© Power System Protection and Swi 1.6 EVOLUTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS | ee .on and hence work on ac only. Since both attracted armature electromagnetic relays operate by mechanical forces generated joped in the early 1920s to meet the sel overcurrent protection. For directional and di curate due to its higher torque/inertia ratio. For greater se sccuracy, polarised de relays are being used since 1939. ‘Autracted armature-type balanced-beam relays provided differential protection, distance protection as well as low burden overcurrent units. These rel ‘when the magnitude of an operating signal was larger than the magni cial devices in 1979, Early designs ofthese resiraining signal. These relays were classified as amplitude comparators. jously used in the elecromec Single-input induction-type relays provided operations with time delays. Two- of the developments of complex al input induction type relays provided directional protection, Two- and three was dependant on the phase displacement between the app! These relays were classified as phase comparators. u ier bridge-type comparators were developed in Norway and jsed from rectifier bridge comparators, chal- lenged the postion of induction-cup-type relays. They are widely used forthe reali sation of distance relay characteristics. Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in the literature in 1928 and 1. The concept of numerical protection ‘employing computers which shows much promise in providing improved perfor- © decades. In the beginning, the numerical ) philosophy was to use a large computer system, This protection system proved ‘computer is required to perform other of vacuum tubes and incorrect operation under transient valves were used in carrier equipment. There was automatic checki ‘channel. An alarm was sounded if any tube became defective, and it was replaced ‘immediately > i ae{ypes and number of relaying units are reduced to a great extent, resulting in a very ‘compact protective scheme. Field tests have demonstrated their feasibility and some schemes are under investigation. A number of schemes have been put into service and their performances have been found to be satisfactory. Microprocessor/micro- ccontroller-based numerical protective schemes are being widely used in the field. [AL present, many trends are emerging. These include common hardware tegrating p protection. ANN and Fuzzy Logic based intel protection, distance protection of transmission transformers and generators are presently under stage, Adaptive protection is also being applied a would trp. A rel region and conseqi +H Switchgear protection Tanstomerproteston + EHV Swtengoar protection + Tanstormer tine protection HY Switchgear protection Fig. Zones of protection10 Power System Protection and Switchgear 18 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION _ bbe due to the failure of various, of failures is shown against each 3. The probit 95%, With proper design, ¥ protective scheme should at least be rip mechanisms, ae and does not employ the primary relays which | Thiers Percertoge faire rae of various equipment { Name of Equipment Gof Remote Backup When back-up primary protective sl they back-up the entire breaker, VT, CT and 1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION —— | On the faulty part of the system should be i 1 ofthe system should be deprived of electric supplyrt: 12 Power System Protection and Switehgest perate. After a preset delay the relay 1.9.5 Fast Operation ‘or distribution systems the | M0_ PERFORMANCE OF PROTE CTIVE TIVERELAYS _, Poser system, the primary elas iti olation ofthe fly cme. atea are also alerted by the fault and Introduction 13 ‘begin to operate. They do not initiate tripping ifthe primary relays operate correctly Information regarding operation of these back-up relays is not available when they ‘The back-up relay operates, if due to any reason the primary ‘Though several primary relays are employed in many pri frequently only one of the relays a ‘The performance of the protective relay is documented by those provide direct or specific evidence of operation. Relay performance is generally clas~ sified as Correct operation Incorrect operation No conclusion 1.10.1 Correct Operation Correct operation of the relay can be either wanted or unwanted. The correct opera mn gives ind ut (i) correct operation of atleast one of ) operation of none ofthe back-up relays tion of the wouble area inthe expected time. relay operations are corrected and wanted, ic. the operation is as per me. There are the few cases ofthe correct but unwanted of desired or anticipated, 2 Incorrect Operation ., a malfunction, oF an unplanned or unanticipated ope jon of the ‘equipment malfunctions. Equipment that can cause CTs, VTs, relays, breakers, cable and wiring, pilot channels, 3 NoConclusion ‘When one or more relays have or appear to have operated, such as the circuit breaker, but no cause of oper , of the equipment, causes and extremely frustrating ‘conclusion involves considerable concern and thorough, that many of the eases of ‘no conclusion” may be the rest which is not reported. Moder oscillograph and data-recording equipment which are being used nowaday in many clues regarding the problem, as well as indicating poss occurred,engear in ¢ LASS| ICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS: Classi ‘sification of Protective Relays Based on Technology he f Static relays Numerical relays Electromechanical Relays Electromechanical relays are further cl ¢ relays. This type of relay operates through an armature which is attr Plunger type ele: Attracted armature-type elect respond to ac as well as de. ymagnetic relays are the simpl which attracted armature-type relays were called elec- tromagnetic relays. Later on, induction type electromagnetic relays were developed. ‘These relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation, and hence ‘work with ac quantities only. