MODULE 1

(lesson 1-3)
Overview

Athletics is a group of sporting events that involves competitive running, jumping,

throwing, and walking. The most common types of athletics competitions are track and field,
road running, cross country running, and race walking.

Objectives

1. To be able to know the history of track and field.

2. Describe many of the events that comprise track and field
3. Explain the different terminologies used in track and field

Lesson 1: HISTORY OF TRACK AND FIELD (ATHLETICS)

The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC, when Koroibos, a cook from the nearby
city of Elis, won the stadium race, a foot race 600 feet long. According to some literary
traditions, this was the only athletic event of the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals.

Other evidence, both literary and archaeological, suggests that the games may have existed at
Olympia much earlier than this date, perhaps as early as the tenth or ninth century BC. A series
of bronze tripods have been found at Olympia, some of which appear to be dated at about the
ninth century BC, and it has also been suggested that these tripods may in fact be prizes for
some of the early events at Olympia.

The marathon was not an event of the ancient Olympic Games. The marathon is a
modern event that was first introduced in the Modern Olympic Games of 1896 in Athens, a race
from Marathon—northeast of Athens—to the Olympic Stadium, a distance of 42.195
kilometers. The race commemorates the run of Pheidippides, an ancient “day runner” who
carried the news of the Persian landing at Marathon of 490 BC to Sparta (a distance of 149
miles) in order to enlist help for the battle. According to the fifth-century BC ancient Greek
historian Herodotus, Pheidippides delivered the news to the Spartans the next day. The
distance of the modern marathon was standardized as 26 miles and 385 yards or 42.195
kilometers in 1908 when the
Olympic Games were held in
London. The distance was the
exact measurement between
Windsor Castle, the start of
the race, and the finish line
inside White City Stadium.

From 776 BC, the games were held in Olympia every four years for almost twelve centuries.
Additional athletic events were gradually added until, by the fifth century BC, the religious
festival consisted of a five-day program. The athletic events included three foot races (stadion,
diaulos, and dolichos) as well as the pentathlon (five contests: discus, javelin, long jump,
wrestling, and foot race), pugme (boxing), pale (wrestling), pankration, and the hoplitodromos.
Additional events, both equestrian
and for humans, were added
throughout the course of the history of
the Olympic Games. Equestrian
events, held in the hippodromos,
were an important part of the
athletic program of the ancient
Olympic Games and by the fifth
century BC included the tethrippon
and the keles.

Track-and-field athletics in the

United States dates from the 1860s. The Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of
America, the nation’s first national athletic group, held the first collegiate races in 1873, and in
1888 the Amateur Athletic Union (which governed the sport for nearly a century) held its first
championships.

As track and field developed as

a modern sport, a major issue
for all athletes was their status
as amateurs. For many years
track and field was considered a purely amateur sport and athletes could not accept training
money or cash prizes.

If charged with professionalism, athletes could be banned from competition for life. In 1913,
American Jim Thorpe was stripped of his 1912 Olympic victories in the decathlon and
pentathlon and banned from further competition after it was learned he had played
semiprofessional baseball. (In 1982, the International Olympic Committee [IOC] posthumously
restored both Thorpe’s amateur status and his two Olympic medals.)

Beginning in the 1920s, track and field’s scope

widened. The first NCAA national championships
were held for men in 1921, and women’s track and
field became part of the Olympic Games in 1928. In
1952, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
sent its first Olympic team ever to the Summer
Games in Helsinki, Finland, where the squad captured
several track-and-field medals. Over the next 30
years, the U.S. and Soviet teams battled in one of the
sport’s longest and most competitive rivalries.
Women’s track struggled for widespread acceptance until the 1970s, when track and field as a
whole enjoyed a boom in popularity. During that time, the U.S.-based International Track
Association (ITA) organized a professional track circuit. The venture, although popular among
fans, went bankrupt after several years. Few athletes wanted to participate in ITA competitions
because athletes were actually receiving larger illegal payments for appearing at amateur
meets than legitimate professionals were making on the new circuit. Many athletes also turned
away from ITA competition because it
disqualified them from participating in future
Olympic Games. The Athletics Congress now
regulates the sport in the United States; the
International Amateur Athletics Federation
(IAAF) sanctions international competition.
Track and field has been the centerpiece of
the Summer Olympic Games since their
revival in 1896. International professional
running, initiated in the 1970s, has had
limited success.

Lesson 2: EQUIPTMENT USED IN TRACK AND FIELD

If you’ve ever competed in or watched a track-and-field event, you might not have
realized just how much work and preparation goes into putting it all together. In addition to
getting the athletes and events organized, officials have to worry about the various pieces of
equipment necessary to conduct a track-and-field meet.
Starting Blocks

Starting blocks serve as one of the most important pieces

of equipment for track events of 400 meters and shorter,
according to USA Track and Field. Officials use starting
blocks not as an aid to runners, but as a means for
protecting the surface of the track. Most starting blocks
consist of foot pads that runners can adjust based on their
preferred starting position.

Hurdles

Hurdles is a specific track event that combines the skill of

running with the ability to jump over stationary objects. USA
Track and Field regulates not only the height of the hurdles
for different events, but the space in between the individual
hurdles. Hurdle heights range anywhere between .84 meters
for women’s events to 1.067 meters for men’s events,
according to USA Track and Field. In men’s 110-meter
competition, the distance between hurdles is 9.14 meters, up
from 8.5 meters in the women’s 100-meter event.

Discus

The discus event features the use of a rounded disc,

challenging competitors to see who can throw the
object the farthest. Like other events, equipment
regulations specify the size and weight and makeup of
the discus. Rules specify the discus be made of wood or
other similar material with a metal rim, and may be
either solid material or hollow. The weight specifications
range anywhere between .75 and 2 kilograms,
depending on the competitor’s preference, but shall
have an outside diameter ranging between 166 and 221
millimeters.

Javelin

It might seem just like a long stick with a pointy end,

but track-and-field regulations specify that the javelin
weigh between 400 and 800 grams, with a minimum
length of 750 millimeters and a maximum length of
1060 millimeters. Rules stipulate that the javelin must be made of metal or other similar
material, with three main parts: the head, shaft and cord grip to aid the player in throwing.

