CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter defines several theories related to this research. This chapter specifically

discusses the theory of online learning, speaking for academic purposes and its learning

challenges, including definitions, factors, and related elements.

2.1 Online Learning

COVID-19 has resulted in shutting down schools around the world to eliminate the

COVID-19 spread. As a result, education has changed dramatically, with the emergence of

distinctive e-learning, where teaching is done remotely using a digital platform.

2.1.1 Definition of Online Learning

E-learning or electronic learning which is also currently referred to as online learning is

a learning system by means of knowledge acquisition that occurs through the use of technology

and electronic media. Simply put, e-learning is defined as "electronically activated learning".

Online learning is carried out remotely where students can access learning materials anytime

and anywhere using an internet connection (Albernathy : 2020). Furthermore, Clark and Mayer

(2016) defined E-learning as instructions delivered through digital devices with the intent of

supporting learning in their research paper “E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven

guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. Arkorful and Abaidoo defined

e-learning as using information and communication technologies for enabling access to online

teaching and learning resources in their 2015 research paper “The role of e-learning,

advantages, and disadvantages of its adoption in higher education. Online learning is a learning

process or activity that uses an online platform or application. Online learning involves using

network technologies such as the Internet and business networks for delivering, supporting,

and assessing formal and informal education (Shank & Sitze: 2004, pg. 27). Online learning

represents 21st-century education when technology has become an essential approach to ease

the educational process. That is a condition where the teaching and learning style has improved

to be more modern. This rapid global development has made online learning even more

popular. Moreover, in today's rapid development of technology, online learning has emerged

as an alternative mode of teaching and learning to traditional modes of teaching and learning.

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Students can receive text, images, audio and video sources, and interpersonal interactions

through hyperlinks and online questions.

This happens because of the flexibility and easy use of the internet. Furthermore, online

learning is also an excellent solution when students and teachers cannot come to school. There

are several reasons why online learning is in great demand and fame among the world

community. Technology provides many features that make it easy for users to send documents,

video conferences, virtual discussions, etc. The many conveniences provided in the form of

features on each platform or application intended to support learning, teaching, and course

administration. Therefore, online learning is becoming increasingly attractive to be applied in

education in this era. Some examples of features available in applications used for online

learning are shared teaching material or documents, discussion rooms, assignment rooms,

assessments, class books, chat rooms, and video calls (Britain & Liber : 2012).

2.1.2 Online Learning Platform

Learning Platform used in online learning or can be called a Learning Management

System (LMS). LMS can be defined as a web-based software platform that provides an

interactive online learning environment and automates the administration, organization,

delivery, and reporting of educational content and student outcomes. Moreover, the LMS

contains materials in pedagogical competencies, which are made in multimedia packages in

the form of text, photos, videos, sound, and files. This is given as an addition to competency

development in learning (Munir : 2010). LMS offers learning innovations that include

innovations in ICT, especially those based on virtual web online learning. As an LMS system,

it is necessary to know the level of effectiveness and efficiency. Several models have been

constructed to analyze and understand the factors that influence the use of LMS.

a) Google Classroom: Google Class is an internet-based service application provided by

Google as an electronic learning system. To access google classroom, students and

teachers must use a google account. The features contained in google classroom are

designed to help teachers and students carry out distance learning (Martinez, et. al.:

2017). Google Classroom makes it easy by providing features that support the learning

process. In highlight, the teacher can send the assignment or material file to the

classroom that has been created, and all students can access the file. Teachers can also

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 immediately provide grades and feedback on student assignments. In addition, teachers

can also open online discussion spaces for their students.

b) Zoom meeting: Zoom is a cloud-based collaborative video conferencing service that

offers features such as online meetings, group messaging services, and secure session

recording (Archibald et. al.: 2019). Zoom provides the advantage of a feature to

communicate in real-time with users in various places and regions that can be

connected via a computer, tablet, or cellphone. What is more, Zoom also has many

other advantages that can increase the potential of its users. Moreover, as stated in

