. Mughal Administration. Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar, 2009. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. 33SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Give reasons for removal of Bairam Khan? 2. Examine the main political powers in India at the time of Akbar’s accession? 3. Which of the Rajput rulers posed challenge to Akbar and did not submit to his throne? 4. Name the female ruler who fought against the Mughals? Which territory was ruled by her? 34Unit-5 NURUDDIN MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR Written by: Dr. Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla 35CONTENTS Page # Introduction... 37 Objectives... 37 1. Early Life 38 2. Khusro's Revolt... 39 3. Noor Jahan... 39 4. Revolts of Khurram and Mahabat Khan.. 40 5. Jahangir's Architecture 41 Compulsory Readings .. 42 Suggested Readings... 42. Self-Assessment Questions... 42 36INTRODUCTION Akbar's son Nuruddin Muhammad, who took the title of Jahangir succeeded his father. In this Unit his period will be discussed. Compared to his legendary father Jalal ud Din Muhammad Akbar, Jahangir was neither a stellar monarch nor adventurous warrior; he was, however, quite competent in maintaining the status “quo, and for over 20 years, he did just that. Dividing his time mostly between Lahore and Agra Jahangir whittled away the years, maintaining the central administration, supporting the arts, and occasionally expanding the borders of the empire, though only marginally. OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, you will be able to: 1, Comprehend the causes and nature of revolt during Jahangir’s era. 2. Describe the role of Noor Jahan during Jahangir’s reign. 3. Analyze the character and achievement of Jahangir. 371. Early Life Jahangir decided to follow Akbar’s expansionist policy in the Deccan. But Jahangir could achieve little success in it due to certain problems. He could not devote much attention in the crucial phase due to Khurram’s revolt. The Mughal nobles were also involved in a number of intrigues and conflicts to gain-some advantages from Deccan. During the first three years, the Deccan regained half of Balaghat and many districts of Ahmednagar. Malik Ambar was the main ruler who managed to defeat Mughal forces and captured Berar, Balaghat and parts of Ahmednagar. The Mughals could not regain control of the lost territories. Meanwhile Shah Jahan revolted against his father and became friends with Malik Ambar, Malik Ambar made an attempt to capture Ahmednagar; but failing there, he took away Sholapur from Adil Shah and in alliance with Shah Jahan tried to capture Burhanpur but failed. Once peace was established between Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Malik Ambar was also pacified. Malik Ambar died in 1627 and was succeeded by. his son Fath Khan as Wakil and Peshwa of the kingdom. Fath Khan was arrogant and during his time the conflict between the Dakhnis and other nobles grew. During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan.In fact the Deccani rulers weakened the Mughal authority in their states. Over ambition of Malik Ambar was an obstacle in the way of a joint front of the Deccan states. During the period between the death of Jahangir and the accession of Shah Jahan, the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Khan Jahan Lodi, with the intention of securing help in times of necessity, gave away Balaghat to the Nizam Shah. After ascending the throne, Shah Jahan ordered Khan Jahan Lodi to recover it but as the latter failed, Shah Jahan recalled him to court. Khan Jahan tuned hostile and rebelled. He took shelter with Nizam Shah. This infuriated Shah Jahan and he decided to follow aggressive policy towards the Deccan states. Shah Jahan’s main concern was to recover the lost territories of the Deccan. He believed that independence of Ahmednagar was in the way of Mughal control in the Deccan. He decided to isolate Ahmednagar and win over Bijapur and Marathas. He was successful. Fath Khan son of Malik Ambar also made peace with Mughals. Now Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Deccan, But the conflict with Deccan states continued. Finally in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda. The main points of agreement with Bijapur were: * Adil Shah accepted the Mughal suzerainty. © He was to pay 20 lakh rupees as indemnity. ¢ He was not to interfere in the affairs of Golconda. ° Mughal emperor was to arbitrate in case of any dispute between Bijapur and Golconda. ¢ Adil Shah to help Mughals in conflict against Shahji Bhonsle Golconda also made a separate treaty. According to this treaty. 