Shot Put

The shot put is an event that requires players to throw a large

metal ball as far as possible down the field. The ball, known as the
“shot,” is made of solid metal and may have a latex covering on the
outside to assist competitors with their grip. For men’s
competition, the shot weighs 7.26 kilograms. For women, the
shot weighs 4 kilograms.

Baton 

a hollow cylinder passed from runner to runner in a relay race. sports

implement - an implement used in a sport.

Steeplechase Hurdle 

The steeplechase hurdle can be adjusted in

height. The heights are 76.2 cm. 83.8 cm and
91.4 cm

The hurdle is available in two different lengths

3.96 m and 5.00 m. It is offered with and
without base support. The hurdles measure a
weight of approx.

Lesson 3: TERMINOLOGIES USED IN TRACK AND FIELD

 Baton - a tube that is passed from one relay race member to another. The runner
holding the baton is the current runner for that team in the race. They are typically
about 1 foot long and 1.5 inches in diameter.
 Decathlon - a combined track and field event that consists of 10 different events.
Sometimes the decathlon winner is dubbed the greatest athlete in the world.
 Discus - a throwing event in track and field where a metal discus is thrown for distance.
 Fosbury Flop - a technique used in the high jump where the jumper's goes head first
over the bar with their back toward the bar when going over it.
 Hammer - the hammer throw is a track an field throwing event where a large heavy ball
connected to a handle with a long chain is thrown for distance.
 Heptathlon - a combined track and field event that consists of 7 different events.
 High Jump - a track and field jumping event. Athletes must clear a high bar without
knocking it over by jumping.
 Hurdle - an obstacle in a race that runners must jump or clear while running.
 Javelin - a track and field throwing event where a spear-like javelin is thrown for
distance.
 Long Jump - jumping event where athletes compete for the longest jump in distance.
 Pace - the rate at which a runner is running. It's important in long distance races to have
the proper pace; slow enough so the runner doesn't tire out before the end of the race,
but fast enough to win.
 Pentathlon - a combined track and field event that consists of 5 different events.
 Pole vault - a track and field jumping event where a long pole is used to propel the
jumper to great heights.
 Relay race - a race involving multiple runners (typically 4) where each runner runs a leg
of the race handing off a baton to the next runner.
 Sandpit - an area in a jumping event (i.e. long jump or triple jump) where the athlete
lands.
 Shot put - a field throwing event where a heavy ball is thrown for distance.
 Sprint- a short running race where acceleration and top speed are important.
 Starting blocks - items used in sprint races where the runner puts their feet in to get a
good start for the run.
 Steeplechase - a middle to long distance run with obstacles including large hurdles and
water.
 Triple Jump - a track and field jumping event with three distinct phases to the jump
including a hop, a step, and a jump.

MODULE 2
 TRACK EVENTS

World Athletics, the sport's governing body, defines athletics in six disciplines: track and field,
road running, race walking, cross country running, mountain running, and trail running.
Mountain running was added in 2003 and trail running was added in 2015.

Objectives:

 To know the different Events in track and Field

 To understand the different rules in Track and Field
 To enumerate all events in Track and Field

LESSON 4: Sprint and Middle Distance Running and Hurdling

Track events include sprint, middle distance, hurdle, steeplechase events and Long distance
Run

Sprint: Sprinting is running over a short distance in a limited

period of time. It is used in many sports that
incorporate running, typically as a way of quickly reaching a
target or goal, or avoiding or catching an opponent

100 meter Dash: The shortest common outdoor running

distance, it is one of the most popular and prestigious events in the sport of athletics.
200 Meter Dash: is a sprint running event.
On an outdoor race 400 m track, the race
begins on the curve and ends on the home
straight, so a combination of techniques are
needed to successfully run the race.

400 Meter Dash: is a sprinting event in track

and field competitions. It has been featured
in the athletics programme at the Summer
Olympics since 1896 for men and since 1964
for women. On a standard outdoor running
track, it is one lap around the track.

Middle-distance running: in athletics (track

and field), races that range in distance from
800 metres (roughly one-half mile) to 3,000
metres (almost 2 miles). In international
competitions, middle-distance races
include the 800 metres, the 1,500 metres
(the metric mile), and the 3,000 metres
(a steeplechase event for men, but a
regular run for women)

The First athlete to run a mile in less than four minutes is Roger Bannister of England in 1954,
captured world attention.

800 meter run: It is the shortest common middle-distance running event. The 800

metres is run over two laps of the track (400-metre track) and has been an Olympic event since
the first games in 1896.

1500 metres or 1,500-metre run: (typically pronounced 'fifteen-hundred meters’) is the

foremost middle distance track event in athletics. The distance has been contested at the
Summer Olympics since 1896 and the World Championships in Athletics since 1983

Also known as the metric mile, this is a premier middle-distance race, covering three and three-
quarter laps around a standard Olympic-sized track.
3000 metres or 3000-metre run: is a track
running event, also commonly known as the 3K or
3K run, where 7.5 laps are completed around an
outdoor 400 m track or 15 laps around a 200 m
indoor track.

This race requires decent speed, but a lack of

natural quickness can be made up for with
superior aerobic conditioning and race tactics.

The records at this distance were set by D (Kenya)

(7:20.67)

The 3,000-meter steeplechase is a distance event

requiring greater strength, stamina, and agility
than the flat 3,000-meter event. This is because
athletes are required to jump over five barriers
per lap, after a flat first 200 m to allow for settling
in. One barrier per lap is placed in front of a water
pit, meaning that runners are also forced to deal
with the chafing of wet shoes as they race. 

The world records are held by Saif Saeed

Shaheen (Qatar) (7:53.63, Brussels. 3 September
2004)

Hurdling: Hurdling is the act of running and jumping over an obstacle at speed, In the early 19th
century, hurdlers ran at and jumped over each hurdle, landing on both feet and checking their
forward motion. After experimenting with different
step patterns the 3-step for high hurdles, 7-step for
low hurdles, and 15-step for intermediate hurdles
was decided on. In the sport of athletics, hurdling
forms the basis of a number track and field events
which are a highly specialized form of obstacle
racing. In these events, a series of barriers known
as hurdles are set at precisely measured heights
and distances which each athlete must pass by
running over.
 400 metres hurdles:  is a track and field hurdling event. The event has been on
the Olympic athletics programme since 1900 for men and since 1984 for women.

