SEISMOLOGY

- comes from the greek word of earthquake - seismos, which stems from seiein, (to shake, agitate, or shiver); and suffix -logy
which means study.
- the scientific study of the sudden, violent movements of the earth connected with earthquakes.
- branch of geology includes learning about tectonic plates, volcanoes, and earthquake prediction.

SEISMOMETER
- a seismometer is an instrument that responds to ground noises and shaking such as caused by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and explosions.
SEISMOGRAPH
- when seismometer is combined with a timing device and recording device, it is now called a seismograph.
SEISMOGRAM
- the records taken from the seismograph
SEISMOSCOPE
- an instrument for recording only the time or fact of occurrence of earthquakes.
SEISMICITY
- the occurrence or frequency of an earthquake in a specified place.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEISMOLOGY
OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
- recording earthquakes (microseismology)
- cataloguing earthquakes
- observing earthquake effects (macroseismology)
ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
- estimation of seismic hazard and risk
- aseismic building
PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY
- study of the properties of the earth’s interior
- study of physical characteristics of seismic sour

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
- lays the bases for calculating seismic hazard, and includes producing catalogues of historical and instrumental earthquakes,
reliable ground motion mitigation models and high-definition geological underground models and interpreting historical
accounts.

EARLY SCIENCE
India: The earth is held up by 4 elephants that stand on the back of a turtle.
Mexico: El Diablo, an Indian devil god, made a giant rip in the ground so that he and his cohorts did not have to take the long way
around,
Siberia: The Earth rests on a sled driven by the god named Tuli.
Japan: A great catfish, or namazu, lies curled up under the sea, with the islands of Japan resting on its back.

The First Seismic Instrument

- The Chinese Seismoscope (132 A.D.)
- The instrument is reported to have detected a four-hundred-mile distant earthquake which was not felt at the location of the
seismoscope
- Invented by Zhang Heng

Hooke’s Law
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
“stress is proportional to strain”
Huygens’ Principal
Christian Huygens (1629-1695)
“Every point on a wave front can be regarded as a new source of waves”

The First Scientifically Studied Earthquake (1755 Lisbon Earthquake)

 - probably magnitude 9 with a 3 large tsunamis, thousands killed
- epicenter, 200 km off SW corner of Portugal
BEFORE COMPUTERS
The First Successful Seismometer
- J. Milne, J. Ewing and T. Gray (British working in Japan) developed first successful working seismometers with time recording
in 1880-1885 period.
First Recording of a Distant Earthquake (April 18, 1889)
- In Potsdam, Germany, E. von-Rebeur-Pashwitz had built a sensitive horizontal pendulum seismograph for measuring tidal
tilts, his interest was primarily astronomical.
-
SINCE COMPUTERS
Global Seismographic Network
- is a permanent digital network of state-of-the-art seismological and geophysical sensors connected by a telecommunications
network, serving as a multi-use scientific facility and societal resource for monitoring, research, and education.

COMPOSITIONAL LAYERS (CHEMICAL)

CRUST
- The crust is the most heterogeneous layer in the earth
- The crust is on average 33 km thick for continents and 10 km thick beneath oceans; however, it varies from 5
km to over 70 km globally.

oceanic crust - mostly of igneous rocks made from iron magnesium silicate
continental crust - is composed primarily of sodium potassium aluminum silicate rocks.

The boundary between the crust and the mantle is mostly chemical. This boundary is referred to as the Mohorovicic'
discontinuity or “Moho”, it was discovered in 1910 by the Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic’

MANTLE
- the Earth’s mantle is the thickest layer that exists from the bottom of the crust to a depth of 2891 km (radius of 3480 km) -
Gutenberg discontinuity
- It is further subdivided into:
➢ The uppermost mantle (crust to 400 km depth)
➢ The transition zone (400-700 km depth)
➢ The mid-mantle (700- 2650 km depth)
➢ The lowermost mantle (2650-2891 km depth)
- the upper mantle and lower mantle, both composed of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium, note that the mantle is
solid.
CORE
- the core consists of denser materials composed primarily of iron and nickel.
- note that it is divided between the outer core and the inner core, the outer core is liquid, while the inner core is primarily a solid
ball with a temperature similar to the surface of the Sun.
- the boundary between the liquid outer core and solid inner core occurs at a radius of about 1220 km - Lehman discontinuity,
after Inge Lehman from Denmark. There is still no direct evidence about the exact composition of the core.

