•

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Chapter 1, 2 , 4 TB, pg 1-7 rangkuman

ATOM
• Same atomic number or
proton number= same
element
• Mass number or atomic
mass = proton + neutron
• Different amount of
neutrons: isotope
• Different charge (amount
of electrons): ion
CHEMICAL BONDING
Why chemical bonding is needed?
Atom need to accomplish the amount of electrons in
outer shell until same with noble gas (2 or 8 electrons)
How to count the electron in outer shell? à by using
electron configuration
Type of bond à depend on electronegativity
•Ionic
•Polar covalent
•Non-polar covalent
Bond in context of biology
• Hydrogen bond
• Van der Walls/hydrophobic-hydrophilic
CARBON BONDING
All organic compound is made
from carbon à carbon has 4
electron valence in it’s outer
shell.
R side:
ENERGY CHANGES IN LIVE
• Energy can be conserved (First law of Thermodynamic)
• But living organism only able to use chemical energy: ATP
(adenosine triphosphate)
• Activation energy: energy needed to start a reaction à
energy to break bonds
• A system tend to become disorganized (Second law of
thermodynamic) à no 100% efficiency in converting into
chemical energy à mostly will be
changed into heat & send back
to environment
REDOX IN CELL
• OXIDATION-REDUCTION reactions involve the transfer of
electrons from one molecule to another.
• Oxidation involves the loss or removal of electrons and H+
• Reduction is the addition or gain of electrons and H+
• The energy from these electrons usually used to
phosphorylate ADP or GDP.
ACIDS AND BASES
• pH= the amount of H+ in a solution in 25°C à in the
logarithmic form
• Buffer solutions: a solution that minimizes changes in pH,
even when moderate amount of acid or bases are added
to it. It’s consist of a conjugate acid and it’s base, when
one of the pair is weak.
CONCENTRATION
•%w/v
• 30% sugar à 30 gram in 100 cm3
•Molar concentration: = mol/ dm-3
amount of a constituent ni divided by the volume
of the mixture V
DILUTION TECHNIQUE
•Simple dilution: any different concentration of
stock solution and water
•Proportional dilution

•Serial dilution
WATER
Nature of water:
• It forms weak hydrogen bonds à restricts the movement
of water molecules.
üWater anomaly: The densest condition of water is on
4°C à ice is less dense than its liquid form. à ice
floating in water à prevent heat transfer
üHigh latent heat to change the state of matter à High
latent heat of vaporisation
üHigh specific heat capacity àcreate more stable
environment & take role in better homeostasis of body
temperature
• Water is a polar (dipole) molecule à good solvent for
ions and other polar molecules à act as transport
medium for many systems.
WATER
BIOMOLECULES
monosaccharides organic bases fatty acids amino acids

glycerol phosphate

nucleotides

nucleic acids
proteins
polysaccharides

lipids phospolipids

• Build polymer from monomers: CONDENSATION (creating

covalent bond) à produce water
• Breakdown of polymer: HYDROLYSIS à need water
CARBOHYDRATES
• Elements: Carbon Hydrogen & Oxygen
• General formula: Cx(H2O)y
• Types:
üMonosaccharides
üDisaccharides
üPolysaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Molecular formula: (CH2O)n
• Classify by the amount of C
üIf n=3, triose (glyceraldehyde)
üIf n=5, pentose (ribose)
üIf n=6, hexose (glucose, galactose,
fructose)
• Characteristic
üsweet (sugars)
üsoluble in water
üall has -C=O group in one side à reducing sugar à +
Benedict test
• Monosaccharides are used for
üEnergy
üAct as monomers esp: glucose (two isomers a glucose and b
glucose
CONDENSATION OF GLUCOSE: 1,4 GLYCOSIDIC BOND