On a standard outdoor track, 400 metres is the

length of the inside lane, once around the
stadium. Runners stay in their lanes the entire
way after starting out of the blocks and must clear
ten hurdles that are evenly spaced around the
track. The hurdles are positioned and weighted so
that they fall forward if bumped into with
sufficient force, to prevent injury to the runners.
Although there is no longer any penalty for
knocking hurdles over, runners prefer to clear
them cleanly, as touching them during the race slows runners down.

110 metres hurdles, or 110-metre hurdles: is

a hurdling track and field event for men. It is
included in the athletics programme at
the Summer Olympic Games. The female
counterpart is the 100 metres hurdles. As
part of a racing event, ten hurdles of
1.067 metres (3.5 ft or 42 inches) in height
are evenly spaced along a straight course of
110 metres. They are positioned so that they
will fall over if bumped into by the runner. Fallen hurdles do not carry a fixed time penalty for
the runners, but they have a significant pull-over weight which slows down the run. Like
the 100 metres sprint, the 110  metres hurdles begins in the starting blocks.
Lesson 5: (Long Distance, Marathon, Cross Country and Race Walking)
Long-distance running, or endurance
running: is a form of continuous running over
distances of at least 3 kilometers (1.8 miles).
Physiologically, it is largely aerobic in nature
and requires stamina as well as mental
strength.

In modern human society, long-distance

running has multiple purposes: people may
engage in it for physical exercise,
for recreation, as a means of travel, for economic
reasons, or for cultural reasons. Long-distance running
can also be used as a means to improve cardiovascular
health.

Long-distance running: in athletics (track and field),

footraces ranging from 3,000 metres through 10,000, 20,000, and 30,000 metres and up to
the marathon, which is 42,195 metres (26 miles 385 yards). It includes cross-country races over
similar distances.

The 5000 metres or 5000-metre run: (approximately

3.1 mi or 16,404 ft) is a common long-distance
running event in track and field. It is one of the track
events in the Olympic Games and the World
Championships in Athletics, run over 12.5 laps of a
standard track. The same distance in road running is
called a 5K run. The 5000 m has been present on the
Olympic programme since 1912 for men and since 1996
for women. Prior to 1996, women had competed in an
Olympic 3000 metres race since 1984.

The 10,000 metres or the 10,000-metre run:  is a common long-distance track running event.

The event is part of the athletics programme
at the Olympic Games and the World
Athletics Championships, and is common at
championship level events. The race consists
of 25 laps around an Olympic-sized track. It is
less commonly held at track and field
meetings, due to its duration. The 10,000-metre track race is usually distinguished from its road
running counterpart, the 10K run, by its reference to the distance in metres rather than
kilometers.

The 10,000 metres is the longest standard track event. The international distance is
approximately 6.2137 miles (or approximately 32,808.4 feet). Most of those running such races
also compete in road races and cross country events.

The MARATHON: is a long-distance race with

an official distance of 42.195 kilometers,
usually run as a road race. The event was
instituted in commemoration of the fabled
run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides, a
messenger from the Battle of Marathon to
Athens, who reported the victory.

According to legend, the Greek messenger

Pheidippides had to run from the battlefield in Marathon all the way to Athens to announce the
defeat of the Persians. ... The original footrace was called a marathon in honor of the legend
and as a result it also covered 25 miles.

ROAD RUNNING : is the sport of running on a measured course over an established road (as

opposed to track and field and cross country running).

These events are usually classified as long-distance according to athletics terminology, with

races typically ranging from 5 kilometers to 42.2 kilometers in the marathon. They may involve
large numbers of runners or wheelchair entrants. The four most common IAAF recognized
distances for "road running" events are 5K runs, 10K runs, half marathons and marathons.

CROSS COUNTRY RUNNING is a sport in which teams

and individuals run a race on open-air courses over
natural terrain such as dirt or grass. Sometimes the
runners are referred to as harriers. The course,
typically 4–12 kilometers (2.5–7.5 mi) long, may
include surfaces of grass, and earth, pass
through woodlands and open country, and
include hills, flat ground and sometimes gravel road. It is both an individual and a team sport;
runners are judged on individual times and teams by a points-scoring method. Both men and
women of all ages compete in cross country, which usually takes place
during autumn and winter, and can include weather conditions of rain, sleet, snow or hail, and
a wide range of temperatures.

RACE WALKING: or race walking, is a long-distance discipline within the sport of athletics.
Although a foot race, it is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in contact
with the ground at all times. This is assessed by race judges.

MODULE 3
FIELD EVENTS

Jumping Events: Men and women compete in four jumping events: the high jump, long jump,
triple jump, and pole vault.

LESSON 6: JUMPS
Long jump: also called broad jump, sport in athletics (track-and-field) consisting of a horizontal
jump for distance. It was formerly performed from both standing and running starts, as
separate events, but the standing long jump is no longer included in major competitions. It was
discontinued from the Olympic Games after 1912. The running long jump was an event in the
Olympic Games of 708 BCE and in the modern Games from 1896.

There are five main components of the long jump: the approach run, the last two strides,
takeoff, action in the air, and landing. Speed in the run-up, or approach, and a high leap off the
board are the fundamentals of success.

Triple jump: also called hop, step, and jump, event in athletics (track and field) in which an
athlete makes a horizontal jump for distance incorporating three distinct, continuous
movements—a hop, in which the athlete takes off and lands on the same foot; a step, landing
on the other foot; and a jump, landing in any manner, usually with both feet together. If a
jumper touches ground with a wrong leg, the jump is disallowed. Other rules are similar to
those of the long jump.

The rules for the triple jump are quite simple for an athlete. An athlete simply needs to do the
following.