Zoom Video Communications Inc. (2016). Zoom has a geographically dispersed

presence, allowing its users to connect directly to Zoom Cloud via a locally defined

point of presence. A local path to Zoom Cloud will enable high-quality audio, video,

and collaboration services no matter where you are. The main feature of Zoom is the

ability to record and save every discussion session safely without using another

application. This feature is significant and valuable for users who need very personal

data protection. In addition to the features already mentioned, the essential feature is

the security feature. This is especially important because of user-specific authentication

data, real-time meeting encryption, and backing of recordings to a network of online

remote servers' "cloud" or local drives, which can then be shared securely for

collaboration purposes.

c) WhatsApp: WhatsApp is a free messenger application that works across multiple

platforms. Undergraduate students widely use it to send multimedia messages like

photos, videos, audio, and simple text messages. Many learning management systems

(LMS) have been developed that can be used as virtual classroom tools. WhatsApp is

a free messenger application installed on various types of gadgets such as iPhones and

Android phones (Gon & Rawekar: 2017). Moreover, this application is downloaded by

many people from various backgrounds, including students. The features provided by

WhatsApp are various for sending multimedia messages such as text, video, audio, and

photos. In the current learning process, WhatsApp is considered an application used as

a medium for delivering learning material (Altaany: 2015). Teachers often use this

application to send information before learning begins. It can also send files to subject

matter, assignments, and others. WhatsApp as a communication tool in learning will

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 get a faster response between students because this is the application most often opened

by students.

2.1.3 Advantage and Disadvantage of Learning Speaking for Academic Purposes via

Online Learning

Online learning provides much convenience for teachers and students, especially during

the teaching and learning process. The advantages of online learning include easy access to

classrooms, flexible learning times, and places. According to Samsuri et. al. (2014), e-learning

provides convenience and portability because students can access it anywhere, namely at

home, at work, or while in transit. Even though learning is carried out online because of the

COVID-19 pandemic, this is not a barrier because learning can be done anywhere. We can still

participate in webinars and international guest lectures as usual, even though we have switched

from face-to-face to virtual. Students and lecturers can quickly access material delivered by

presenters in other countries (Sadeghi : 2019). The use of technology to connect learning

activities also has many positive impacts on students and teachers.

The rapidly evolving IT technology motivates teachers to learn new tools and

applications that can be used to increase teacher creativity in creating educational content and

activities for their lessons. That way, students can receive material in full from the teacher

through the platform used. The material can be in the form of text (files), images, audio and

video sources, and interpersonal interactions via hyperlinks. Students can still interact and ask

questions with teachers and friends. Online classes. Research conducted by Ting Sung, et. Al.

(2016), found that online learning and the use of technology facilitate effective learning to

increase student affective. This likely happens because online learning can integrate more

teaching and learning strategies and perform more varied learning activities each time.

Although it provides many convenient aspects, there are many challenges students face

in online learning. The disadvantages of online learning include difficulties accessing the

Internet due to poor internet connection, inadequate gadgets for online learning, and a lack of

teacher creativity in teaching. Based on research conducted by Luaran et. al. (2014), data shows

that 39.82% of students get Internet access at home because most houses today have computers

and an Internet connection. Surprisingly, schools are the most challenging places for students

to access the Internet (10.62%). Over-reliance on technology is a significant drawback of

distance learning. If there is software or hardware damage, the class session will get stuck,

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interfering with the learning process. Moreover, the important thing that students must get

during the learning process is the opportunity to communicate. However, with online learning,

students do not have the opportunity to discuss freely with their classmates during the learning

process.

As mentioned by Thi Hue Dung (2020), mentioned, many students expressed their

concern about the lack of opportunities for social exchange and interaction between students.

Furthermore, they said that online learning could not completely replace face-to-face classes

to communicate more with classmates and teachers. Students also find it challenging to

understand the subject matter provided during online learning. This is because they have

limited time to ask questions and get more explanations from their teachers. From the teacher's

point of view, it is said that the most critical thing about online learning is the challenge of

managing virtual classrooms. When learning activities have started, many students are late to

attend class, and some leave the class even though the class has not finished. In addition, most

students did not activate the camera during virtual classes; this made it difficult for teachers to

communicate with students. The survey found that only 18 percent of participants were willing

to turn on their camera during virtual classes, and 96% of participants did not bother to use the

camera during class (Thi Hue Dung : 2020).

2.2 Speaking for Academic Purposes

Speaking for academic purposes is a general term used to describe spoken language in

various academic settings. In addition, it suggests that the language used usually is formal or

neutral and obeys the conventions associated with the genre or activity. Typically, situations

or activities covered are: participation in seminars/discussions, making oral presentations, and

answering ensuing questions or points.