6 C 6 C
5 C O 5 C O

4 C 1 C 4 C 1 C

3 C 2 C OH O OH 3 C 2 C

H2O
CONDENSATION OF GLUCOSE: 1,6 GLYCOSIDIC BOND

6 C
5 C O

4 C 1 C
OH O OH 6 C
3 C 2 C
5 C O
H2O
4 C 1 C

3 C 2 C
DISACCHARIDES
• Formed from two monosaccharides à joined by a
glycosidic bond
• Condensation reaction:
üglucose + glucose à maltose
üglucose + galactose à lactose
üglucose + fructose à sucrose (NON REDUCING
SUGAR)
• Hydrolysis of disaccharide or polymer might done by
help of enzyme (specific) or by using acid (unspecific)
BENEDICT TEST
• Detect reducing sugar
–C=O + Cu2+ (heat required)à –COO- +Cu+(insoluble)
• Colour change according concentration of reducing sugar
blue à green à yellow à brown/orange à red brick
time taken to change colour will be different
• Using acid to hydrolyse à need neutralization by using
sodium hydrogen carbonate
Benedict test result for these Solution
• Lactose 1,5 %
• Glucose 0 %
• Galactose 1,8 %
• Sucrose 1,6 %
• Maltose 3 %
(Blue, Green, Yellow, Brown/orange, Red brick)
Show your Working!
If this molecules is break down by using a 1,6 glycosidic.
How many water needed and how many glucose release
Which of the following solution has higher concentration
of non reducing sugar
Solution First Benedict Hydrolisis +
test Neutralise
(second Benedict
test)
A Blue Red Brick
B Green Yellow
C Yellow Yellow
D Orange Red Brick
E Red Brick Red Brick
POLYSACCHARIDES
• Formed from chain of monosaccharide
• Characteristic
ülarge molecules
üinsoluble in water
• Use for: storage and support
• Type:
üStarch
üGlycogen
üCellulose
STARCH
• Function: insoluble store of glucose in plants
• Tested by iodine à + blue black
• Formed from two glucose polymers:
Amylose Amylopectin

a-glucose a-glucose
1,4 glycosidic bonds 1,4 and some 1,6 glycosidic
bonds
unbranched & helices structure branched & less helices
structure
GLYCOGEN
• Function: insoluble
compact store of glucose in
animals
• Formed from: a-glucose
chained in 1,4 and 1,6
glycosidic bonds
• Structure: Branched (more
branches than amylopectin)
• Tested by iodine à red
CELLULOSE
• Function: structural polysaccharide in plants à
Mechanical strong
• Formed from b-glucose chained in 1,4 glycosidic bonds
• Structure: Parallel unbranched structure with H-bonds link
adjacent chains
• Each 60-70 molecules à bundles à microfibrils à fibres

O O
O

O O
PROTEINS
• Elements: CHON and sometimes S
• Monomers: amino acids
• Almost 50% of dry mass contain protein.
• Function:
üEnzymes – Amylase
üTransport – Haemoglobin
üMovement – Actin & myosin
üCell recognition – Antigens
üChannels – Membrane proteins
üStructure – Collagen & keratin
üHormones – Insulin
üProtection – Antibodies
AMINO ACIDS R
H O
• ~20 AA à only different in R N C C
side H O H
• Glycine R=H H
amine
carboxyl
• Protein Synthesis:
make chain of amino
acid inside ribosome
• Amino acid joined by
peptide bond
CONDENSATION OF TWO AMINO ACIDS: DIPEPTIDE