 Start the jump before the board. If they go over the foul line on the take-off board, the
attempt will be discarded as a foul.

 When jumping, the athlete must land on the same foot used to take-off (Hop).

 During the second phase, the athlete must land on the opposing foot and initiate the
third phase of the jump.

 The athlete can land in the sand.

  The measured distance will be measured from the closest mark in the sand to the take-
off point.

High jump, sport in athletics (track and field) in which the athlete takes a running jump to attain
height. The sport’s venue (see illustration) includes a level, semicircular runway allowing an
approach run of at least 15 metres (49.21 feet) from any angle within its 180° arc. Two rigid
vertical uprights support a light horizontal crossbar in such a manner that it will fall if touched
by a contestant trying to jump over it. The jumper lands in a pit beyond the bar that is at least 5
by 3 metres (16.4 feet by 9.8 feet) in size and filled with cushioning material. The standing high
jump was last an event in the 1912 Olympics. The running high jump, an Olympic event for men
since 1896, was inclu ded in the first women’s Olympic athletics program in 1928.

Dick Fosbury using the Fosbury flop

technique.
 Upright

Landing Pad

Crossbar

Fosbury flop

Dick Fosbury, byname of Richard Douglas Fosbury, (born March 6, 1947, Portland, Oregon,
U.S.), American high jumper who revolutionized the sport by replacing the traditional approach
to jumping with an innovative backward style that became known as the “Fosbury flop.”

TECHNIQUES USED IN HIGH JUMP

The High Jump comprises of three main elements: the approach; the takeoff and
the bar rotation. A good approach to high jump coaching is to look at and work on these three
elements individually.

Following are some of the important rules of high jump set by International Association of
Athletic Federation (IAAF)

 Take-off must be made with one foot only.

  Dislodging of the bar or breaking the plane near the edge of the bar before clearing will
not be counted as successful jump.

 Jumping height is decided by the Chief Judge. Players can accept the challenge or may
pass it.

 If the competitor fails to jump the required height in three consecutive attempts, then
he/she will be disqualified from the competition.

 During the final match, whoever clears above the bar with highest height is declared as
winner.

 In case there is a tie, following two conditions may be applied to decide the winner.

o The player who has fewer misses at the height at which the tie has occurred, is
declared as winner.

o The player who has fewest misses in the overall tournament is declared as
winner.

 The jumpers have to face a jump-off if there will be a tie for a first place.

 The height will be greater than the previous level. Each player will be given one chance
for each clearance

Pole vault: sport in athletics (track and field) in

which an athlete jumps over an obstacle with the
aid of a pole. Originally a practical means of
clearing objects, such as ditches, brooks, and
fences, pole-vaulting for height became a
competitive sport in the mid-19th century.
An Olympic event for men since the first modern
Games in 1896, a pole-vault event for women was
added for the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, Australia.

An athletic event in which competitors attempt to vault over a high bar with the end of an
extremely long flexible pole held in the hands and used to give extra spring.
in competition, each vaulter is given three chances to clear a specified height. A bar rests on
two uprights so that it will fall easily if touched. It is raised progressively until a winner emerges
by process of elimination. Ties are broken by a “count back” based on fewest failures at the
final height, fewest failures in the whole contest, or fewest attempts throughout the contest.
The pole may be of any material: bamboo poles, introduced in 1904, quickly became more
popular than heavier wooden poles; glass fiber became the most effective and popular by the
early 1960s. The poles may be of any length or diameter.

A slide way, or box, is sunk into the ground with its back placed directly below the crossbar
(see illustration). The vaulter thrusts the pole into this box upon leaving the ground. A pit at
least 5 metres (16.4 feet) square and filled with soft, cushioning material is provided behind the
crossbar for the landing.

The rules of this sport are made and governed by IAAF (International Association for Athletic
Federation). Now let’s learn about some important common rules.

General Rules

 On the scoring form, it is mandatory to mention the weight of the athlete next to his
name.

 At any particular height, maximum three trials are allowed.

 After three consecutive failures in trial, the athlete is automatically removed from the
tournament.

 After taking the first attempt, it is advised to take second and third consecutive attempts
at the same height.

Trial Time Limitation Rules

Trial time limitation rules are as follows −

 An athlete has to perform within two minutes of calling his name.

 In case three competitors are there, a window gap of four minutes is allowed and in
case one is remaining, a max of six minutes of window gap can be allocated to perform.

In case there is a tie between two persons for a same height, then the athlete having less
number of attempts is declared as winner.

Rules regarding Competitions

 No artificial weights or aid are allowed to be used in the competition.

 Using shoes that can give unfair advantage to an athlete is strictly prohibited.

 Unless there is a wound, no tapping is allowed on any part of the fingers. However,
tapping at the wrist is allowed.

 Without the permission, no athlete is allowed to use the pole of any other competitor.

 Planting box must be checked properly to make sure that it is free from any foreign
substance.

Rules regarding Foul

A foul in Pole Vault is caused due to any of the following reasons −

 Displacing the crossbar from its original position with the help of pole or athlete’s body.

 Failing to cross the crossbar after being lifted up from the ground.

 Without clearing the bar, touching any part of ground or landing part with either body
or pole.

 Incorrect upright position during the clearance of crossbar.

 Displace the crossbar by connecting an upright after the clearance.

LESSON 7: THROWS
SHOT PUT, sport in athletics (track and field) in which a spherical weight is thrown, or put, from
the shoulder for distance. It derives from the ancient sport of putting the stone.

the shot put is a track and field event involving "putting" (pushing rather than throwing) a
heavy spherical ball—the shot—as far as possible. The shot put competition for men has been a
part of the modern Olympics since their revival in 1896, and women's competition began in
1948.

The first to use a shot (cannon ball) instead of a stone competitively were British
military sports groups. Although the weight varied in early events from 3.63 to 10.9 kg (8 to 24
pounds), a standard, regulation-weight 7.26-kg (16-pound) shot was adopted for men in the
first modern Olympic Games (1896) and in international competition. The event was added to
the women’s Olympic program in 1948. The weight of the shot used for women’s competition is
4 kg (8.8 pounds); lighter weights are also used in school, collegiate, and veteran competitions.