38e Golconda took oath of loyalty towards Mughal emperor. He agreed to include the name of the Mughal emperor in Khutba and exclude the name of Shah of Iran. © — Golconda agreed to pay two lakh huns per year to the Mughals. The treaties ended the conflicts in the Deccan. The Mughals could expand their area of dominance to large parts of Southern India. A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 165657 when the treaties were ignored. Then, Shah Jahan asked Aurangzeb to conquer and annex the territories of Deccan kingdoms. It is argued by some historians that this change of policy was to exploit resources of the Deccan states for Mughals. However, this change did not benefit the Mughal empire in any substantial way and created more problems for future. (See, Athar Ali. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008) 2. Khusro’s Revolt Within a few months of his accession, Jahangir had to deal with a rebellion led by his eldest son, Khusro who was reportedly supported by, among others, the Sikh Guru Arjun. Khusro was defeated at Lahore and was brought in chains before the emperor. The subsequent execution of the Sikh Guru permanently estranged the Sikhs from the Mughals. Khusro’s rebellion led to a few more risings, which were suppressed without much difficulty. Shah Abbas of Iran, taking advantage of the unrest, besieged the fort of Kandahar (1606) but abandoned the attack when Jahangir promptly sent an army against him. 3. Noor Jahan Noor Jahan (15771645) started off life as the daughter of a noble Persian who migrated to India seeking prosperity. Noor Jaharis father, Mirza Ghiyas Beg, fortuitously secured employment from the third Mughal emperor Akbar, who was known for his tolerant and welcoming court. Mirza Ghiyas Beg quickly rose through the ranks and so Noor Jahan grew up in the splendour and beauty of the royal court. At the age of seventeen she was married to a Persian officer named Sher Afghan but after his death she was married to Salim, Akbars son and successor Jahangir in 1611. Noor Jahan was extremely intelligent and highly educated, and she effectively accompanied the emperor in giving farmans— authoritative royal decrees - thus controlling most aspects of government. She also had the power to give promotions and demotions. 39.This was astonishing, as at this time women were thought incapable of governing, especially in such a forthright manner. Noor Jahan was considered to be a savvy businesswoman and helped commerce and trade to grow, both nationally and internationally, thus increasing the wealth of the empire. She collected duties on merchants’ goods and approved visitors to the court. She also engaged in international diplomacy with noble women in other realms, increasing the power of her empire. Noor Jahan became so powerful that coins were issued in her own name. Noor Jahan was known as a great patron of architecture and built many beautiful palaces, gardens and mosques, such as the Pathar Masjid mosque at Srinagar. Another great passion was the arts and she purportedly composed Persian poetry and sang. Noor jahan also loved reading and was owned a large personal library. Style and fashion were important to her taste, reportedly introducing many new designs of dresses including Dudami (flowered muslin).Her talents also included hunting and she often joined her husband on such expeditions. According to one legend Noor Jahan organised an army to rescue her husband when he was captured by rebels, joining the battle herself atop an elephant, shooting arrows into the enemy. 4. Revolts of Khurram and Mahabat Khan Revolt of Khurram (Shah Jahan) After failing to take Fatehpur Sikri in April 1623, Khurram retreated to the Deccan, then to Bengal, and from Bengal back again to the Deccan, pursued all the way by an imperial force under MahZbat Khan. His plan to seize Bihar, Ayodhya, Allahabad, and even Agra failed. At last Khurram submitted to his father unconditionally (1626). He was forgiven and appointed governor of Balaghat, but the three-year-old rebellion had caused a considerable loss of men and money. Revolt of Mahabat Khan Immediately upon the conclusion of peace with Khurram, the Noor Jahan decided to punish Mahabat Khan for his refusal to take orders from anyone but Jahangir. She ordered Mahabat Khan to go to Bengal and fiamed charges of disloyalty and disobedience against him. Instead of complying. he proceeded to the Punjab. where the emperor was encamped. Jahangir refused to see him. Mahabat Khan placed both the emperor and the queen under surveillance, but he was finally overcome. The ordeal greatly impaired the emperor’s health, and he died in November 1627. 