R R
H O H O
N C C Peptide bond N C C
H O H H O H
H H

H
H
O
PROTEIN STRUCTURE

Change in one AA may

affected the structure and
function of the protein
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
• Sequence of AA
• Bonding: only peptide
bond (covalent)
• Changed by: mutation and
can affected all structure
(sickle cell anemia)
• Possibility: nr
n = variation of AA
r = amount AA in chain
SECONDARY STRUCTURE
• Bonding: Hydrogen
bonding between carboxyl
(COOH) and amine (NH2) of
adjacent AA
• Two forms: a helix and b
sheet
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
• Final 3D structure of a single polypeptide
• Formed into globular or fibrous structure
• Bonding:
üDisulphide Bonds: covalent bond between two sulphides
from two cysteine (S-S) à strongest à affected by:
reducing agent like urea and temperature
üIonic Bonds: two oppositely charged 'R' groups à
affected by: pH
üHydrogen Bonds: between R side à affected by: pH and
temperature
üHydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions/ van deer
waals: Hydrophobic (non polar) fold in the center of
protein with hydrophilic part cover it àaffected by:
dehydration
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
• More than one polypeptide chain folded into a protein
• Ex: Haemoglobin à 4 chain from two different type of
polypeptide (a globin and b globin)à each prosthetic
group (chain) contain iron ions à able to bind O2
GLOBULAR PROTEIN
• a protein whose molecules
are curled into a relatively
spherical shape and that is
often water soluble and
metabolically active
üWater soluble à
hydrophobic hydrophilic
reactions
üFunction connected to its
3D shape
• Example: haemoglobin,
enzyme, insulin
FIBROUS PROTEIN
• a protein whose have a
relatively long, thin structure
that are generally insoluble and
metabolically inactive
• Example:
üCollagen: have small AA
(mostly glycine). Each 3
polypeptide chains coil itself
that hold by hydrogen bond.
Each molecule connected by
cross link covalent bond.
Collagen molecules à Collagen
Fibrils àCollagen Fibres.
PROTEIN TEST
• By using biuret (CuSO4 in alkali condition)
• Redox:
Polypeptide (each 3 amine will reduced) copper à
copper will produced ligand (violet colour)
• Only work for polypeptide >3 AA
LIPIDS
• Made up of C, H and O àLess O than carbohydrate, higher
H à bond as C-H à bigger energy than carbohydrate (C-
O)
• Building block: fatty acids and glycerol linked by ester bond
• Non polar à hydrophobic à insoluble in water à soluble
in alcohol à good storage à unaffected to cell
• They are poor conductors of heat
• longer fatty acid chain & more saturatedà higher melting
point
• Type: fats (solid in room temperature) & oils
(liquid)
FATTY ACIDS
• Head: Carboxyl (COOH) à polar à react with glycerol
• Tail: a long non-polar hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic)
üSaturated: no double bond à all C-C
üMono-unsaturated: 1 double bond (C=C)
üPoly-unsaturated: more than 1 double bond
• More unsaturated à lower melting point à oil

H H H H
O C H C H C H C H
C H H H
C C C H
O H H H
H
CONDENSATION OF FATTY ACID & GLYCEROL: ESTERIFICATION

H C O H
H H
H C O H O C H C H
C H H
C C
H C O H O
Ester bond H H
H
Glycerol
Fatty acid
H
H
O
TRIGLYCERIDE PHOSPHOLIPID
• Three fatty acids bond • 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate
with one glycerol à in 3x group (polar) bond with a
times esterification glycerol.
üHead à phosphate à
hydrophilic
üTail à fatty acid à
hydrophobic
glycerol fatty acids • building block of cell
membrane

hydrophilic
phosphate
glycerol Hydrophobic fatty
acids
TEST OF LIPID
• Emulsion test
• Step: mix lipid with alcohol à take some mixture and add
to water:
• Transparent à no lipid
• Translucent à lipid presence à lipid molecules clump
to form little groups à called emulsion
MICROSCOPE
Features Light Microscope Electron Microscope
Illumination Visible light Electron beam
Resolution Low (max 0.2 µm) High (max 0.1 nm)
Magnification Max 1500 x 2.5 x 105
Specimen Living/Dead Dead
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
MICROSCOPE
MAGNIFICATION
• The number of times larger
an images compared with
the real size of the objects.
• Magnification = size of
image/actual size of
specimen
• total magnification =
eyepiece X objective
RESOLUTION
• Ability to distinguish between
two separate point.
• The limit of resolution is
about half of the wavelength
used to view the specimen
• Smaller number of resolution
produce better picture
quality
• Low resolution à blur
ELECTROMAGENTIC SPECTRUM
• We only can see from 400 nm-700 nm
• Shorter wave à higher frequency à higher energy à
higher resolution
MEASURING CELLS
• Eyepiece graticule à To measure an object length: note
the number of divisions spanned by the object then
multiply by the conversion factor for the magnification
used. à The conversion factor is different at each
magnification.à use micrometer stage
• Micrometer stage à a microscope slide with a finely
divided scale marked on the surface
MEASURING CELLS
CELL THEORY
• 1838- Matthias Schleiden: ALL PLANT are composed of
cells.
• 1839- Theodor Schwann: ALL ANIMAL are composed of
cells.
• 1858- Rudolf Virchow: CELLS must arise from preexisting
cells.
So, it can conclude that:
ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS.
CELL IS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE.
CELLS ARE PRODUCED FROM EXISTING CELL
CELL CONTAINS HEREDITARY INFORMATION (DNA) WHICH
IS PASSED ON FROM CELL TO CELL

Virus is non cellular structure à only protein coat (capsid)