MECHANICAL LAYERS (PHYSICAL)

LITHOSPHERE:
- The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that consists of the entire crust and the top-most portion of the mantle.
Furthermore, they are divided into pieces called tectonic plates.
ASTHENOSPHERE:
- The asthenosphere includes the soft layer of the mantle on which the lithosphere moves. Remember that it is made of
solid silicate materials, but the high temperature allows it to flow on very long timescales.
MESOSPHERE:
- The mesosphere is essentially the lower mantle. Despite its high temperature, the intense pressure in this region restricts
the movements of the molecules of the silicate material despite being under high temperature.
OUTER CORE:
- The outer core extends from the bottom of the mesosphere or the lower mantle and surrounds the inner core. Composed of
iron and nickel, the extreme temperature allows these metals to remain in their liquid phases. Furthermore, its movement
is responsible for generating the magnetic field.
INNER CORE:
- The inner core is also made of iron and some nickel. However, unlike the outer core, it is a solid ball. The solidity is due to the
intense pressure from the upper layers. It is as hot as the surface of the Sun.

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

Plate Tectonics
- a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean movements
- Plates - large slabs of solid rock
- Asthenosphere - a partially molten layer of rock
Due to the convection of the asthenosphere and lithosphere, the plates move relative to each other at different rates, from two to 15
centimeters (one to six inches) per year.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
- are the edges where two plates meet. Most geologic activities, including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building, take
place at plate boundaries.
● Divergent plate boundaries: the two plates move away from each other.
● Convergent plate boundaries: the two plates move towards each other.
● Transform plate boundaries: the two plates slip past each other.

There are seven major plates:

African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific and South American

The Hawaiian Islands were created by the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s largest plate at 39,768,522 square miles

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

- Alfred Wegener
- "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis"

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

- explanation for how energy is released during an earthquake.

In 1906, there was a catastrophic earthquake in San Francisco, California. As a result of the earthquake, Harry Fielding
Reid began to observe the displacement around the San Andreas Fault. He proposed the elastic rebound theory as an
explanation for the way that the earthquake behaved.

EARTHQUAKES
- the shaking of the Earth’s surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Tectonic Plates
- Reverse faults (convergent boundary) are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes,
including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more. Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones, where one
tectonic plate is forced underneath another. E.g. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.
- Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8.
Earthquakes associated with normal faults (divergent boundary) are generally less than magnitude 7.
Fault Zones
- The longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude
Volcanic Activity
- Volcanic activity also can cause an earthquake, but the earthquakes of volcanic origin are generally less severe and more
limited in extent than those caused by fracturing of the earth’s crust.
Human Induced Earthquakes
 - refers to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused by human activity like mining, large scale petroleum
extraction, artificial lakes (reservoirs), nuclear tests etc.
- There are about 20 plates along the surface of the earth that move continuously and slowly past each other
- Prior to an earthquake, the area is like a spring-loaded system waiting to go off.
- The surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake
starts is called the focus (hypocenter), and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.