The shot put is an athletics (track and field) throwing event involving "putting" (throwing in a
pushing motion) a heavy metal ball (called the shot) as far as possible.

The shot generally is made of solid iron or brass, although any

metal not softer than brass may be used. It is put from a circle
2.135 metres (7 feet) in diameter into a 40° sector as measured
from the center of the circle. The circle has a stop board 10 cm (4
inches) high at its front; if the competitor steps on or out of the
circle, the throw is invalidated. The shot is put with one hand and
must be held near the chin to start. It may not drop below or
behind shoulder level at any time.

Shot Put rule:

When an athlete's name is announced, he or she will be having only 60 seconds to commence
the throwing motion. For safety purpose, the players can tape their fingers but they certainly
cannot wear gloves. The resting position of the shot is near the neck and it should remain over
there throughout the motion.
DISCUS THROWING is considered by many the classic event of athletics, the Greek Poet Homer
having made references to discus throwing in the 8th century BC. Modern male athletes throw
a 2-kg (4.4-pound) plate like implement from a 2.5-metre (8.2-foot) circle. The discus is
launched after the thrower, starting at the back of the circle, has completed one and a half
turns. The women’s discus weighs 1 kg (2.2 pounds).

Legendary among discus throwers are the feats of Al Oerter (U.S.), the first to throw over 200
feet (61 metres). He won an Olympic gold medal at the 1956 Games as a 20-year-old and at
each of the following three Games as well. He also set four world records. A standout among
women throwers was Faina Melnik (U.S.S.R.), who set 11 world records.

GAME RULE

Rules Regarding Discus

Here are some of the important rules regarding discus −

 The discus can be made of any material such as wood but it must have a circular edge
with a metallic rim.

 Inner construction can be both solid and hollow.

 The cross section of the edge should be made in circular manner and it should have a
radius of 6mm.

 All sides of the discus should be identical. They must be free from any type of sharp
edges or irregularities.

 Finishing of the discus should be smooth.

Rules Regarding Cage

Here are some important rules regarding cage −

 The construction and the strength of the cage should be such that it can arrest a disc of
around 2Kg coming at a speed of 25m/sec.

 There should be no threat of rebounding of the disc from the cage.

 The cage should have at least one side open. Therefore it is often recommended to
construct it in a “U” shape.

 At the lowest pint the height of the netting point should be 4m.

 Synthetic and natural fiber is the idle material for the construction of the net. However,
high tensile strength steel wire can also be used.

Rules Regarding Throw

Here are some important rules regarding throw −

 The discus can only be thrown by an athlete when he or she will stand inside a circle
which has a diameter of 2.5m.

 During the course of throw, the athletes are prohibited from touching the top of the
rim. However, they can touch the inner part of the rim.

 An athlete cannot touch the ground beyond the circle.

 If the athlete leaves the circle before the landing of the disc on the ground, then it will
be considered as a foul throw.

 In the Olympic matches, each athlete is given 8 chances to showcase their talents.

 There is particular boundary of landing of the disc. If the disc lands outside that zone,
then that throw is considered invalid.

HAMMER THROW

The implement used in the hammer throw is not a conventional hammer but a metal ball at
least 110 mm (4.3 inches) in diameter attached to a wire, the whole implement being a
minimum of 1,175 mm (46.3 inches) in length and weighing a minimum of 7.2 kg (16 pounds).
The handle at the end of the wire opposite from the ball is gripped by the thrower and released
after three or four body turns have developed maximum centrifugal force. The throwing circle
is slightly smaller than that of the discus. Women’s hammer throw was introduced into
international competition in the 1990s. The hammer used by women is slightly shorter and
weighs a minimum of 4 kg (8.8 pounds).

American athletes of Irish birth or descent totally dominated the event from the 1890s to the
1930s and included John Flanagan, who unofficially set 17 world records and won three
Olympic gold medals (1900, 1904, and 1908). After the passing of the Irish dynasty, the power
shifted to the eastern Europeans. Among them was Yury Sedykh (U.S.S.R.), who won at the
1976 and 1980 Olympics and raised the record from 80.32 metres (24.5 feet) to 86.74 metres
(26.4 feet).

HAMMER TRHOW RULES

Athlete has to abide by the following rules while performing in a Hammer Throw competition −
 Before the starting of preliminary swinging, an athlete is allowed to put the head of
hammer either inside or outside the circle.
 It is not a foul if before the starting of preliminary swing, the thrower puts his hammer
on ground but if after preliminary swing, the head of the hammer touches ground or
the hammer is dropped by the athlete, then it will be counted as a foul.
 While being in the air, if the hammer breaks then it will not be counted as foul,
provided the athlete has played under correct rules and regulations.

Rules About Hammer

A hammer consists of the following three parts: Metal head, Wire, and Grip.
  The head of the hammer should be made up of solid material like iron and it should be
spherical in shape. The diameter should be 110 mm for men and 95 mm for women.

 Filling is allowed and should be done in such a manner that it will be immovable and the
centre of gravity will not be more than 6 mm from the centre of the sphere.

 Wire that is going to be used over here will be single and

unbroken type having a minimum diameter of 3mm. It
should not stretch more while being in air. The wire can
be lobbed to the either ends of the hammer.

 Construction of the grip can be either single or double

loop type but it should be rigid and should not have any hinging joints at both the sides.

 The grip should be attached to the wire in such a manner that it cannot be turned within
the loop of the wire.

 Measurement of the hammer should be done from the inside of the grip.

 To ensure the safety of the spectators, the performance should be carried out inside an
empty cage.

 JAVELIN THROW

Javelin throwing involves a spear like

implement that is hurled with an over-the-shoulder motion at the end of an approach run. It is
a direct descendant of spear-throwing contests, introduced in the Olympics of 708 BC. The
men’s javelin weighs about 800 grams (1.8 pounds) and must be at least 260 cm (8.5 feet) long.
The women throw a javelin that must weigh at least 600 grams (1.3 pounds) and be at least 220
cm (7.2 feet) long. It is the only throwing event not using a circle. The javelin is not r enquired
to stick but must land point-first for a valid throw.

