KOLEHIYO NG PANTUKAN

JUAN A. SARENAS CAMPUS, KINGKING,

PANTUKAN, DAVAO DE ORO
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

____________________________________________________________

TERM PAPER
MODULE 10- INFORMATION PROCESSING;
MODULE 11- GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
in partial fulfillment of the course
EDUC 5- FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

Submitted by:

GLORYNDA NOELLE JOHANNAH L. BIRONDO

BSED English 3-1

Submitted to:

DR. LYNARD BOBBY ASIRIT

Instructor
 MODULE 10
INFORMATION PROCESSING

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies that aims to explain how
information is encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that humans do not merely respond to stimuli from
the environment. Instead, humans process the information they receive. While experts believe that the brain’s
mechanisms and functions are relatively simple, the magnitude and scope of neural networks and their
behaviors are quite powerful as a whole (Wang, 2003). These include how the brain processes information.
Information processing theory not only explains how information is captured, but how it is stored and retrieved
as well. The process begins with receiving input, also called stimulus, from the environment using various
senses. The input is then described and stored in the memory, which is retrieved when needed. The mind or
the brain is likened to a computer that is capable of analyzing information from the environment.

Consequently, information processing affects a person’s behavior (Hann, 2007). In the expectancy
theory of motivation, an individual processes information about behavior-outcome relationships. Then, they can
form expectations based on the information and make decisions. George Armitage Miller was the first to put
forth the idea of the theory of information processing. He was one of the original founders of cognition studies
in psychology. His studies are based on Edward C. Tolman’s sign and latent learning theories, which propose
that learning is an internal and complex process which involves mental processes.

Miller discovered the capacity of the working memory, which can generally hold up to seven plus or
minus two items. Additionally, he coined the term “chunking” when describing the functionalities of short-term
memory. Aside from Miller, John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin are also associated with the Cognitive
Information Processing Theory. This refers to the proposed multi-stage theory of memory, which is one of the
leading models of information processing theory (Sala, 2007). Two other psychologists, Alan Baddeley and
Graham Hitch made significant contributions to the theory through their own studies. They presented a more
in-depth model of memory with various stages, such as visuospatial sketch pad, phonological loop, and central
executive (Baddeley, 2006).

The information processing theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the
American experimental tradition in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt the information-
processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturation changes in basic components
of a child’s mind. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather
than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for
analyzing information from the environment. George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are
fundamental to cognitive psychology and the information processing framework. The first concept is “chunking”
and the capacity of short-term memory. Miller (1956) presented the idea that short-term memory could only
hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any meaningful unit. A chunk could
refer to digits, words, chess positions, or people’s faces. The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of
short-term memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory.

Information Processing Theory is a useful framework for structuring corporate training. It offers you a
formula for ensuring that your learners gain more than a passing knowledge of the material we present to
them. It helps ensure that it’s encoded into their long-term memory for recall whenever it’s needed.
Information-Processing Theory: seeks to understand how people acquire new information, how they store
information and recall it from memory, and how what they already know guides and determines what and how
they will learn. There are assumptions on how information is processed, first it is in steps or stages. Second,
there are limits on how much information can be processed at each stage. Lastly, the human information-
processing system is interactive. Learning results from an interaction between an environmental stimulus and a
learner.

Control processes help determine the quantity and quality of information that the learner stores in and
retrieves from memory, and it is the learner who decides whether, when, and how to employ them. The
Sensory Register: the first memory store, the information it stores is thought to be encoded in the same form in
which it is originally perceived; PURPOSE: to hold information just long enough (1-3 seconds) for us to decide
whether we want to attend to it further. Recognition: involves noting key features of a stimulus and relating
them to already stored information. Due to elementary school students' limited store of knowledge, they need
more structured learning tasks than middle school or high school students. They must be provided with clear,
complete, explicit directions and learning materials. Attention: the selective focusing on a portion of the
information currently stored in the sensory register. Information in long-term memory influences what we attend
to. Short-term Memory: (Working Memory) the second memory store, which holds information that has been
attended to. It can usually hold about 7 unrelated bits of information for approximately 20 seconds. It is called
working memory because it holds information, we are currently aware of at any given moment and is the place
where various encoding, organizational, and retrieval processes occur.