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or & permanent magnet) and a moving part. When the actuating quantity exceeds a cer- {ain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed which is applied on the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact 10 ‘energise the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Since both attracted armature and induction type electromagnetic relays oper- fate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays. ‘The term ‘electromechanical relays’ has been used magnetic relays which use ¢i induction principle for their operation and therm: electrothermic forces created by the inp ‘electromagnetic relays and electromechani ‘Static Relays Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, and other electronic components. Thei ‘Compares two or more currents or voltages and gives an output whi to designate all the electro- Introduction 15 nag el lave relay is a semi : opment in hn ae. These reas ae he of the ac quantities in numeric ( : nari jal Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logie Syste active research and develope y16 Power System Protection and Switchgear Relays Based on Speed of Operation fed by ter speed of operation a follows instantaneous relays ) Time-delay relays ) High-speed relays igh-speed Instantaneous Relays In these relays, m ‘These relays operate as soon as a secure Time-delay Relays fe relays, an intentional time ofthe trp action. ime delay i decision is made. delay is introduced between the relay decision ication of Protective Relays Based on their Generation of Development Relays can be casi into the following cate , depending on generation of Undervolage relays Impedance relays )Underfrequency relays (¥) Directional relays ‘These are some important relays. Many 0 perorn canbe pt une bis pee casa reagan isevident from its name. Forex duty they duty which a relay performs mp ey ay Sprnce win th cue point of fault and operates relays check whether the point of mechanical, static or numerical an Classification of Protective Relays as Comparators ‘make comparisons of input quantities as desired, Based upon this principle protecive relays can be cls scomparson nae following cxegeres ingle-input Comparator ‘These relays have only one input signal and are also known as ‘monitor one electrical qu: ‘reference or a base quit force. An exam! ‘measures the current of a reference or base quant ‘comparator and vit ‘modified input quantities are the sum a ties. These relays have several advant ‘Mult-input Comparator have more than two input18 Power System Protection and Switches? TION SYSTEM. } feeding from its charger, and connected to its own compleme: relays. Since the 12 COMPONENTS OF A PROTEC! severe transients produced bythe electromechanicl telson the bat lads ar 2_compon ing their operation may cause maloperaion com oentioenygs tom ieee alan common pract equipment by connecting 1.13 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES f distribution sat relays. An 1.3.2 Distance Protection Distance protection is used on of transmission or sul lines; usually 33 kV, 66 KV anc includes a number of dis ferent types. A distance relay measures the ofthe power system under abnormal condi conditions and sends © contacts fined various kinds of distance relays. The important types are impedat tho type. An impedance relay measure the line impedance between the fault point tind relay location; a reactance relay measures reactance, and a mho relay measures ‘a component of admittance, nt aig it nd oma cantons se 0 remain in closed poston, When te cut rake is requited to ote th aly part the moving contact moves terug the cea of the contacts, the flow of current sche ion te etwcen the cont The mei designaedbyesutble rei suchen 3.3. Carrier-Current Protection This scheme of protection is used forthe protection of EHV and UHV lines, genes 32 kV and above. A ed for Of prction system isto remove a fal, the abil- eh a relay must ot be compromised during fault, Substation may not be of sufficient magnitude te voltage substation can be zero. laced at each end wid Power required by the relays cannot | ie ay vided bythe tation batery. The 4 charger to the station ac service ion 1.13.4. Differential Protect "uy-state conditions. The charg } tions. The charger is of a an | “This scheme of protection is used for the protection of generators, transformers idy-state load: 's Powered by the battery. The | Adequate de power fr 8-12 hour fullgving | Tis scheme ot rere, bus Zones, ele. Ts are placed on bh sds of each "HV stations have duplicate batteries when the ac ‘Therefore the tipping power, as be obtained from the ac system, and is u ech |and may require additional reclosures. Usually three reclosures at 15-120 seconds? imervals are made to clear the fault. Statistical reports show that over 80% faults are cleared after the first reclosure, 10% require the second re the third reclosure. while the remaining 8% are cleared after 3 reclosures, it indicates that the