EARTHQUAKES BASED ON THE DEPTH OF FOCUS

● For scientific purposes, this earthquake depth range of 0 – 700 km is divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and
deep.
● Shallow earthquakes are 0 – 70 km deep.
● Intermediate earthquakes are 70 – 300 km deep.
● Deep earthquakes are 300 – 700 km deep.
● Of the total energy released in earthquakes, about 12-15 per cent comes from intermediate earthquakes, about 3-5 per
cent from deeper earthquakes and about 70-85 per cent from the shallow earthquakes.
● A quake’s destructive force depends not only on the energy released but also on location, distance from the epicentre and
depth.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
Tectonic Earthquake
- occur at plate tectonic boundaries. Tectonic plates are constantly moving slowly, but sometimes friction between them causes
them to lock together and become unable to move.
Volcanic Earthquake
- Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust where pressure buildups are released along with molten materials preventing the
planet from overheating and exploding. The place where tectonic plates meet gives access to the molten mantle. As a result,
these fissures are a major source of volcanic activity.
Volcano-tectonic earthquake which occurs beneath a volcano. In this variation, magma begins pushing upwards towards the
lava tubes and cone of the volcano.
Long-period earthquakes are caused when magma forces its way into the surrounding rock. It also signal a pending eruption
(unlike volcanic-tectonic earthquakes) as the magma has reached a level where it begins actively trying to vent out.
Collapse Earthquake
- These kinds of earthquakes are generally smaller and most commonly occur near underground mines. They are
sometimes referred to as mine burst
Explosion/Induced Earthquake
- An earthquake that is caused by the detonation of a nuclear or chemical bomb is know as an induced
earthquake.
- The largest induced earthquake ever measured from nuclear testing was a magnitude 4.9 in the Soviet Union.
Reservoir Induced Earthquake
- Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes or also referred to as Reservoir-Induced Seismicity is the phenomenon of dam-
triggered earthquakes.
Fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock.
Fault parts
Hade - it is the inclination of the fault plane that is vertical. The angle made to the vertical by the plane of a fault or vein.
Downthrown - that side of a fault which has moved downward relative to the other side.
Upthrown - is the side of the fault that appears to have moved upward relative to the other side.
Hanging wall - which is the block below the fault plane or in other words beneath the fault plane.
Footwall - the upper block or, in other words, the block above the fault plane.
Heave - it is the horizontal displacement between the hanging wall and footwall.
Throw - it is the vertical displacement between the hanging wall and footwall.
Fault Line - a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault.
Fault plane - a plane along which the rupture has actually taken place or where one block is moved with respect to other
is known as fault plane. It may be noted that such a plane is generally formed along the line of least resistance.

How faults are classified?

1. Based on geometry of the fault.
2. Based on differential forces acting on the fault.

Types of Faults
Normal Faults
- also called tension fault and gravity fault
- It is formed when the hanging wall drops down in relation to the footwall.
- most common at divergent boundary
- extensional forces, those that pull the plates apart, and gravity
Reverse Fault
- geological fault in which the hanging wall appears to have been pushed up along the footwall
- opposite of normal faults
- formed by the convergence of two tectonic plates
Thrust fault
- is a break in the Earth’s crust where older rocks are pushed above younger rocks.
TYPES OF THRUST FAULT
o Blind Thrust Fault - where the fault plane terminates before it reaches the ground level. These faults are
difficult to be captured since they mostly lie underground.
o Fault-Bend Fold - when a thrust fault is involved with a thin-skinned style of deformation
o Fault-Propagation Fold - occurs at the tip of a thrust fault where we can observe that the fault is
continuing after some time.
o Thrust Duplexes - occur when there are two decollement levels close to each other within a sedimentary
sequence.

A reverse fault has a steeper dip of more than 30° or usually at least 45° dip while thrust fault has only at least 30° or
below 45° dip.

Strike-slip/lateral fault
- a generally vertical fault where the two sides pass horizontally past to each other.
Strike-slip faults are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally. The fault
motion of a strike-slip fault is caused by shearing forces.
If the block on the far side of the fault moves to the left, as shown in this animation, the fault is called left-lateral. This
motion is also known as sinistral. If the block on the far side moves to the right, the fault is called right-lateral. This
motion is known as dextral.
San Andreas Fault Is a fault line that runs for approximately 800 miles (1,287 kilometers) through California in the United
States.

Anatolian fault-Is a 1500 km (900 mi) long fault that runs from the East Anatolian fault intersection in eastern Turkey
across northern Turkey and into the Aegean Sea.