& DNA/RNA (nucleic acid) à some has envelope
PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE
• Unicellular • Unicellular/multicellular
• Size: 1-5 µm • Size: 2-200 µm
• No nuclear membrane à • Have nuclear membrane, DNA
naked DNA (circular shape) is linear
• Lack of membrane bound • Have: mitochondria, ER, golgi,
organelle chloroplast
• 70s ribosomes • 80s ribosome
• Cell wall made from • Cell wall: cellulose (plant),
peptidoglycan chitin (fungi), none (animal)
• Example: bacteria • Example animals, plants, fungi
and protists
PLANT
• Present in plant cell but
absent in animal cell
üplasmodesmata (holes
between adjacent cell), cell
saps, plastid especially
chloroplast
• Food storage: starch
ANIMAL
• Present in animal cell but
absent or rare in plant cell
üLysosome (rare),
centriole, flagella, cilia
• Food storage: glycogen
CELL WALL
• Size: 0.2 µm (thickness)
• Semi permeable
• Made from cellulose,
pectin and hemicellulose in
plant, or peptidoglycans in
bacteria, or chitin in fungi
• Function: protects the cell, gives
shape, keep rigidity à decrease
permeability, maintain osmotic
pressure
• Between cell wall of plant there
are holes à called plasmodesmata
à exchange materials from one
cell to another
CELL MEMBRANE
• Size ± 7nm (thickness)
• Present in ALL cell
• Formed from phospholipid and protein à called lipid bilayer
• Partially permeable à regulates movement of substances in
and out cell
• Place: in outer surface of animal or inside cell wall à
protective
• Has receptor à to be recognized by other cell or to receipt
chemical respond ex. hormone
CYTOPLASM
• Present in ALL cell
• Part of protoplasm
• Jelly like substances which filled up the cell
• Place where chemical reaction done
MITOCHONDRIA
• Size: 0.5 -10 µm
• Present in eukaryote
• Surround by double
membrane à the inner
membrane folded into cristae
to increase the surface area
• The matrix contains of
respiration enzyme called
cytochrome à to make ATP in
the late stage of aerobic
respiration
• Involve in lipid synthesis
• Has 70s ribosome & plasmid
• Able to produce ATP
PLASTID
• Size: 3-6µm
• Present only in plant
• Surrounded by double membrane
• Has 70s ribosome & plasmid
• Able to produce ATP
• Derived from: protoplast into 3 types:
üleucoplast (no color) à food storage
üchloroplast (green): contain
chlorophyll pigment in the
thylakoids.
Has inner membrane à thylakoid
à thylakoids join together to create
grana à in the liquid called stroma
üchromoplast (other color) à contain
non –photosynthetic pigment
NUCLEUS
• Size: around 5µm
• In eukaryote (except for xylem &
RBC): surround by porous double
membrane à called karyotheca
(nuclear envelope)
• The matrix of the nucleus
(nucleoplasm) contain chromatin
à contain DNA. During cell
division chromatin thickened into
chromosomes. à function to
direct cell activity
• Nucleolus à darker area à
produce ribosome and RNA à
important to do protein synthesis
RIBOSOMES
• Size: ± 22 nm à Composed
from two subunit (small and
large)
• In prokaryote smaller size (70s),
in eukaryote (80s)
• Made from rRNA (ribosomal
ribonucleic acid) and protein
• Function: synthesis the protein
• Location: Float freely in
cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Present in eukaryote
• A series of folded single
membranes (cisternae) from the
nucleus to another part of cell
• There are 2 types of ER:
üRough ER
o Site for ribosomes to
attach à making protein
à transport it
üSmooth ER – no ribosomes
o Synthesis of lipid:
phospholipid, cholesterol,
triglycerides
o Detoxify toxin
GOLGI BODIES
• Size: ± 2.5µm
• Present in eukaryote
• Stacked flattened
membranes (cisternae)
formed by rough
endoplasmic reticulum à
single membrane
• In other part golgi body
forms vesicles to transport
proteins
• Function: shipping and
modification of proteins
VACUOLES
• Single membrane
• Use to transport and storage substances
• In plant
ücell large central vacuoles (tonoplast +
cell saps) à use to maintain the water
pressure
üTo store enzyme that change lipid into
carbohydrate à glyoxisome