40Character and Achievements: Jahangir consolidated the gains made by his father. The courtly culture of the Mughals flourished under his rule; like his great grand-father, Babar, he had an interest in gardens, and Mughal painting probably reached its zenith in Jahangir's time. Jahangir married Noor Jahan. "Light of the World", in 1611. Shortly after his death in October 1627, his son, Shah Jahan, succeeded to the throne. He inherited a vast and rich empire; and at mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world, exhibiting a degree of centralized control rarely matched before. $, Jahangir’s Architecture Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra (1605-12) Anarkali's Tomb, Lahore (1615) Buildings in Lahore Fort, including Moti Masjid and Bari Khwabgah, Lahore Sheikhupura Complex, Lahore Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar (1619) Nishat Bagh, Pathar Masjid, Srinagar Khusrau's Tomb, Allahabad (c. 1621) Itimad-ud-daulah's Tomb, Agra (1622-28) Chaunsath Khamba, Delhi (1623) Khan-i-Khanan's Tomb, Delhi (c. 1626) 41COMPULSORY READINGS Ali, Athar. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008. Qureshi, I. H. ed. A Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Rizvi, Athar Abbas. Landmarks of South Asian Civilizations: From Pre-History to the Independence of Subcontinent. Delhi: Manohar, 1983. SUGGESTED READINGS Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,. The Mughal State 1526-1750 New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Eralay, Abraham. The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India’s Great Emperors. London: Phoenix, 2004. Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan. Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008. Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Qureshi, 1 H. The Administration of Mughal Empire. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Sarkar, Jadunath. Mughal Administration. Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar, 2009. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Name the ruler from Deccan who defeated Mughal forces under Jahangir? 2. _ Which of the two states of Deccan had signed treaty with Mughals in 1636? 3. Which Mughal commander brought the Ahom kingdom under Mughal Control? 4... Analyse the contribution of Noor Jahan in the style and working of Mughal Empire. 42Unit-6 SHAHABUDDIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN Written by: Dr. Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla - 43CONTENTS Page # Introduction .... 45 Objectives... 45 1. Early Life... 46 2. — Central Asian Policy... 46 3. Deccan Policy. 46 4, — War of Succession... 47 5. Character and Achievements.. 47 Compulsory Readings ... 50 Suggested Readings... 50 Self-Assessment Questions 50 44INTRODUCTION In this Unit an effort is made to elaborate the character and achievements of Mughal ruler Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan. His reign was considered as the most glorious period of Muslim rule in subcontinent. His policies and achievements will be discussed such as in Central Asian and Deccan states. OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, you will be able to: 1. To elaborate the role of Shah Jahan in consolidation of Mughal empire. 2. To analyse the terms on which Shah Jahan established peace with Bijapur and Golconda? 3. Evaluate the Deccan policy of Shah Jahan. 451. Early Life Prince Khurram was 35 years old when he ascended the throne as Shah Jahan (King of the World). Succeeding Jahangir in 1627, Shah Jahan enjoyed the support of experienced administrators and advisors — like his father-in-law Asaf Khan — who he inherited from the previous reign. Shah Jahan, revived Akbar's policy of pressing southward against the independent Muslim Sultanate of the Deccan. 2. Central Asian Policy Due to his conquests in the first decade, the empire grew in size and influence. Encouraged by this, Shah Jahan turned his attention towards Central Asia in the 1640s. He fought the Uzbeks in Balkh for several years before giving up. The other disastrous campaign was against the Safavids of Persia, who ruled Qandahar. Shah Jahan made three campaigns against the Safavids, but he could not succeed completely. Though Balkh and Qandahar were considered the ancestral homeland of the Mughals, their ambitions were upset by the harsh realities of cold weather, distance, sparse resources, and determined local resistance. 