Oblique Slip Fault-A fault in which the displacements of the strike-slip and dip-slip components have very similar
magnitudes
If the strike component dominates, then the fault would be classified as either an oblique right‐lateral or an oblique left‐
lateral strike‐slip fault depending upon if the slip is dextral or sinistral respectively.
If the dip component dominates, then the fault would be classified as either an oblique normal or an oblique reverse
fault depending upon if the hanging wall move down or up relative to the footwall block respectively.

Tectonic plates that encircle the country - Pacific Plate in the East; the Eurasian Plate in the West; and the Indo-
Australian Plate in the South

Philippine Mobile Belt – a complex portion of the tectonic boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the Philippine Sea
Plate, comprising most of the country of the Philippines. It includes two subduction zones, the Manila Trench to the west
and the Philippine Trench to the east.

Active Fault - if there has been movement observed or evidence of seismic activity during the last 10,000 years

How do seismologists identify an active fault?

- They study the historical records of the place of destructive earthquakes.
- Study vibrations in the past and in the present.
- Observe the land deformations and flow of water system.

FIVE (5) active fault lines that we need to monitor on a regular basis.
The Marikina valley fault system (Montalban, San Mateo, Marikina, Pasig, Taguig, Muntinlupa, San Pedro, Binan,
Carmona, Santa Rosa, Calamba, Tagaytay, Oriental Mindoro) 13
Western Philippine fault lines (Luzon Sea, Mindoro Strait, Panay Gulf, Sulu Sea) 4
Eastern Philippine fault lines (Philippine sea)
Southern Philippine fault lines (Celebes Sea, Moro Gulf)
Central Philippine fault zone (Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Aurora, Davao del Norte, Eastern Leyte, Masbate,
Quezon, Southern Leyte, The entire Ilocos Norte) 9

Active Faults in the Philippines

The marikina valley fault system
- the most hazardous fault in the nation is the Marikina Valley Fault.
- the most seismically active fault line in the Philippines according to PHIVOLCS

The West Valley fault line does not run on land, but rather through the seas of the Western region of the Philippines.

Eastern Philippine Fault was discovered under the ground, so was the. These active faults can be found in the Philippine
Sea.

Southern Mindanao fault lines - 1250-km-long left-lateral strike-slip fault traverses the entire Philippine archipelago
from north-western Luzon Island in the north to eastern Mindanao in the south.
The Moro Gulf is the largest gulf in the Philippines. It located off the coast of Mindanao Island, and is part of the Celebes
Sea.
Celebes Sea is part of a 42 million year old ocean basin. This sea covers an area of approximately 110,000 square miles
and has a maximum depth of 20,300 feet.
Cotabato Fault - one of the seismically active areas in region of Mindanao.
The two major fault zones:
-Sulu Trench in the Sulu Sea
-The Cotabato Trench (less prominent trench system in the Philippines, but largest tsunamigenic earthquake)

Central Philippine Fault Zone

- responsible for the archipelago's fault creep, slow slide occurrences, and big earthquakes on the other end of
the spectrum
- similar to the Marikina Valley Fault Line
- the locus of great earthquakes, a transition zone with slow slip and creep activity.

Bicol Volcanic Belt

- Volcanic belt is a geographical region in which very high levels of volcanic activity are present.
- spans a total of 240 kilometers from Camarines Norte in the north down to Sorsogon in the south.

Philippine fault zone

- a 1,200 km long major tectonic feature that spans across the whole Philippine archipelago from northwest Luzon
to southeast Mindanao.

Trench
- a long, narrow and generally steep-sided very deep depression in the ocean floor. The axis of a trench marks the
position of a subduction zone, where old oceanic lithospheric plates begin their descent into the earth’s interior.

ACTIVE FAULTS IN BICOL

1. Legazpi Lineament
- left lateral strike slip with a significant normal component
2. Philippine Fault
- left lateral strike slip
3. Uson Fault
4. Southern Masbate Fault
5. Unnamed Offshore Projection
- important sources of earthquakes and associated tsunamis.