• In animal:
üTo store hydrolytic enzyme: lysosome
à to digest worn out part of cell or
food particles
üTo store enzyme that change lipid into
carbohydrate à peroxisome
CYTOSKELETON
• Network of protein that shape
the cell and allow movement of
cell and organelles
• There are 3 elements of
cytoskeleton:
üMicrotubules (d= 24 nm)
üIntermediate filament (d= 10
nm)
üMicrofilament (d= 7 nm)
CENTROSOME
• Size: 0.4µm in length
• Present only in animal cell
• A pair of hollow tubule made from
ring of microtubule
• Form spindle during cell division to
move the chromosomes
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• Diameter: ± 0.2 µm
• Present only in animal cell
• Grow from basal body
• Ring of 9 pairs of
microtubules plus one
pair in the middle
covered by cell
membrane à move with
wave like manner
• If short (around 3-4µm)
and many à cilia
• If long à flagella
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE: FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• FLUID- individual phospholipids and proteins can move
around freely within the layer, like it’s a liquid.
• MOSAIC- the pattern produced by the scattered protein
molecules when the membrane is viewed from above.
• Total thickness 7 nm
• Create from bilayer phospholipid, protein and cholesterols
PHOSPHOLIPID
• Phospholipid head
(phosphate) is facing the
surface à forming a polar
hydrophilic interior
• Phospholipid tail are
saturated and some
unsaturated
• more unsaturated à
more fluid
• Increasing temperature à
more fluid
CHOLESTEROL
• Function: increase the
fluidity and maintain
stability of plasma
membrane (prevent cell
from burst out)
• Structure: also has
hydrophobic and hydrophilic
part
PROTEIN
• According the position:
üPeripheral à bound to surface of membrane
üIntegral / transmembrane à across whole membrane
• Some proteins are attached with polysaccharide à
glycoprotein
• Some glycerides are attached with polysaccharide à glycolipid
• Glycoprotein and glycolipids
functioning as
üreceptor of hormone and
neurotransmitter
üIn cell recognition
(ex. Antigens)
PROTEIN
CELL SIGNALING
The molecular mechanisms by which
cells detect and respond to external
stimuli, including communication
between cells.
CELL SIGNALING
• Ligands: small molecules
which use to
communicate between
cells à ligand and
receptor are highly
specific
• Ligands are secreted by
cells through exocytosis
• Ligands are transported
to another cell à by
diffusion or by blood
CELL SIGNALING
• Hydrophobic molecule à
receptor inside cell
• Hydrophilic molecule à
accept by specific receptor
à change the receptor à
change the G protein à G
protein activates adenylyl
cyclase à adenylyl cyclase
convert ATP into cAMP
(act as secondary
messenger) in large
amount) à amplification
of reaction.
DIFFUSION & FACILITATED
• Movement of substance down
gradient concentration (high à
low)
• The rate of diffusion affected by:
ü Gradients: greater gradients
greater molecules passes. µ
ü Temperature: higher
temperature à molecule move
faster à faster diffusion µ
ü Ratio of surface area to volume • Polar diffuse by the help of
à greater à faster diffusion µ protein à facilitated
ü Type of molecules: diffusion
o Large: slower diffusion
o Nonpolar à soluble in
lipidà easier to diffuse
OSMOSIS
• Solution = solvent + solute
ü Isotonic solution- has the same concentration of dissolved
substances as a living cell placed in it
ü Hypotonic solution- contains a lower concentration of
dissolved solutes than the cell
ü Hypertonic solution- contains a higher concentration of
dissolved solutes than the cell.
• Water potential = Y à water: Y=0 , another solution: always
negative, more negative if more solute
• Osmosis: the movement of water from higher water potential to
a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable
membrane à can be help with protein called aquaporin
• Net movement: is the total /overall movement
• Equilibrium is the point at which diffusion/ osmosis stops and
the concentration gradient is close to zero.
OSMOSIS