3. Deccan Policy During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan. In fact the Deccani rulers weakened the Mughal authority in their states. Over ambition of Malik Ambar was an obstacle in the way of a joint front of the Deccan states. Shah Jahan and he decided to follow aggressive policy towards the Deccan states. Shah Jahan’s main concern was to recover the lost territories of the Deccan. He believed that independence of Ahmednagar was in the way of Mughal control in the Deccan. He decided to isolate Ahmednagar and win over Bijapur and Marathas. He was successful. Fath Khan son of Malik Ambar also. made peace with Mughals. Now Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Deccan. But the conflict with Deccan states continued. Finally in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda. The main points of agreement with Bijapur were: * Adil Shah accepted the Mughal suzerainty. * He has to pay 20 lakh rupees as indemnity. ¢ He has not to interfere in the affairs of Golconda, Mughal emperor was to arbitrate in case of any dispute between Bijapur and Golconda. ¢ Adil Shah to help Mughals in conflict against Shahji Bhonsle. 46Golconda also made a separate treaty. According to this treaty: © * Golconda took oath of loyalty towards Mughal emperor. He agreed to include the name of the Mughal emperor in Khutba and exclude the name of Shah of Iran. * Golconda agreed to pay two lakh huns per year to the Mughals.(See, Athar Ali. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008) The treaties ended the conflicts in the Deccan. The Mughals could expand their area of dominance to large parts of Southern India. A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 1656-57 when the treaties were ignored. Now, Shah Jahan asked Aurangzeb to conquer and annex the territories of Deccan kingdoms. It is argued by some historians that this change of policy was to exploit resources of the Deccan states for Mughals. However, this change did not benefit the Mughal Empire in any substantial way and created more problems for future. 4, War of Succession Shah Jahan had strict control over the throne during his early phase of rule. Later on with the growth of empire some measures of devolution became inevitable. The royal jealousies and tensions also fuelled the situation and he had to face revolts from his own siblings. When he was dying in 1658, a war of succession broke out between his four sons. The two principal claimants to the throne.were Dara Shikoh, who was favoured by the nobles and officers, who were committed to the tolerant policies of previous rulers, and Aurangzeb Alamgir, who was supported by powerful men more inclined to turn the Mughal Empire into an Islamic state according to the laws of the Shari’a. Aurangzeb won and though the. Mughal Empire saw yet further expansion in the early years of his long reign (1658-1707), by the later part of the seventeenth century the empire was beginning to disintegrate. But despite his successes as a patron of art and architecture, Shah Jehan was unable to gauge the discontent among his own court. A power struggle among his sons ensued, and eventually, the Alamgir ousted Shah Jahan in a coup d'etat in 1658. Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the tower of Agra fort which was beautiful addition to the fort that he himself had constructed and would remain there until his death, eight years later, in 1666. He was then buried next to his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in the Taj Mahal, Agra. 475. _ Character and Achievements Shah Jahan has left behind an extraordinary architectural legacy. It was at his command that the famous Taj Mahal was built in Agra in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. This mausoleum, made of white marble, took seventeen years to complete, and has intricate carvings and designs. His Peacock throne was another celebrity of ceremonial display. It featured precious stones embedded in gold. In 1648, he moved his court to the newly constructed capital, Shahjahanabad, at Delhi. Shahjahanabad was a carefully designed courtly city. The emperor's great palace fortress, Qila Mubarak was built on the bank of the river Yamuna; opposite it stood the grand Mosque, the Jamia Masjid, which remains to this day the largest structure in the state. Shah Jahan kept his architects and artisans occupied by numerous other ventures. The Mughal Empire achieved its greatest prosperity under Shah Jahan. His traditional biographers have suggested that his military campaigns were organized with assiduousness, and judging from the hospitals and rest houses built in his reign, he appears not to have been devoid of a social conscience. He is said to have donated liberally to the poor and dispensed justice fairly. Poetry and music flourished in his reign. (See, Athar Ali. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008.) Shah Jehan's Architectural Legacy: Anar Sagar Pavilions, Ajmer Palaces in Agra Fort, including Anguri Bagh, Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, and Diwan-i-Aam, Agra (1627-38) Taj Mahal, Agra (1631-52) Black Pavilion (Shalimar Bagh), Srinagar (1630) Wazir Khan's Mosque, Lahore (1634) Shalimar Bagh, Lahore (1637) Palaces in Lahore Fort, including Chati Khwabgah, Diwan-i-Aam, and Mussaman Burj, Lahore 48Asaf Khan's Tomb, Lahore (c. 1641) Shahjehanabad, Delhi (1638-48) Red Fort and Palace, Delhi (1639-48) Chini ka Rauza, Agra (c, 1639) Jamia Masjid, Agra (1648) saci Masjid, Delhi (1650-56) Fatehpuri Masjid, Delhi (1650) Moti Masjid (Agra Fort), Agra (1654) 49COMPULSORY READINGS Ali, Athar, Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 2008. Qureshi, I. H. ed. 4 Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Rizvi, Athar Abbas. Landmarks of South Asian Civilizations: From Pre-History to the Independence of Subcontinent. Delhi: Manohar, 1983. SUGGESTED READINGS Alam, Muzaffar and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ed,. The Mughal State 1526-1750 New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Eralay, Abraham. The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India’s Great Emperors. London: Phoenix, 2004. Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan. Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008. Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Qureshi, I. H, The Administration of Mughal Empire. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1992. Sarkar, Jadunath. Mughal Administration. Calcutta: M.-C. Sarkar, 2009. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Examine the terms on which Shahjahan established peace with Bijapur and Golconda? 2. Evaluate the Deccan policy of Shah Jahan. 3. Elaborate the title of Shah Jahan as the builder emperor in the history of Mughal Empire? 50Unit-7 MOHIYUDDIN MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR Written by: Dr Samina Awan Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Chawla 51CONTENTS Page # Introduction ... 53 Objectives... 53 1. Early Life 54 2. Central Asian Policy . 54 3. Deccan Policy.. 54 4. Relations with English East India Company in South Asia .... 5S 5. War of Succession... 55 6. Character and Achievements... 56 Compulsory Readings . 58 Suggested Readings... 58 Self-Assessment Questions...... 58 52INTRODUCTION This Unit deals with the early life of Aurangzeb and the main events of Indian politics during his reign. It unfolds his Central Asian and Deccan Policy and his relations with the English East India Company. At the end the war of succession and his character and achievements will be discussed. OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you will be able to: 1. Examine the Deccan policy of the Emperor. 2. Analyze the relationship between Mughal court and the English East India Company. 3. Discuss the character and achievements of Alamgir as an Emperor. 531, Early Life Aurangzeb was born on November 4, 1618, the third son of Emperor Shah Jahan and the Persian princess Arjumand Bano Begam, commonly known as Mumtaz Mahal, "Beloved Jewel of the Palace." She later inspired Shah Jahan to build the famous Taj Mahal. During Aurangzeb’s childhood, however, Mughal politics made life difficult for the family. Succession did not necessarily fall to the eldest son; instead, the sons built armies and competed militarily for the throne. Prince Khurram was the favorite to become the next emperor, and his father bestowed the title Shah Jahan (King of the World) on the young man. In 1622, however, when Aurangzeb was four years old, Prince Khurram leamed that his step-mother was supporting a younger brother's claim to the throne. The prince revolted against his father, but was defeated after four years. Aurangzeb and a brother were sent to their grandfather's court as hostages. When Shah Jahan's father died in 1627, the rebel prince became Emperor of the Mughal Empire. The nine-year-old Aurangzeb was reunited with his parents at Agra in 1628. The young Aurangzeb studied statecraft and military tactics, the Holy Quran and languages, in preparation for his future tole. Shah Jahan, however, favored his first son Dara Shikoh, and believed that he had the potential to become the next Mughal emperor. 