ful 145 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTs) FOR PROTECTION TORFROTECTION, surement, control and protection, They reduce the ble for the opera- ‘connected to the reducing the current levels, CTs also isolate the lurers can be achieved. Since igs ofthe secondary windings of the CTs are 5 or | ampere performance during normal steady state condition, whem the rel operate, may not be as accurate Percent error = where, N= Nominal CT Rated prim ‘Rated secondary current [Number of secondary turns "Number of primary tums 1, = Secondary curtent, and = Primary current pe CTS which are mas (wo cate zo ind-type CTS consist of ae ir and on the iron core and inserted in series withthe conductor that caries the current. measied-curel jc or optical CT uses two i ling through an opti- Bronte rn aun cena ot SH cal fit suregives a measure of the current Introduction 23, between the two beams is propo (RC) is a be ‘There are three types of voltage transformers: jonal feature to minimise errors. Thi ‘ervors. This type of 52 U Eathneye loge neater 32 KV and above. This type of volta insformer is also knows re | a also known as Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCN) In ight beam traveling through fibre optic prov up the column is used to det the i e arent transformers are decried in detain Caper 3- adage Jetermine the voltage diference between the condicoe ee de | andthe sound. Tis yp of volgevasforerisalso known s deen voluge ORMERS (VTs __1.16 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VTs) The voltage transformers (VTs) are described in ‘Voltage transformers (Vs) were previously known as potent ‘They are used to reduce the tages 0 isolation berwcen the high tnents connected to ther secondaries. Th in Chapter 3. 1.17 BASIC RELAY TERMINOLOGY alert operator. ~ Operating force or torque: A force or torque whieh tends the relay, = Restraining force or torque: A force or torque which opposes the op (current, voltage, efe) t© which ‘Actuating quantity: 00 responds. Pick-up (level): The thr Kv, Percent ratio eror aoe where, K= Nominal ve Reset on drop-out (lev Rated primar voltage, etc.) below which. ~ Rated secondary voliage ‘This con ¥y below which contaets are opened is the time which elapses from the instant at which the actuating + Operating time: and power factor of the secondary burden, oan introduced. den. Thus, ratio and phase angle errors are | Reset time: It isthe ime whi sro th men he sine et Is Reset ie: vale to the instant wen the relay comes ack its nora | position,there \ relay is used as the tipping device. 24. Power System Protection and Switcheat ‘longer period. As the contacts of the main relay are initiating rela not robust, they are closed fora short time. Back-up relay: A back-up relay operates after a slight delay if the main relay fails to operat. Back-up protection: The back-up protection is designed to clear the fault if the acts asa second line of defence. fault occurs it isthe duty ofthe primary protective scheme of defence. If it fails, the back-up protection Measuring relay tective relay ofthe protective scheme, to which energising quantities are applied. It performs measurements to detect abnormal con- ditions inthe system to be protected. Auniliary relays: Auxiliary relays asist protective relays. They repeat the opera- tons of protective relays, control switches, etc. They relieve the protective relays of dues lke tipping time lg, sounding and alarm, ei. They may be instantaneous or say have atime delay Electromagnetic relay: A relay which operates on the electromagnetic principle, ile. an electromagnet atracts magnetic moving parts e.g.) plunger type moving iron type, aracted armature type). Such a relay operates principally by action of an clectromagneuc element whichis energized by the input quantity a electrical relay in which the desi is fement of mechanical Ss cena current in the input circuit. Such relay operates by physical movement of mechanical from electromagnetic of electothermic forces created by the Static relays: These are solid state relays and employ sem sistors, thyristors, logic gates, ICs, etc. The measuring cite ing parts. In some static relays, a slave relay Imwoduction 25 {is used to perform all functions even irregular curves which cannot be easily, Microcontroller-based relay: Amici function of the relay. form through a data data to calculate the fau sorts of relaying characterist DSP-based relay: A Dis tions of a relay. FPGA-based relay: A ignals) and rates when the actuating current exceeds a tion or the reverse direction. relay whose operation depends on the direction of curent or fication whether a relay has Fagor target: Flag i device which gives vs Jer a certain preset tie lag. The time ‘operated! oF not nay be due tothe presence of atime time-lag relay operates at fs inherent design feature oF 4 =" el26 Power System Protection and Switcheeat delay component. Such relays are used if rot discrimination, They are frequently used ich the operating time is independent of the mag- Jay which gives an inverse nt and definite time charac- ‘operates on the principle of induction, induction cup relays etc ‘a permanent magnet and a moving ay. The actuating currei 7: A relay which measures impedance or a component of is known asa distance relay. It is used for the prot ‘The voltage coil includes so Reactance relay: A relay which Fd which measures reactance atthe relay location i called a relay, MHO relay (admittance or angle admittance): Ths