2.2.1 Definition of Speaking for Academic Purposes

According to McKay & Hornby (2000), Speaking is an activity using language with

sound or speech; knowing and using it; expressing yourself in words; making a speech. Based

on this definition, it can be concluded that speaking is an important skill to have and also be

applied by making sounds and saying words. Talking is used for various activities such as

discussing, communicating, giving speeches, conveying ideas, and other things that can be

done with other people. Harmer (2002) stated that the ability to speak English presupposes the

elements necessary for oral production: Connected speech, Lexis, and grammar, Negotiation

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language, Comprehension, Pronunciation, Vocabulary, and Fluency. The use of academic

speaking is always closely related to complex activities such as academy discussions and oral

presentations. In academic speaking, students must have linguistic competence, and students

must also be able to understand and communicate specific topics related to scientific

disciplines or academic domains (Douglas : 2000).

Florez (1999) that this is known as 'oral communication, which is an activity that involves

two or more people acting as speakers and listeners responding to a topic they will discuss.

Skills in oral communicating are essential to development. Speaking is a skill that is always

needed and is a requirement that everyone must have when they want to apply for jobs

anywhere. Speaking skills can be used to negotiate with an agency and used to discuss

problem-solving with creative thinking. Speaking skills are essential, especially for academics,

to become educators admired for their skills, and it will be a highlight for those around them.

The need for oral academic communication such as making presentations, conferences, being

a speaker, conducting group projects, and discussing in fo-rums is essential at the level for

educators as well as students in various academic contexts (Leong et al., 2017).

2.2.2 Element in Speaking for Academic Purposes

According to Harris (1974), speaking skill components are concerned with fluency,

vocabulary, and grammar.

a) Fluency: Fluency is a part of speaking skills that serve to express ideas, especially

when speaking verbally. In the academic or professional scope, speaking fluency is

one of the skills that must be possessed and developed for presentations, seminars or

oral debates, and other academic activities carried out orally. Fluency in speaking

needs in-depth exploratory study because fluency must be interpreted broadly as a

skill or ability possessed by a person or an academic who can produce a speech that

is fast, precise, and easily understood by listeners (Brand & Götz: 2011; Crowther,

et. al.: 2015). As stated by Bøhn (2015), Gut, (2009) and Housen & Kuiken (2009),

the level of fluency in speaking can be determined by several supporting components,

such as the speed of speaking or taking several pauses while speaking, the number of

minor pronunciation errors, and the use of language formulas corresponding.

Fluency in speaking for an academic is essential because the material or topic

presented is crucial, which will be emulated by many people who see and hear his

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 presentation. Fluency in speaking or communicating is essential to produce clear

speech and meaning without difficulty understanding those who listen. Speaking

fluency can be developed or influenced by many variables such as frequent

communication, interacting in problem-solving tasks, negotiating in a job, and using

it in communication strategies. Apart from that Ellis and Sinclair: (1989) said that in

speaking, students should not make pauses, not repeat words, and not explain in

convolutions. Fillmore, (1979) defined speaking fluency as a) the ability to speak

fluently and at length with a few pauses in frequency; b) the ability to speak in a

coherent, clear, meaningful, and semantic discussion; c) expressive and tone

appropriate in the various points or contexts presented; d) creative and imaginative

in the use of words in explaining a topic. Further, Hedge (2000) stated that fluency

in speaking is influenced by several things such as giving responses related to

changes in the discussion, the use of the proper sentences and opinions to connect the

changed discussion, and clear and precise intonation and pronunciation.

b) Vocabulary: Vocabulary is the building block of language, which is the essential

part of language acquisition. Because without vocabulary, there is no mastery of the

language obtained. Vocabulary is a word based on linguistic analysis, a set of

properties where each word is a combination and contains meaning. The study of

word formation and word structure is called morphology. It is defined by Katamba :

(2005) that morphological theory provides a general theory of the structure of words

in all languages. To characterize or arrange them based on what language speakers

need to know about the structure of words in their language to produce and

understand the meaning of their speech correctly. Vocabulary is part of the language

elements that students must learn at every level of education or by themselves.