PHIVOLCS FaultFinder - an application capable to do proximity searches to active faults

Seismic Waves
 Greek „seismos‟ meaning „earthquake‟
 caused by the sudden movement of materials within the Earth, such as slip along a fault during an
earthquake. Radiates from the focus of an earthquake
 When an earthquake occurs, the shockwaves of released energy that shake the Earth and temporarily
turn soft deposits, such as clay, into jelly (liquefaction)

Earthquake Timeline
1705 – DISCOVERY BY ROBERT HOOKE
Robert Hooke realized that earthquakes are connected to land movements.
1850 – SEISMIC WAVES DISCOVERED
Robert Mallet realized that most earthquake damage is due to moving waves caused by a
sudden land movement, named seismic waves.
1897 – P-WAVES AND S-WAVES
Richard Oldham realized that there were at least two types of seismic waves that traveled at
different speeds.
1909 – PROBING INSIDE THE EARTH
Andrija Mohorovicic realized that you could use seismic waves to probe the hidden Earth.

Classification of Seismic Waves

Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by an
earthquake
1. Body waves can travel through the Earth's inner layer
a. P or Primary waves
 fastest kind of seismic wave, and consequently, the first to arrive at a seismic station
b. S or Secondary waves
 second wave you feel in an earthquake, is slower than a P wave and can only move through
solid rock, not through any liquid medium
2. Surface waves can only move along the surface like ripples of water. are of lower frequency than body
waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Surface waves that are almost entirely
responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes.
a. Love waves
 named after A.E.H. Love.
 The fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side
b. Rayleigh waves
 named for John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh.
 Rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE
 measure of the “size,” or amplitude, of the seismic waves generated by an earthquake source and
recorded by seismographs.
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY
 the Severity of an Earthquake.Severity is higher near the epicenter than far away.
 the strength of an earthquake in a certain location; and it determines the measure of damage.
 the effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface
 determined from effects on people, buildings & structures, movement of furniture, and the natural
environment. It varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the
observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter.

MAIN FACTORS CONTROL INTENSITY

 Magnitude
 Distance from the epicenter and hypocenter
 Depth of the earthquake
 Ground/Soil
 Building Characteristics

THE MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE

 measure the strength of an earthquake through observations of the people who experienced the
earthquake, and the amount of damage that occurred, to estimate its intensity.
 The original scale was invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and was modified by Harry Wood and
Frank Neumann in 1931 to become what is now known as the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (use
roman numerals).
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY
MAGNITUDE INTENSITY

objective value subjective response

measure of energy release based on human perception

calculate fault offset severity: effects & damage

fixed value independent of distance changes with distance

 1 magnitude per quake many intensities

quantitative (measurable) qualitative (describable)

can be recorded using seismograph can be determined from shaking and damage

does not vary with the distance from the depends on how close or how far the location is from the
epicenter of the earthquake epicenter of the earthquake

written in Hindu Arabic number with decimal written in Roman Numeral

the strength can be determined using Richter‟s the severity can be determined using Mercalli Intensity
Magnitude Scale Scale

EARTHQUAKE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

 designed to detect the movement of the ground or buildings due to earthquakes and it digitally records
these dynamic movements of the building caused by such earthquake

1. Accelerograph
 An instrument that records the acceleration of the ground during an earthquake, also commonly
called an accelerometer.
 The Earthquake Recording Instrumentation installed in Government and Private Buildings
 Structural Health Monitoring and Recording
 Provide Immediate Alarm Annunciation
 Secondary Disaster Management System
 Upgrade Building Codes and Disaster Management

2. Broad Band Sensor

 one of the most precise earthquake monitoring equipment which is based on the principle of a
velocity sensor. It consists of a sensor, recorder, a hard disk and a GPS.

3. Seismoscope
 invented by the Chinese philosopher Zhang Heng in A.D. 132. This was a large urn on the
outside of which were eight dragon heads facing the eight principal directions of the compass.

4. Seismographs
 instruments used to record the motion of the ground during an earthquake.

5. Seismogram
 The recording of the ground shaking at the specific location of the instrument. On a
seismogram, the HORIZONTAL axis = time (measured in seconds) and the VERTICAL axis=
ground displacement (usually measured in millimeters).