i «kind ofa distance relay measures a particular component ofthe impedance, ie, —_Z. where gis the power factor angle and 8s the design angle wo shift MHOn,” is ‘shift MHO character tng ccs ne apa a Se crag Conduction relay: This is aan 3 ad eel jon relay: This is MHO relay whose di ain) les on the R-axis hose diame Introduction 27 Offset MHO characteristic: In an offet + In an offset MHO relay the MHO characters shifted onthe RX diagram ince the ogin. Ne MHO share ‘Angle impedance relay (ohm rel lay is activated when an operating parameter devi- relay functions through supplementary equip- i relay verifies cor Judes tault detectors, alarm units, in) relays. wronism check) relay: This relay assures that proper two sections of power system, oa ias being dependent upon conditions the protected circuit38 Power System Protection and>) Primary relay: A relay and repetitive ing or auxiliary relay smal on eaker fol- a closing sequence for and auxiliary An auxiliary relay with two positions either of which cannot nd “off but which transfers the contact circuits from one con- ‘Two-step relay: A relay with two sets of contacts, one of them operates at a cer~ tain value of the characteristic quantity and the other after a further change of the quantity. Current unbalance relay: This relay operates when the currents in a polyphase joltage unbalanced relay: This relay operates when the voltages in a poly phase yystem are unbalanced by a predetermined amount. Ferraris relay: This relay moves by the interaction of the magnetic field of a coil and the currents induced in a metal body (disc or cup) ‘mum length of the line up to which the relay can protect, Overreach: Sometimes a relay may opera y post rach Te a PES We alt pin eyo ts relay may fail to operate ‘even when the fault the far etd ofthe protected line This phenoneon as its burden, Blocking: The pre to the, operation of an izing quantities 9 of the relay. ‘System Impedance Ratio (SIR): The ratio ofthe pow Characteristic Impedance Ratio ance ratio up to which the relay accuracy. as dependent or relat grading, current grading oF a combination of ‘The discriminatio30 Power System Protection and Switchgeat rps isan English term which may be misunder- alternator. It refers operation and which Protective gear or equipm relays, circuit breakers and ~ Protective system: It is a combination of Protective gear equipment to secure isolation of the faulty element under predetermined conditions, ysually abnormal o to give an alarm signal or both. ~ Protective scheme: A protcctive scheme may consis of several protective systems. tis designed to protect one or more elements ofa power system. the algebraic sum of all currents in a multiphase I Ia 3-phase system fe = [n+ Ip le ‘Transducers or instrument transformers: Current and voltage transformers (CTs and VTs) are collectively known as transducers or instrument transformers. They are used to reduce curents and voltages to standard lower values and to isolate protective relays and measuring instruments from the high vollages of the power system. _, Switchgear: I is general term covering switching and interrupting devices and their combination with associated contol, metering, protective and regulating devices also assemblies ofthese devices with associated interconnections, accesso- enclosures and supporting structures used primarily in connection with genera tion, transmission, distribution, and conversion of electric power. a mechanical switching device capable of making, carryin sod breaking curents unde nomal reitconitons ands making. carping ra specified time. and automaticaly breaking curents under specified abnormal eitcuit circuit. The medium in which ci relaying is defined as the protection system whose ‘hanged automatically so thai is attuned to the prevailing power n TY conductor used in connection with i tion with remot ly ra on te measuring a es ft comico an Iroduction 31 is used for the ng means between relay the circuit terminals, EXERCISES ht 1. Explain the nature and causes of faults. Discuss the consequences of faults ‘on a power system, 2. What are the different types of dangerous? 3. Discuss briefly the role of protective relays in a modern power system. 4. What do you understand by a zone of protection? Discuss various zones of protection for a modern power system. 5. Explain what you understand by primary and back-up protection. What up protection? What are the various methods of pr Which type of fault is most 7. Discuss what you understand by selectivity and stability of protective relay. 8, Discuss the essential qualities of a protective relay. 9. How is the relay performance classified? What indication the correct opera tion of the relay gives? What do you mean by “correct but unwanted opera 10, What do you understand by incorrect operation of the protective relay? What are the reasons of incorrect operation 11. Discuss the classification of protective relays based on their speed of opera 12, Differentiate between a digital elay and a numerical relay. 13, What is a numerical relay? Discuss its advantages over ‘of electromechanical and static types. How can ani be developed. 14, What are the various components of a protection system? Briely describe their functions with the help of an schematic diagram, 15, Differentiate between a protective system and a pr 16. What do you understand by adaptive relaying” How can a relay be made ) tive scheme, lowing types of relay. ) Auxiliary relay (iv) Synchroniz-