Long-Term Memory: permanent storehouse of unlimited capacity. Information in long-term memory is

organized as schemata (an abstract structure of information). Students remember much of what they learn in
school, especially if mastery and active learning are emphasized. Less forgetting occurred among students
who learned the material to a higher level before moving on such as making a high grade on an exam before
progressing forward or by having to teach other less knowledgeable students. It also occurred in classes in
which students were more actively involved in learning such as went on a field trip where the students had to
observe, sketch, record and answer questions.

In Information Processing Theory (IPT), we first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may
receive. There are several types of knowledge. The first type is General vs. Specific. This involves whether the
knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one. This involves deductive or inductive reasoning or learning.
The next type is Declarative, this refers to factual knowledge. When we say factual knowledge, it may be
described as the basic information about a particular subject or discipline that students must be acquainted
with. This may include the terminology and the specific details or elements of a subject (Anderson and
Krathwohl) in A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing. They may be in form of a word or an image.
Some examples of this are your names, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of
your crush. The next type of knowledge is Procedural. This includes knowledge on how to do things.
Procedural knowledge, also known as imperative knowledge, is the type of knowledge exercised in the
performance of a task. It's basically “how” you know to do something. The classic example of procedural
knowledge is riding a bicycle. And some other examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or
getting the least common denominator. The fourth type of knowledge is Episodic. The mental representations
of the specific events in a person's life. This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
It can also be your first kiss, first day of school, a friend's birthday party, and your brother's graduation are all
examples of episodic memories. In addition to your overall recall of the event itself, the episodic memory
includes the locations and times of the events. The last type of knowledge is Conditional. Conditional
knowledge is an understanding of when and how to use something we already know, for example, using
different strategies in different situations (Larkin, 2009). Yore and Treagust (2006) state that conditional
knowledge is the awareness of how, when, and where to use certain strategies. This is about “knowing when
and why” to apply declarative or procedural strategies.

These types of knowledge are evident or is innate in one’s cognitive ability. Knowledge is not only
cumulative, it grows exponentially. Those with a rich base of factual knowledge find it easier to learn more —
the rich get richer. In addition, factual knowledge enhances cognitive processes like problem solving and
reasoning. The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and
the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information
becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, menta
model, etc.). The three primary stages in IPT are encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding is when the information is sensed, perceived and attended to. We get information into our
brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we
receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with
other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through
both automatic processing and effortful processing. For example, if someone asks you what you ate for lunch
today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or
the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually
done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of
automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of work
and attention on your part to encode that information; this is known as effortful processing. When you first learn
new skills, such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about how to
start a car, how to brake, how to handle a turn, and so on. Once you know how to drive, you can encode
additional information about this skill automatically.

Storage (Retaining information in memory). The information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding. Once the information has been encoded, we
have to retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is the creation of a
permanent record of information. In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to
pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory.
These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson (1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson-
Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes
information.

Retrieval when the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a
current task, the true measure of effective memory. So you have worked hard to encode via effortful
processing (a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information) and store some
important information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that information back out of storage when
you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is
known as retrieval. This would be similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your
computer’s hard drive. Now it’s back on your desktop, and you can work with it again. Our ability to retrieve
information from long-term memory is vital to our everyday functioning. You must be able to retrieve
information from memory in order to do everything from knowing how to brush your hair and teeth, to driving to
work, to knowing how to perform your job once you get there. What made IPT plausible is the notion that
cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along
which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled when needed). Most theories of
information processing revolve around three main stages in the memory process.

Three Main Stages in the memory process

The sensory register is the memory store where information first comes in through the senses. There
are separate sensory registers for each sense: the iconic store codes visual information and the echoic store
codes auditory information. Information only lasts for a brief moment unless attention is directed to that
register, which then transfers the information to STM. In the sensory register process, the brain obtains
information from the environment. This activity is short, lasting at most a few seconds. During sensory register,
the brain gathers information passively through visual and auditory cues, known respectively as “iconic” and
“echoic” memory. Sensory memory can be divided into subsystems called the sensory registers: such as
iconic, echoic, haptic, olfactory, and gustatory.

The first step in the Information processing model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
These includes capacity and duration. Capacity refers to the maximum amount that something can contain.
Thus, our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive.
Duration is the time during which something continues. The sensory register only holds the information for an
extremely brief period- in order of 1 to 3 seconds. There is difference in duration based on modality: auditory
memory is more persistent than visual.