6. Seismometer
 instrument that responds to ground noises and shaking such as caused by earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and explosions

7. Monitoring Instruments
a. Creepmeters
 measures fault slip by recording the displacement between 2 piers or monuments
located on opposite sides of the fault, spaced 30 meters apart.
b. Strainmeters
 for continuous crustal strain monitoring are highly sensitive instruments with precision of
less than 1 part per billion (i.e. less than 1 inch in 16,000 miles)
 monitor the change in crustal strain near active faults and volcanoes associated with
fault slip, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
c. Tiltmeters
 highly sensitive instruments used to measure ground tilt (rotation) near faults and
volcanoes caused by fault slip and volcanic uplift. The precision to which tilt can be
measured is less than 1 part per billion (i.e. less than 1 inch in 16,000 miles)

10 LARGEST MAGNITUDES RECORDED IN HISTORY (INTERNATIONAL)

1. VALDIVIA, CHILE 22 MAY 1960

 Magnitude 9.5
 killed 1655 and injured 3000 people
 US$550 million damage

2. PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA 28 MARCH 1964

 Magnitude 9.2
 128 deaths (caused by the resulting tsunami)
 US$311 million damage

3. SUMATRA, INDONESIA 26 DECEMBER 2004

 Magnitude 9.1
 227,900 death (caused by the resulting tsunami)

4. SENDAI, JAPAN 11 MARCH 2011

 Magnitude 9.0
 10,000 deaths

5. KAMCHATKA, RUSSIA 4 NOVEMBER 1952

 Magnitude 9.0
 US$1,000,000 damage

6. BIO-BIO, CHILE 27 FEBRUARY 2010

 Magnitude 8.8
 521 death, with 56 missing and 12,000 injured
 US$30 billion damage
 35 km depth (epicenter)

7. OFF THE COAST OF ECUADOR 31 JANUARY 1906

 Magnitude 8.8
 500 and 1,500 death (including the resulting tsunami)
 Resulting tsunami took roughly 12 hours to cross the Pacific to Hilo, Hawaii.
8. RAT ISLANDS, ALASKA 2 APRIL 1965
 Magnitude 8.7
 US$10,000 damage
 caused 10 m high tsunami on Shemya Island

9. SUMATRA, INDONESIA 28 MARCH 2005

 Magnitude 8.6
 1313 death and 400 people injured by the tsunami
 30 km depth (epicenter)

10. ASSAM - TIBET 15 AUGUST 1950

 magnitude 8.6
 780 death

10 LARGEST MAGNITUDES RECORDED IN HISTORY (NATIONAL)

1. MORO GULF EARTHQUAKE, 1976

 Magnitude 8.1
 8,000 death
 caused 9m high tsunami

2. LUZON EARTHQUAKE, 1990

 Magnitude 7.8
 2,000 deaths

3. LANAO EARTHQUAKE, 1955

 Magnitude 7.5
 400 deaths

4. CASIGURAN EARTHQUAKE, 1968

 Magnitude 7.3
 270 deaths

5. BOHOL EARTHQUAKE, 2013

 Magnitude 7.2
 more than 200 deaths
 79,000 churches, homes, schools, roads, and public buildings, 14,500 of which were toppled
completely

6. MINDORO EARTHQUAKE, 1994

 Magnitude 7.1
 caused 8.5 m high tsunami (destroyed 1,530 houses)

7. PANAY EARTHQUAKE, 1990

  Magnitude 7.1
 8 casualties and 41 injuries

8. RAGAY GULF EARTHQUAKE, 1973

 Magnitude 7.0
 14 deaths and about 100 injuries

9. NEGROS ORIENTAL EARTHQUAKE, 2012

 Magnitude 6.9
 52 deaths, at least 29 of which were buried in 30- feet high soil due to a landslide
 112 were injured, and 62 went missing