freshwater balanced saltwater

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• movement of ions against
a concentration gradient
(low to high), using ATP
released during
respiration. Carrier Protein

Antiport Symport
COMPARISON OF TRANSPORT
BULK TRANSPORT
• Moving large molecules into & out
of cell à through vesicles &
vacuoles by using energy
(somehow can be classified as
active transport)
• Endocytosis à from outer cell to Endocytosis
inner cell
• phagocytosis = “cellular eating”
à engulf solid substances
• pinocytosis = “cellular drinking”
àuptake liquid and small
molecules
• Exocytosis à from inner cell to
outer cell
Exocytosis
FROM TISSUE TO ORGAN SYSTEM
Cell à Tissue à Organ à Organ System à Organism
• tissue : a group of cells with similar structures, working together
to perform a shared function
• organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working
together to perform specific functions
• organ system: a group of organs with related functions, working
together to perform body functions
ANIMAL & HUMAN TISSUE PLANT TISSUE
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• Function: cover surface and • Type:
line cavities to do:
üProtection
üSecretion
üAbsorption
üfiltration
• Common features:
üHave one free surface
üLack blood vessels
üHave little intercellular
spaces
üAnd attach to a basement
membrane
üAccording the shapes
oSquamous- flat (pipih)
oCuboidal (kubus)
oColumnar (silinder)
üAccording the
arrangements
oSimple (selapis)
oStratified (berlapis)
oPseudostratified
(transisional)
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Apical surface of
Basal epithelium
lamina

Underlying
tissue Cell nuclei
Simple squamous Pseudostratified
epithelium ciliated columnar
epithelium

Simple cuboidal
epithelium

Stratified squamous
Simple columnar epithelium
epithelium
MUSCLE TISSUES
• Function: enable contraction à contain myofibrils (actin &
myosin)
• Type:
üSmooth (polos)
üSkeletal/striated (lurik)
üCardiac
(jantung)
NERVE TISSUES
• Function:
respond to the
stimulus
• Consist of
üNeurons:
send/receive
impulse
üNeuroglia
insulate
neurons,
support
neurons, help
supply
nutrients to
neurons à
usually
smaller in size
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Function: bind parts of body and support another tissue, insulate
body, transport and storage
• Consist of
üConnective tissue cells
üMatrix: extracellular materials secrete by connective tissue
cells à fibers and grounds substance
• Type
üLoose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
üDense Connective Tissue
üAdipose
üCartilage
üBone
üBlood
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
ORGAN IN RESPIRATORY TRACK: TRACHEA
ORGAN IN RESPIRATORY TRACK: BRONCHUS
ORGAN IN RESPIRATORY TRACK: BRONCHIOLE, ALVEOLI
ORGAN IN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: BLOOD SMEAR
ORGAN IN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSEL
ORGAN IN EXCRETORY SYSTEM: KIDNEY
ORGAN IN COORDINATION SYSTEM: SPINAL CORD
ORGAN IN COORDINATION SYSTEM: PANCREAS
ORGAN IN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: OVARY
ORGAN IN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: TESTIS
PLANT TISSUES
• Divide into 2 categories:
üMeristematic
üPermanent
oDermal
oGround/cortex:
parenchyma,
collenchyma,
sclerenchyma
oVascular: xylem
and phloem
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
• Composed of cell that actively
divide (young cell)
• Type:
üApical Meristems: primary
growth à in the tip of root
or stem
üIntercalary Meristems: only
in monocot à between the
tip and base of stem and
leaves
üLateral Meristems: only in
dicots à side of stem and
leaves à cambium à
secondary growth
 • The outermost layer of cells
DERMAL TISSUES • Function: protect and adsorb
• Can be modified as root hair
cell, trichomes (hair), stomata,
lenticel, spine, cuticle, or waxy
layer, periderm/jaringan gabus
(in stem)
GROUND TISSUES
• Filling spaces between the dermal and vascular tissues
• Responsible for metabolic functions
• Type
üParenchyma cells: living tissue à to store and do metabolism
(photosynthesis):à palisade, spongy (in leaf); spongy (in the
pith/ center of stem and root)
üCollenchyma cells à support à strong and thick cellulose wall
à living cell
üSclerenchyma cells à inactive cell
à support à cell wall lignin and cellulose
à divide into two
types: sclereid (batu),
fiber (serabut)
VASCULAR TISSUES
• Transport substances
• Type
üXylem: transport water with
upward direction àcontains of
2 types of cell: tracheid (w/o
perforations) and vessel
elements (w/ perforations) à
both cells are dead and
lignified
üPhloem; transport nutrient à
downwards direction (from
source to sink) à composed of
sieve tubes cells (cell with sieve
plate), companion cells, and
fibers à the cell is living
ORGAN : ROOT

dicotyledonous monocotyledon
ORGAN : STEM

monocotyledon dicotyledonous
ORGAN : LEAVES
ORGAN : ANTHER AND OVARY
ORGAN : SEED