Attention plays a critical role in almost every area of life including school, work, and relationships. It
allows people to focus on information in order to create memories. It also allows people to avoid distractions so
that they can focus on and complete specific tasks. The first step in getting information into memory is to pay
attention to it. Attention involves focusing awareness on narrowed range of stimuli or events. Usually, attention
is likened to a filter in an information-processing model of memory the filter screens out most stimuli, while
allowing a select few to get by. Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This
means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of
the information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is
perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have
no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

Short-term memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is
called working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects
that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds.
Think of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer screen—a document, a
spreadsheet, or a web page. Information in short-term memory either goes to long-term memory (when you
save it to your hard drive) or it is discarded (when you delete a document or close a web browser). George
Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can retain about seven items
in short-term memory. Some remember five, some nine, so he called the capacity of short-term memory the
range of seven items plus or minus two.

The capacity of STM can only hold 5 to 9 chunks of information, sometimes described as 7+/-2. It is called
working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM
maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the information, or
until the information is forgotten. Its duration is around 18 seconds or less. To reduce the loss of information in
18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active in STM,
like when you repeat a phone number just given over and over.

STM is where the world meets what is already known, and where thinking is done. You perceive and attend to
stimuli; that information is then actively processed based on information stored in LTM. The use strategies
such as rehearsal (repeating information verbally) (acoustic encoding) and chunking (categorizing information
together in one memory slot) can expand the capacity of short-term memory (McLeod, 2009). In terms of the
characteristics of this memory stage, the representation is echoic. It is limited to 5-9 items, and it lasts between
15-30 seconds. At the STM stage, interference is the principal cause of forgetting. STM can hold about 7 (the
magic number) items (Miller, 1956). A common example of this is calling information for a phone number. After
the operator gives you the number, you begin repeating it to keep it in STM. This repetition is termed rehearsal.
Rehearsal can also be used to get information into LTM, but it is very inefficient. Rehearsal primarily serves a
maintenance function; it can be used to keep information in STM. In the phone number example, if someone
interrupts you to ask you a question while you are rehearsing the number, responding interferes with rehearsal,
and the phone number is lost. You must call the information again.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of
long-term memory has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than
just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago.
In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your long-term memory would be like the information
you have saved on the hard drive. It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up
this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong memories.
Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact— “What is
the capital of the United States?”—or a procedure— “How do you ride a bike?”—but you might struggle to
recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner at when you were on vacation in France last summer. A
prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in
soccer, may help you recall (retrieve) the name of the restaurant.

The final stage in the IP model is long-term memory (LTM), which involves the storage and recall of information
over extended periods of time, such as hours, days, weeks, or years (Merriam-Webster, 2017). LTM is
everything we know and know how to do. For most cognitive psychologists, the world of LTM can be
categorized as one of three types of memory: declarative, procedural or episodic. Declarative knowledge can
be defined as knowledge needed to complete this sentence "Knowing that…" By contrast, procedural
knowledge is "Knowing how…" These two types of knowledge account for most of what is learned in school
and at work. The remaining type of knowledge is episodic which might also be called anecdotal. This is
memory for specific events in one's life: a memory of your first kiss or of your graduation. The personal stories
in our lives comprise episodic memory. While this makes for a neat tautology, some have suggested that it is
incomplete.

Finally, there is another viewpoint that offers the notion of concepts. For example, there exists a concept called
"bird," which can be reduced to declarative statements such as: "It has feathers," "It has wings and flies," "It
lays eggs," and the like. The concept of "bird" can also include our episodic experiences with birds-the
parakeet I had when I was a child, the sparrow I found dead by the fence one morning, etc. It can also include
the hundreds of images that we have seen of birds, as well as all instances of real birds we have seen. All of
this collectively is what we know of as "bird." It is the concept of bird, the tightly woven collection of knowledge
that we have for birds. In the end, there are five types of knowledge in LTM-declarative, procedural, episodic,
imagery, and strategic knowledge; there also exists one collective type called conceptual knowledge. For the
LTM stage, the representation is semantic (based on meaning). Capacity and duration are considered
unlimited in LTM, and the cause of forgetting is failure to retrieve.

How information gets into the LTM? In order to keep information in the working, it needs to be rehearsed (rote
memorization). Rote memorization is not an effective way to move information to the long-term memory.
However, by using the correct methods, information can be moved from the short-term memory into the long-
term memory where it can be kept for long periods of time. Information that is stored in the long-term memory
does not need to be rehearsed. To retrieve information from the long-term memory, short-term memory must
be used. Usually if someone "forgets" something that is stored in the long-term memory, they have simply
forgotten how to retrieve it or where it is stored.