10. PALIMBANG EARTHQUAKE, 2002

 Magnitude 6.8
 8 fatalities
 produced by subduction (two tectonic plates converging together) along the Cotabato Trench
TSUNAMI
- composed of the japanese words "tsu" (which means harbor) and "nami" (which means "wave")
- a series of large waves of extremely long wavelength and period usually generated by a violent, impulsive undersea
disturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean
- When a sudden displacement of a large volume of water occurs, or if the sea floor is suddenly raised or dropped by an
earthquake, big tsunami waves can be formed. The waves travel out of the area of origin and can be extremely dangerous
and damaging when they reach the shore.
2 TYPES OF TSUNAMI GENERATION
LOCAL TSUNAMI
- confined to coasts within a hundred kilometers of the source usually earthquakes and a landslide or a pyroclastic flow.
FAR FIELD
- A tsunami originating from a source, generally more than 1,000 km. These tsunamis are less frequent, but more hazardous
than regional tsunamis, as they usually start as a local tsunami that causes extensive destruction to a shoreline near the
source
CAUSES OF TSUNAMI
EARTHQUAKE
- can be generated by movements along fault zones associated with plate boundaries. The region where two plates come in
contact is a plate boundary.
LANDSLIDES
- a landslide that occurs along the coast can force large amounts of water into the sea, disturbing the water and generate a
tsunami. Underwater landslides can also result in tsunamis when the material loosened by the landslide moves violently,
pushing the water in front of it.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
- according to this mechanism, waves may be generated by the sudden displacement of water caused by a volcanic explosion,
by a volcano’s slope failure, or more likely by a phreatomagmatic explosion and collapse/engulfment of the volcanic magmatic
chambers
WHERE DO TSUNAMIS MOST OFTEN OCCUR
Tsunamis occur most often in the Pacific Ocean and Indonesia because the Pacific Rim bordering the ocean has a large number of
active submarine earthquake zones. Every coastal area and river estuary is potentially threatened by tsunamis, but they are most
likely to happen on shores facing directly a megathrust. Scientists estimate that almost three quarter of the world tsunamis occur in the
Pacific Ocean, where the megathrusts (subduction zones) are so common (Aleutian Islands, Alaska, Chile, Philippines, Japan
etc).

Over history (1610 BC to AD 2022), there have been

over 1,400 confirmed tsunamis, of which 264 have been
deadly. 69% occurred in the Pacific Ocean. 80% of
the tsunamis were caused by earthquakes.
RECORDS OF TSUNAMI
NATIONAL

INTERNATIONAL
SUMATRA, INDONESIA TSUNAMI (DECEMBER 26, 2004)
o also known as the Christmas or Boxing Day tsunami.
•Magnitude 9.1 Earthquake
• 50-meter-high waves
•estimated 283,000 deaths

LISBON, PORTUGAL (NOVEMBER 01, 1755)

o also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake
•Magnitude of 9.0 Earthquake
•estimated 60,000 to 100,000 deaths

MESSINA, ITALY TSUNAMI (DECEMBER 28, 1908)

•Underwater landslide
•12 meters high waves
•estimated 80,000 deaths

NANKAIDO, JAPAN TSUNAMI (OCTOBER 28, 1707)

•Magnitude of 8.4 earthquake
•25 meters high waves
•estimated 30,000 deaths

KRAKATOA, INDONESIA TSUNAMI (AUGUST 27, 1883)

•Eruption of volcano
•30 meters high waves
•estimated 30,000 deaths

SANRIKU, JAPAN TSUNAMI (JUNE 15, 1896)

•Magnitude of 8.5 earthquake
 •38 meters high waves
•estimated 27,000 deaths

NORTH (TOHOKU) JAPAN TSUNAMI (MARCH 11, 2011)

•Magnitude of 9.0 Earthquake
•30 meters high waves
•estimated 18,500 deaths

RYUKYU ISLAND TSUNAMI (April 24, 1771)

•Magnitude of 7.4 earthquake
•40 meters high waves
•estimated 12,000 deaths

KAMCHATKA, RUSSIA (NOV. 04, 1952)

•Magnitude of 9.0 Earthquake
•16 meters high waves
•estimated 10,000 to 15,000 deaths

SOUTH CHILE TSUNAMI (MAY 22, 1960)