Another related study from Susanto (2017), states that vocabulary mastery is essential

in mastering a language. A student with a small vocabulary will find it difficult to

communicate or work well in every aspect of the language. Having an extensive

collection of vocabulary is essential when someone wants to learn a language,

especially English, which is always available at every level of education. Vocabulary

is needed to improve foreign language skills. Good language skills are instrumental

in the world of work. Many students or even scholars say they have difficulty

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 communicating in a foreign language because of their lack of a constant lexical.

Based on research by Nie & Zhou (2017), it is stated that basically, this proves that a

person's ability to master a language or especially in learning a foreign language is

closely related to vocabulary learning.

c) Grammar: In a language, many components make a language excellent and perfect.

Moreover, to mastering a language, the student must study each component of

language well. Several components exist in a language, namely the meaning of

words, sounds, and sentence forms. To make a sentence with a good and precise word

structure can be done by studying the formation of Grammar in a particular language.

In English, lessons that study the structure of words are called Grammar. English

grammar rules are beneficial for English usage and English writing. Grammar rules

tell us how we should form words and sentences so that mat is accepted as

grammatically correct. Linse & Nunan, (2005) defines Grammar as a rule that allows

us to make sentences with the correct choice and word order. A sentence will be

considered correct according to its context when using the correct words and

grammatical structures.

Another opinion is from Larsen-Freeman (2014) which states that Grammar is a

structured form of language to produce the meaning of a sentence in a language. In

conclusion, Grammar is one component of language that consists of rules for making

meaningful sentences. This means that Grammar is an essential part of learning a

language, especially English, because it is learned and used by many students in

school and other purposes. This is also reinforced by Harmer (2001, p. 12) who states

that ignoring the importance of following the grammar rules of a language will

damage our communication.

2.3 The Challenges in Learning Speaking for Academic Purposes

A challenge is something new and difficult which requires

great effort and determination (Collins dictionary). Therefore, in this study the challenges

happened in learning speaking for academic purposes course through online learning. As

mention by Angdhiri (2020) As a student participating in the home-learning program, online

school was confusing to adjust to as we had not been prepared through simulations or practices

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beforehand. Students reported the home-learning program to be even more stressful than

regular classrooms.

Speaking is a productive skill which is also the primary communication tool because it

shows the prominent use of language in society (Shteiwi & Hamuda: 2016). In addition,

speaking skills are fundamental for students to master because they can enable students to

communicate efficiently, especially speaking for academic purposes. After all, as students,

they will use them in academic-related activities. The students face some challenges in

speaking for academic purposes through online learning, less practice, limited time,

uncomfortable classroom environment, lack of internet connection, and gadget technical

trouble.

Several things become challenges and experiences for students in carrying out speaking

learning for academic purposes, such as a lack of practice and performance during learning, a

less supportive class environment, and problems from a technological aspect.

a) Less practice and performance: Speaking is one of the main goals of learning a

language because speaking a language shows that we have mastered the language.

Another purpose of speaking is to transfer and convey thoughts, opinions, or ideas to

others clearly and correctly. In other words, people can convey and communicate

their opinions well to others through talking (Argawati : 2014). Communication is

crucial for everyone to do. People need to talk to each other, tell stories, share ideas,

know the other person's expressions, and be able to understand each other. That is the

reason why people need to talk. The fact is that online learning is challenging to make

or decided small group discussions. Therefore, students have less practice or do not

have many opportunities to speak well with the classmate. Another reason

student lack speaking practice while studying is that many students are in one class

and the limited time for each meeting. In one speaking class includes many students,

each student will only have a little time to practice speaking because each student

speaks in turn, and those who do not get the opportunity to practice can only listen.