2. Central Asian Policy The Deccan Policy during the reign of Shah Jahan had been embittered. Mughals had lost Qandhar to Persia and their support for Muslim states of Deccan and dissident princess provoked the relations between Mughals and Persia. All efforts to mellow down the tension between both were failed. Aurangzeb had also received an emissary ftom Uzbeg ruler of Balkh but he was too engaged to respond towards Central Asian politics. Although he wanted to establish a relationship based on the idea of Sunni solidarity for a future relationship, a policy weekly followed up by Shah Jahan himself. Alamgir was may be in favour of establishing of larger diplomatic network of Muslim states without any interference in their domestic affairs. For that reason, he sent an emissary to Bukhara and gave refuge to dispossessed ruler of Kashghar in Mughal court. Later on his nephew was given military support for the recovery of his kingdom. Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial limits and it covered almost the whole of present day India. But his reign was marred by popular revolts of the Jats, Satnamis, Afghans, Sikhs and the Marathas. The Rajputs emerged as an important support base of the Mughals under Akbar, and later on under Jahangir and Shah Jahan. However under Aurangzeb they started feeling alienated and gradually lost their position in administrative set up. The Marathas posed a major challenge to the sovereignty of the Mughals under Aurangzeb. Deccan states put up a stiff resistance against Mughal expansion 34plans, The North-West Frontier Region was also trouble spot and Mughals had to suppress disturbances. In the process of the establishment and expansion of Mughal Empire the successive rulers faced resistance and had to negotiate their way through diverse means and strategies. 3. Deccan Policy ‘Alamgir remained engaged for a quarter of century with northern and Central Asian expeditions. Marathas got sufficient time to reunite themselves within this time. Aurangzeb was convinced that his personal presence and interest was inevitable in Deccan to restore the Mughal prestige. The Marathas emerged in the Deccan as a vital force under Shivaji in the middle of the 17th century and began to challenge the Mughal authority. Shiviji started his offensive operations in 1656 and captured the principality of Javli. Afier some time, Shivaji raided the Bijapur territory, and, in 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur sent his general, Afzal Khan, to capture Shivaji. But Shivaji was too clever to be caught. Ultimately, in 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur entered into a peace settlement with Shivaji and acknowledged him as an independent ruler of his conquered territories. Shivaji now began to devastate the Mughal territories. Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the viceroy of the Deccan, with a big army against Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed between the two. Out of the 35 forts held by Shivaji, he agreed to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals. The remaining 12 forts (with annual income of one lakh of huns) were to be left with Shivaji. Shivaji was asked to pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra. But, when Shivaji went there, he was ill-treated and was taken a prisoner. He managed to escape, reaching Raigarh in 1666. From then onwards, he waged a relentless struggle against the Mughals. Soon he conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals. In 1670, he plundered Surat for the second time. In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh his Capital and celebrated his coronation, and assumed the title of Chatrapati. Shortly, after this, he made a great expedition into southern India and conquered Jinji Vellore and many forts in Karnataka. He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years. In this short time he founded the Maratha kingdom, which dominated western India for a century and a half. Shivaji’s successor was his son Sambhaji. Many Maratha chiefs did not support Sambhaji and extended help to Rajaram the other son of Shivaji. The internal conflict weakened Maratha power. Finally Sambhaji was captured and put to death in 1689 by Aurangzeb. Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram as his son Sahu was still young. Rajaram died in 1700. He was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji IIT under the regency of Tara Bai, his mother. The failure of Aurangzeb against the Marathas was largely due to Tara Bai’s energy and administrative genius. The Mughals, however, suéceeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival’ camps-one under Tara “Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son, Sahu. Sahu, who for long was in the Mughal court, was released. He succeeded in deposing Tara Bai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath. 55