•Magnitude of 9.5 Earthquake
•80 meters high waves
•estimated 6,000 deaths

NATIONAL
LARGEST MAGNITUDE: (MAY 22, 1960) – 9.5 MAGNITUDE
HIGHEST WAVE HEIGHT: (AUGUST 16, 1976) – 9M HIGH WAVES
LARGEST CASUALTY: (AUGUST 16, 1976) – 9M HIGH WAVES
INTERNATIONAL
LARGEST MAGNITUDE: SOUTH CHILE TSUNAMI (MAY 22, 1960) – 9.5 MAGNITUDE
HIGHEST WAVE HEIGHT: SOUTH CHILE TSUNAMI (MAY 22, 1960) – 80M HIGH WAVES
LARGEST CASUALTY: SUMATRA, INDONESIA TSUNAMI (DECEMBER 26, 2004) – 283,000 DEATHS

EARTHQUAKES DAMAGE MECHANISM

GROUND SHAKING
o The vibration of the ground that happens during an earthquake, this can topple trees and lead to other
types of damage.
LANDSLIDES
o During an earthquake, rock and soil, especially wet soil, can be jarred loose, causing it to slide downhill
Landslides in South Cotabato
 A 6.6 magnitude earthquake struck the southern Philippines on October 2019, killing at least
seven people, injuring more than 300, and triggering dangerous landslides.
2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi Earthquake
 Before dawn on 6 September 2018, a powerful earthquake with a Japan Meteorological Agency
magnitude (Mj) of 6.7 hit central Hokkaido, causing more than 6000 landslides. As human
damage, 36 of the 44 fatalities from the earthquake were from landslides in Atsuma Town.
SURFACE RUPTURE
o When the focus of the earthquake is shallow, a fault rupture may break through to the Earth's surface,
deforming the ground and producing deep ruts, steep banks and lateral displacements.
2013 Bohol Earthquake
 The magnitude of the earthquake was recorded at Mw 7.2, with epicenter 6 km (3.7 mi) S 24° W
of Sagbayan. The earthquake created a rocky wall that stretches for km through farmlands. A
"ground rupture" pushed up a stretch of ground by up to three metres (10 feet), creating a wall
of rock above the epicentre.
 LIQUEFACTION
o takes place when loosely packed, waterlogged sediments at or near the ground surface lose their
strength in response to strong ground shaking.
2011 Christchurch Earthquake
Liquefaction caused widespread damage during the Christchurch earthquake of 22 February 2011. In the
central city, silt was pushed up and partly buried parked cars. Severe shaking in an earthquake puts
pressure on the silt and water particles in these waterlogged layers, turning once firm sediment into a
liquid
FIRES
o Earthquake fires start when electrical and gas lines are dislodged due to the earth’s shaking. Gas is set
free as gas lines are broken and a spark will start a firestorm.

TSUNAMIS DAMAGE MECHANISM

INUNDATION WAVE
EROSION
IMPACT ON STRUCTURES

TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES OF DAMAGE MECHANISM OF THE EARTHQUAKE

AND TSUNAMI

EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION

PREPAREDNESS
- refers to getting ready for facing a disaster. It also involves the steps to be taken to reduce the disaster impact.
This in turn means equipping people who may be affected by a disaster. Further, preparedness includes
equipping people who may be able to help those impacted with disaster.
 - involves being prepared at home and at work place. Understanding communities’ vulnerabilities, learning about
different agencies and their roles, finding funds, conducting risk assessment and carrying out research and
training.

MITIGATION
- reducing the effect or severity of disaster. It involves reducing the likelihood or the consequences of a hazard or
both.
- includes prevention and risk reduction -Good evacuation plans, environmental planning and design standards
are part and parcel of mitigation efforts. It is an important component of disaster management

Earthquake
Before
o Purchase earthquake kits and supplies
o Replace expired items
o Make an earthquake preparedness plan
o Secure hazards
During
o "Drop, Cover, and Hold On
After
o Check for injuries and damage
o Communicate and start the recovery process

Tsunami
BEFORE

DURING

AFTER