In speaking class, some students dominate the whole class while others speak very

little or never speak.

b) Less Supportive Classroom Environment: Learners share a classroom

environment, giving them the same relevant experiences they have the same teacher,

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 do the same activities simultaneously, create a shared classroom atmosphere, and so

on (Khajavy, et. al.: 2018). A class atmosphere that is conducive and full of

enthusiasm can influence the progress of learning. When students are excited and

bring positive vibes to the class, they will be more interested in these subjects and

achieve better results. The attitude or emotional state of teachers and students can

affect the atmosphere in the classroom when the learning process is taking place. In

Bronfenbrenner's (1979), ecological view of human development in education, the

classroom environment influences student success in addition to cognitive and

affective factors. Some students do not have high motivation to join the class because

of some factors. For example, they sometimes attend online classes only to do ab-

sent because they feel bored, low motivation, they feel that the online class

atmosphere is not as fun as the face-to-face class usual. Teachers find low motivation

and passive students in online learning settings. This can be seen from the small

number of students involved in discussions during the learning process. Some

students are unfocused and even fall asleep when they participate in remote

conferences. This happens because of students' laziness and low English proficiency,

making them lazy to participate in discussions and question and answer sessions

conducted in English. (Atmojo & Nugroho: 2020). Moreover, in speaking class,

students need eye contact to practice or the speaking performance, yet not all students

will open their cameras not to see each other.

c) Technological Problem: Awareness of the importance of using the Internet for

education has increased in various regions. To varying degrees, the Internet is an

essential part of nearly every student's life since learning has shifted to online learning

(Almarabeh, et. al. : 2016). However, there are various technological challenges that

students often face in the online learning process. A poor internet connection is the

most common challenge and is often experienced no matter where students or

teachers are. In online learning that is currently taking place, the material is often

provided in videos, files, and student assignments. Low internet connection or limited

access from homes in rural areas can cause students to lag in understanding the

learning materials delivered by lecturers. Because in order to understand the material

previously presented, they need to ask their classmates again, who do not necessarily

14
explain it thoroughly and clearly. Anna McKie, (2020) said that based on her survey

results, nearly three-quarters of English students who responded to the survey

reported a lack of access to quiet spaces for learning, and more than half said they

could not access the digital course material after switching to online learning. The

third challenge involves computer and Internet anxiety. According to Kuama &

Intharaksa (2016), computer anxiety has a significantly negative impact on learners'

achievement. When a computer system or network system is down, students feel

frustrated because they might not follow the lessons.

In its use in education, the term gadget includes material objects, such as machines

and network hardware used in computers or other gadgets, and theories used such as

instructional theory and learning theory. Information and communication technology

in education refers to tools and principles for their practical application in learning.

Examples of these two dimensions are material aspects such as internet-based

learning and education. In his writing Sudam Kaware & Kumar Sain (2015), said that

in education, technology studies apply the theory of human behavior in psychological

aspects such as media psychology, learning theory, and human performance

technology. Even the use of technology or Information and Communication

Technologies (ICT) provides more benefits in education. However, users still have

some problems while using technology in teaching and learning activities. The

problems found in ICT are faced by teachers and students from each of these aspects.

In their thesis Orlando & Attard (2015) state that online learning relies on technology.

Teaching using technology is not an approach that can be measured equally among

users. It depends on the type of technology used during learning and the material

being taught. Furthermore, problems with a "one size fits all" approach are

particularly highlighted in collaborative learning tasks or group work where

individual differences between and between groups can be highlighted. This is

because, in general, the group assignments in online learning are more focused on

completing tasks, lesson discussing their tasks, and less on the discussion.

The barriers that students experience when participating in class can be seen when

they make group presentations which can affect the assessment in the group. Some

of the problems experienced by individual students stem from several factors such as

15
 anxiety about the use of technology; being outside the comfort zone, anxiety due to

differences in ability levels with friends, especially in group assignments, and

difficulties in engaging in intense interactions with group friends, especially in

discussing presentation material. Even though students can connect to the internet in

their area of residence, students still have difficulty accessing the internet network,

which is always smooth. Research conducted by Nashruddin et. al. (2020), confirms

that some students live in remote rural areas that are not reached by the internet.

Because of this, their internet network is often unstable because the area they live in

is quite far from the signal range. This is also a problem that often occurs in students

who take online learning, so that its implementation is less effective and affects

students' understanding of the material.

2.4 How to Overcome the Challenges

To minimize the challenges in learning speaking for academic purposes through online

learning faced by students, students can use several strategies to overcome challenges, such as

self-assessment, metacognitive strategies, social strategies, and interpersonal strategies.

2.4.1 Creating Comfortable Class Environment: Creating a collaborative and

motivating learning atmosphere that supports optimization during the learning

process in the classroom (Alderman: 2004). A supportive classroom atmosphere

can help students reduce fear while studying. Teachers must be creative and

innovative in providing activities for students in online learning. The teacher must

be more creative in creating an effective classroom atmosphere in online speaking

lessons to participate still while learning. They must master content (material),

technology in online language learning, and foreign language learning pedagogy.