Throwers from Finland have historically been a

force in the event. Matti Järvinen, a Finn,
established 10 world records and improved the
record by 6.22 metres, finally reaching 77.23 metres (253 feet 4.5 inches) in 1936. As records
continued to be broken, there was less and less space within the stadium to throw the javelin
safely. Terje Pedersen (Norway) broke the 300-foot (91.44-metre) barrier in 1964, and by
1984 Uwe Hohn (East Germany) had thrown a prodigious 104.80 metres (343.8 feet), a throw
so great that it influenced a change in the design of the javelin to keep it within the safe
confines of the field. Beginning in 1985, throwers used a javelin that, at the same weight, was
designed to reduce the length of the throw by 9 to 12 metres (30 to 40 feet). The design of the
women’s javelin was changed after successive world records pushed close to 80 metres (262.5
feet) in the late 1980s.

RULE OF THE GAME

Knowledge of throwing techniques well help you emerge as a winner in a competition. You
must also be aware with various rules of a match else you will earn a penalty even after your
best throw. So here are some of the important rules.

 Holding the javelin must be done at the grip part and should always be maintained
above the shoulder level.

 For valid throw, the javelin must lie before the specified zone and its tip should hit the
ground.

 There is a special marking line on the runway within which the athlete needs to throw.

 The athlete should not leave the ground until the javelin lands on the ground.

 After the throwing action has been made, the thrower should not turn back towards the
pointing direction, until it lands.

 The number of throws allowed per athlete is same as that of the discus throw.

 Once the competition has started, the athletes cannot use the perimeter for practise
purpose.

 Using any device that may assist the thrower in throwing is strictly prohibited. For
example, tapping of fingers are not allowed unless there is a wound.

 The throw will be considered as a foul in the following cases −

o Improper throw of the javelin in the attempt.

o Demarking of the line with any body part.

o Player going out of the marking line while throwing

 o The tip of the javelin lies outside the edges of the landing sector.

 The time is increased to 1 minute if there are 2-3 number of competitors. In case only
one competitor is left, time is increased to 2 minutes.

DECATHLON AND HEPTATHLON

Both men and women participate in multi-event competitions, the

men in the 10-event decathlon and the women in the 7-
event heptathlon, which superseded the earlier pentathlon. The
competitions, which require a two-day schedule, are held
basically at international meets and national championships. In
the United States they also are scheduled in many college
conference championships.

Rafer Johnson

Rafer Johnson participating in the shot put event of the decathlon

at the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome.

Each athlete is given points for performance in each event, with

more points awarded for better marks. The athlete with the most total points wins.

Men compete in five events each day, doing consecutively the 100 metres, long jump, shot
put, high jump, and 400 metres on the first day and the 110-metre hurdles, discus throw, pole
vault, javelin throw, and 1,500-metre run in that order on the second day. Women do, in order,
the 100-metre hurdles, high jump, shot put, and 200 metres on the first day, followed by the
long jump, javelin throw, and 800 metres on the second day.

Jim Thorpe, the great all-around American athlete, won the first decathlon, taking the
1912 Olympic Games contest, and for many years it was mostly an American event. Bob
Mathias (U.S.) won his first decathlon at age 17 in 1948 and repeated it four years later.
Another two-time winner was Daley Thompson of England, victorious in 1980 and 1984.
Notable in the heptathlon was Jackie Joyner-Kersee, a record setter and winner at the 1987
World Championships and 1988 Olympics.

GENERAL RULES FOR HEPTATHLON AND DECATHLON

Here are a few of the differences between normal track & field rules and decathlon practices:
1. The Decathlon for men must always be held on two consecutive days and contested in the
following order:

First Day Second Day

100 Meter Dash 110m Hurdles
Long Jump Discus Throw
Shot Put Pole Vault
High Jump Javelin Throw
400 Meter Dash 1500 Meter Run

The Decathlon for women must always be held on two consecutive days and contested in the
following order:

First Day Second Day

100 Meter Dash 110m Hurdles
Discus Throw Long Jump
Pole Vault Shot Put
Javelin Throw High Jump
400 Meter Dash 1500 Meter Run
The IAAF determined the order of events for women at the turn on the century and it has been,
to say the least, controversial.

The rulebooks will also list the order for other multi-
event competition including men's pentathlon, women's
heptathlon and indoor multi events.

2. An interval of at least 30 minutes should be allowed

between the time one event ends and the next event
begins. At the discretion of the games committee this
interval can be altered.

3. Each competitor will be allowed only three attempts in the

long jump, shot put, discus throw and javelin throw.

4. It is recommended that fully automatic timing be used. If the

meet is manually timed, three time keepers shall time each
competitor independently. If the times differ the median time
shall be adopted. If for any reason only
two register times, and they differ, the
slower of the two shall be adopted as
official.
5. At the present time the IAAF has adopted a new false start rule, charging any also start to the
entire field and disqualifying an athlete after the next false start. It was not a welcome addition
to the rulebook. In the US organizing groups have resisted this rule and continue to disqualify
runners after tw o false starts. Athletes and coaches should be informed as to which false start
rule applies for it can make a difference.

6. In the high jump and pole vault the games

committee (not the athletes!) will set the
starting height and the bar will be raised by
3cm (for high jump) and 10cm (for pole vault).
The specific sets of heights (for example, high
jump bar going through 2.00m, or 2.01m, or
2.02m; or pole vault bar going thru 4.00 m or
4.01m or 4.02m, etc.) can be announced well in
advance of the event and the starting heights
adjusted downward to accommodate all athletes.
It is not recommended that the athletes
determine the starting height, a common and
faulty practice only in the US. Not only does this
practice give the weakest athletes a competitive
advantage but it makes the decathlon the world's
only sport where the weakest athletes set the
rules!

7. All measurements are metric. It is recommended that all measurements be made with a steel
tape. The shot put, discus and javelin throws are measured to the least centimeter. Until
recently the discus and javelin had to be measured to the least even centimeter. This is no
longer the case.

8. The determination of sections and lane

assignments for running events can be drawn
by lot but it is now standard practice to use
recent past performances to seed races. It is
recommended that only past performances
from the qualifying window be used. In some

cases, this may be the current indoor season. In

others it may be more than a year (e.g. IAAF world
champs or Olympic Games). We now live in
an information world and such data is readily available. Seeding is also advisable in field events,
especially in the high jump and pole vault. No fewer than three competitors shall start in any
section. In the final event, the 1500 meters, the leaders after nine events should run in the
same section. The referee shall have the power to rearrange groups. Because modern timing
equipment can handle large fields, it has become standard practice to include many athletes
(up to 24) in 1500m sections.

9. Hurdles are placed in adjacent lanes, except in collegiate meets where hurdles, if there is a
sufficient reason, can be placed in alternate lanes.

10. If a competitor fouls another competitor in any event he shall lose the points gained for that
event but shall be allowed to compete in succeeding events unless the referee deems that the
loss of points is not a sufficient penalty.

11. Athletes must make an attempt at each

event. This rule is designed to guarantee that
the athlete intends to do a 'decathlon' and not
just set records or get a workout in single
events. Athletes failing to start any event are
considered to have abandoned the competition,
receive no final score and are not included in
the final placing.

12. The event scores, cumulative scores and places shall be announced to the competitors at
the completion of each event.

13. The winner of the competition is the

athlete who has scored the highest number
of points on the IAAF scoring tables. If there is
a tie score, the athlete scoring the higher
number of points in the most events shall be
awarded the high place. If a tie still remains,
then the competitor who has earned the
highest number of points in any single event
will be given the higher place. If the tie still
exists on goes to the second highest number of points, and so on. This rule applies to all
decathlon competitions including the NCAA which now (since 2011) breaks ties using the above
rubric.
 MODULE 4
(STARTING POSITION, RUNNING POSITIONS AND TECHNIQUES)

Lesson 8: Sprint Starts 

In the sprinting events, there is a need to have an efficient start. ... From a kneeling position,
place the left (stronger) foot forward so that the edges ... Blocks firmly located in the track;
Feet correctly located in the blocks; Fingers ...

What Are the Different Types of Starts? 

Sprint starts are very commonly used in athletics ranging from sprints to a number of middle
and long distance events. The two main variations are the standing and the crouch start which
are used for middle or long distance events and sprints respectively. The standing start is used
by beginner athletes before they progress to the crouch start, while competitive athletes use
the block start that allows them to apply force and thus aids in push off that can be transferred
into horizontal velocity.

On your marks!

Drive and Accelerate

Set
CROUCH START

The Crouch Start Is Divided Into FOUR Stages:

1. "On Your Marks"

a. Both feet are touching the ground.
b. Knee of rear leg rests on ground.
c. Hands are placed on the ground mare than
shoulder width apart with fingers arched.
d. Head is level with back, eyes are looking
straight down.  

2. "Set"
a. Heels press forwards.
b. Knee of front leg is at a 90 degree angle.
c. Knee of rear leg is at an angle between 120 - 140 degrees.
d. Hips are slightly higher than the shoulders, the trunk is inclined forward.
e. Shoulders are slightly ahead of hands.

3. Drive
a. Trunk straightens and lifts as both feet press hard against the blocks.
b. Hands lift from ground together then swing alternatively.
c. Push of the rear leg is hard/short, the front leg's pus is a little less hard but longer.
d. Rear leg moves forwards rapidly while the body leans forwards.
e. Knee and hip are extended during the drive.

4.   Acceleration
a. Front foot is placed quickly onto the ball of the foot for the first stride.
b. Forward lean is maintained.
c. Lower legs are kept parallel to the ground during recovery.
d. Stride length and stride frequency increase with each stride.
e. Trunk straightens gradually after 20 - 30 metres.

TYPES OF SPRINT STARTS

There are three types of sprint starts:
 Bunch or Bullet start - The toes of the rear foot are approximately level with the heel of
the front foot, and both feet are placed well back from the starting line.
 Medium start - the knee of the rear leg is placed opposite a point in the front half of the
front foot.
 Elongated start - the knee of the rear leg is level with or slightly behind the heel of the
front foot.
Standing start:  is the most appropriate technique for young novice athletes to use at the
beginning of a race. One foot is placed forward - behind, not on the line - pointed directly down
the track. The other foot is placed back (about one-foot space); pointed directly down the track,
the heel is lifted.

Standing start is a type of start in auto racing events, in which cars are stationary when the race
begins.

What are the steps in doing the standing start?

 Drive your arms and legs forward

 Step through with the back foot first. Place your front foot a forearm's length behind
the start line
 Place the knee of your back leg on the ground level with your front foot
 Place your hands shoulder-width apart - behind, not on the line.

Standing Start Technique

A standing sprint start is about as simple as it sounds. Your lead foot is placed just before the
starting line and your feet remain shoulder-width apart. You want to balance about two thirds
of your body weight on your front foot with a slight forward lean and a slight bend to the knees.
Keep your head, back and neck in line and synchronize your right arm with your left foot, and
visa versa. Remain motionless before the start of the race.
Lesson 9: Starting area of different Running Event
Lesson 10: Running Techniques

The Skill of Sprinting:

Sprinting is a skill which means you can train your body to be significantly faster. 
Like any skill, it takes practice and time to learn and develop the proper technique.

However: 

Sprinting isn’t just “running faster.” 

Understanding the difference between sprinting and running technique is critical.
Sprinting is about applying the maximum amount of force down to the ground.

The Six Rules of Sprinting Technique

 Run with the hands moving from the hips (pockets of pants) to the chin, eliminating
side-to-side motion.
 Maintain a 90-degree bend of the elbows, and drive the elbows back.
 Keep the shoulders square.
 Pull the knees straight up, and do not allow them to angle towards the midline of the
body.
 Run by striking the ground directly below the hips, particularly when accelerating.
 Run on the balls of the feet. Don’t be flat footed and noisy. If I can hear you coming,
then you’re too slow.

Resisted sprints can be performed by adding an

external load to make a sprint more
challenging. Tools for this include bungee
cords, a weighted sled, or a weighted vest.
This can be structured to reach a desired
outcome for more speed, or to just simply
make the conditioning aspect of
sprinting more challenging.