2.4.2 Making Active Classroom Activities: A warm classroom environment can

enhance academic achievement and a sense of pride in students. Online learning

requires a more significant investment than face-to-face classes to make it

properly designed and implemented (Sataloff, et. al. 2016). tudents can ask the

teacher to carry out learning activities according to students' wishes but still

related to learning materials or activities that must be determined by considering

the objectives and arranged in a sequence according to the actual situation so that

student interest in learning increases motivation. In addition, student-teacher and

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 student-material interactions have a significant and positive effect on student

satisfaction. Thus, teachers need to bridge student-teacher and student-material

interactions to improve student learning.

Furthermore, increase student motivation and develop positive attitudes towards

learning outside the classroom, increase interaction between teachers and

students, and increase student involvement in learning. Teachers frequently give

question-based assignments. This is a simple but very effective way to get

students to talk during the learning process. As students, you can ask the teacher

any questions you want to find out the information you are looking. This is an

effective way to identify your teacher to understand how your teacher will ask

follow-up questions to answer your assignment (Villa: 2020). Assignments like

these are a great way to practice speaking by asking questions and answering

questions in different tenses or grammar styles. Collaborating with teachers and

other classmates in this activity can provide you with various academic language

models and communication styles. If you do well, you may find that your lessons

become more enjoyable because interacting with teachers and classmates is a

learning process (Kuama & Intharaksa : 2016).

2.4.3 Fix Technological problem: To overcome learning challenges due to the internet

and gadgets, students can do some ways, such as finding high-speed inter-net

connections nearby to get technical support for connections and other technical

issues related to software and tools for effective learning. One of the things that

students can do to overcome challenges in speaking through online learning, for

example, is that students look for a quiet place with good Internet connectivity,

such as a school environment or a place close to a network transmitter source

(Kuama & Intharaksa : 2016).

Students can communicate the challenges of the internet and gadgets they face

and ask for solutions from the teacher to deal with challenges that exist during

learning. Although the solution has not been found when the learning process

occurs, at least the teacher already knows and can understand what students are

facing and provide relief to students (Coman, et. al. : 2020). suggested in his

writing if the problem of the gadget that we used for learning have some problems

17
 that can hinder the learning process, students can find out how to solve the

problems that are their challenges in learning through Google or can ask people

around who understand computer problems (gadgets). As much as possible, if we

already know the problems that occur in the devices we use for learning, we

overcome them before class time starts to prevent the learning process. Miculi

(2020) wrote that students' actual distance learning challenge is that

troubleshooting Internet connection issues takes time. It is like taking a second

job as your own IT support person. You have to follow these steps at least:

1. Restart your modem/router.

2. If possible, use a wired connection to your computer. Alternatively, at least

move closer to the Wi-Fi router.

3. Close non-essential teaching apps that might be hogging the bandwidth. Also,

ask your family to refrain from streaming videos or getting on video calls while

attending small classes.

4. Test your Internet speed to make sure you are getting the speed you are paying.

5. Call your Internet Service Provider and wait until they solve the issue.

2.4.4 Interpersonal strategies: Teachers and students adapt the educational process to

the online environment. The adjustments that are sought must still be made

according to the circumstances of each student's problem. Coman et. al. (2020)

stated that real action is needed to improve and optimize the online teaching and

learning process, such as improving teacher technical skills, developing training

programs intended to help teachers remodel and adapt their teaching styles and

the way they interact with students to the online environment. Then, students also

learn to adapt their teaching style to online learning conditions to receive

knowledge and absorb it well. To get better learning outcomes, students need to

understand their learning styles. Students can learn through interactions, visual

presentations, audio classes, or written notes to clearly understand the material.

This can also increase student motivation in the future. Furthermore, students can

try to do positive self-talk that talks to themselves to stay focused and can increase

their self-confidence to continue learning under any circumstances. You are the

only person who determines the occurrence of fluency in your learning process.

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When you convince yourself with a positive statement about the learning

condition, it can provide high energy and motivation for yourself to continue

learning, (Purdue University Global: 2020).

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