 Assisted sprints force you to run faster than

you would be capable of running on your own.
Assisted sprints can be performed by running on
a slight downhill grade, or by using a bungee
cord to assist the speed of the runner.

Distance Running Technique

Distance Running Technique
Proper biomechanics for distance running is important to maximize the body’s energy and help
prevent injury. Teaching proper running form and making technical adjustments are critical
factors in developing the highest level of performance.

Keys to Proper Running Form

Head
 Look straight ahead with the chin slightly down
 Keep face relaxed and loose
Posture
 Keep tall
 Square shoulders
 Keep the body in-line
Arm Action
 Hands to shoulder height on the
forward swing motion
 Elbows back to the hip
 Forward and back, avoid any cross body
motion
 Hands cupped but loose
Legs
 Strike the with the middle of the foot
 Land the foot directly under the body
 Bring the knee and toe up
 Lift the heel to the hamstring
 Be active driving off the ground with
each stride

 
Making Changes in Running Technique

Runners that make changes later in their career could be at higher risk for injury, but the long-
term benefits can make a significant difference in performance.
Adjusting the running technique is a risk-reward proposition for coaches and athletes: a
possible improvement in performance versus a greater risk for injury as the body adapts to the
new style.

Distance Running Like A Sprinter

Top distance runners need to utilize outstanding running mechanics and follow the technical
formula for used by sprinters to help with speed development in training and during critical
pace changes during a competition.
MODULE 5: RELAYS
Relay race, also called Relay, a track-and-field sport consisting of a set number of stages (legs),
usually four, each leg run by a different member of a team. The runner finishing one leg is
usually required to pass on a baton to the next runner while both are running in a marked
exchange zone.

In most relays, team members cover equal distances: Olympic events for both men and women
are the 400-metre (4 × 100-metre) and 1,600-metre (4 × 400-metre) relays. Some non-Olympic
relays are held at distances of 800 m, 3,200 m, and 6,000 m. In the less frequently run medley
relays, however, the athletes cover different distances in a prescribed order—as in a sprint
medley of 200, 200, 400, 800 metres or a distance medley of 1,200, 400, 800, 1,600 metres.

The relay method of racing was started in the United States about 1883. The original method
was for the men running the second quarter of the course each to take over a small flag from
the first man as he arrived, before departing on their own stage of the race, at the end of which
they, in their turn, handed on their flags to the awaiting next runners. The flags, however, were
considered cumbersome, and for a time it was sufficient for the outgoing runner to touch or be
touched by his predecessor.

The BATON, a hollow cylinder of wood or plastic, was introduced in 1893. It is carried by the
runner and must be exchanged between lines drawn at right angles to the side of the track 10
metres or 11 yards on each side of the starting line for each leg of the relay. In sprint relays (400
and 800 metres) a 1964 rule change permitted the runner receiving the baton to start his run
10 metres or 11 yards before the zone, but he had to take the baton within the zone itself.

4 x 100-meter relay

The 4 x 100 relay, also called the 400-

meter relay, is a sprint relay with four
runners. Each runner runs approximately
100 meters before handing off a baton to
the next runner. Before running the 4 x
100 relay, make sure that you and your
teammates are experienced with sprint
running and have practiced the baton
exchange. This will help you to decide the
order of your team, and ensure e that
you run your best race possible!
Positions in Oval

First Runner:

Place your best starter first. The ideal first runner has an

explosive takeoff and never gets disqualified for false
starts. This position also requires fast running around the
bend of the oval track.

Second Runner:

Choose the second runner. The second runner should

perfect their baton handling skills, as the second leg
involves both receiving and passing the baton. This is a
straight leg, so this is a good spot for a fast sprinter who
is not really good at bends/curves

This is a great spot for your fastest runner if they are

much faster than the other three. This is especially true if
your fastest runner is also great at baton handoffs.
Third Runner:

Pick a good bend runner for the third leg. In general,

shorter runners are best around curves because they can
accelerate faster than taller runners. This position also
benefits from good baton handoff skills, and from the
ability to compete under the pressure.

 Although unorthodox, it could be smart to put your

fastest runner here if they are also good on bends.
A 200m specialist could do well on this leg.

Last Runner or the Anchor:

End with an eager finisher. Many teams place their

fastest runner last, perhaps so they can claim the glory!
In fact, psychology may be more important than raw
speed. This runner cannot get discouraged if they start
the fourth leg behind the other teams. Choose a
competitor who thrives under the end of race pressure.

 If your two fastest runners are much faster than

the other two, place them second and fourth.
This allows you to maximize the distance they
run.

 At high levels of competition, choose a runner with advanced finishing techniques. This
includes "lifting," a running form with light ground contact and rapid knee lifts, and
lunging, a carefully timed forward fall so the chest crosses the finish line sooner.

Baton Hand Over

References:

1. Track and Field". Scholastic. Retrieved 22 July 2019.

2. ^ Rosenbaum, Mike. Introductions to Track and Field Events. About. Retrieved on 2014-
09-28.
3. Effard, Tracy (17 December 2008). "Historic Amateur Athletics Association (AAA)
Championships to be revived". IAAF. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
4. National Championships In Track & Field Athletics: Introduction| News access date=22
July 2019}}
5.  The Relays!. Sports Illustrated (2 May 1955). Retrieved on 9 April 2010.
6. ^ Rosenbaum, Mike. A Brief History of Sprints and Hurdles. About.com. Retrieved on 9
April 2010.
7.  Miller, Steven G. (2004). Ancient Greek Athletics. Pg. 68. Yale University. ISBN 0-300-
11529-6.
8.  IAAF. Retrieved on 10 May 2010.
9.  Rosenbaum, Mike. Introduction to the Long Jump. About. Retrieved on 10 May 2010.
10.  Rosenbaum, Mike. Introduction to Middle Distance Running. Track and Field-About.
Retrieved on 5 April 2010.
11. ^ Middle Distance Running. Australian Institute of Sport. Retrieved on 5 April 2010.