In order for information to move from short-term (working) memory to long term memory, it must be attended
within 5 to 20 seconds of entering. Information must be linked to prior knowledge and encoded in order to be
permanently stored in long term memory. It is generally believed that encoding for short-term memory storage
in the brain relies primarily on acoustic encoding, while encoding for long-term storage is more reliant on
semantic encoding (The Human Memory). Some encoding methods include chunking, imagery, and
elaboration. For examples, when I think about teaching learners, I need to know what they already know so
that they can relate the new information to their existing knowledge. This is elaboration. While teachers can do
some of that for learners, elaboration is an active process. The learner must be actively engaged with the
material that is to be learned. This does not necessarily mean that the learner must be physically active; rather,
it implies that they should be actively relating this new piece of information to other ideas that they already
know. LTM is often regarded as a network of ideas. In order to remember something, ideas are linked, one to
another until the sought-after information is found. Failure to remember information does not mean that it has
been forgotten; it is merely the procedure for retrieval has been forgotten. With more elaboration, more
pathways to that piece of information are created. More pathways make retrieval of the information more likely.
If it is found, it is not forgotten.

Executive Control Processes

Executive control refers to the ability of the human brain—mostly associated with prefrontal cortex activity—to
regulate the execution of novel or complex goal-directed tasks. Previous studies and models of human
cognition have assumed that executive control necessarily requires conscious processing of information. The
executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive skills.
Executive functions or self-regulation serves as the foundation for life-long functioning in such areas as critical
thinking and problem-solving, planning, decision making and executing tasks. Executive functions or self-
regulatory capacities are the building blocks for a range of important skills. Executive functions involve regions
of the brain associated with information processing, (including such functions as attention and working
memory), regulating emotions and behavior (including such functions as impulse control and suppressing
inappropriate responses), and even creativity and some aspects of personality. (Diamond, 2013; Zelazo et al,
2016). Individuals who have problems with executive functions in childhood or adulthood may have difficulty
with social appropriateness, planning projects, working independently, remembering details, paying attention,
or starting and completing tasks.

Forgetting

It refers to the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. According to retrieval-failure theory,
forgetting occurs when information is available in LTM but is not accessible. Accessibility depends in large part
on retrieval cues. Forgetting is greatest when context and state are very different at encoding and retrieval.
There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs: decay is when information is not attended to, and
eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in working memory. Interference is when new and old information
‘blocks’ access to the information in question.

As we just learned, your brain must do some work (effortful processing) to encode information and move it into
short-term, and ultimately long-term memory. This has strong implications for a student, as it can impact their
learning – if one doesn’t work to encode and store information, it will likely be forgotten. Research indicates
that people forget 80 percent of what they learn only a day later. This statistic may not sound very
encouraging, given all that you’re expected to learn and remember as a college student. Really, though, it
points to the importance of a study strategy other than waiting until the night before a final exam to review a
semester’s worth of readings and notes. When you learn something new, the goal is to “lock it in” sooner rather
than later, and move it from short-term memory to long-term memory, where it can be accessed when you
need it (like at the end of the semester for your final exam or maybe years from now).

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

There are several ways or methods to increase the retrieval of information in our memory. This includes
rehearsal, meaningful learning, organization, elaboration, visual imagery, generation, context and
personalization.

Other ways based on my research are:

Think about concepts rather than facts: Most of the time instructors are concerned about you learning about
the key concepts in a subject or course rather than specific facts.

Take cues from your instructor: Pay attention to what your instructor writes on the board, mentions repeatedly
in class, or includes in study guides and handouts, they are likely core concepts that you’ll want to focus on.

Look for key terms: Textbooks will often put key terms in bold or italics.
Use summaries: Read end of chapter summaries, or write your own, to check your understanding of the main
elements of the reading.

Transferring Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory

In the previous discussion of how memory works, the importance of making intentional efforts to transfer
information from short-term to long-term memory was noted. Below are some strategies to facilitate this
process:

Start reviewing new material immediately: Remember that people typically forget a significant amount of new
information within 24 hours of learning it.

Study frequently for shorter periods of time: If you want to improve the odds of recalling course material by the
time of an exam or in future class, try reviewing it a little bit every day.

Below are some strategies that can aid memory:

Rehearsal: One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered (Craik &
Watkins, 1973). Academic learning comes with time and practice, and at some point, the skills become second
nature.

Incorporate visuals: Visual aids like note cards, concept maps, and highlighted text are ways of making
information stand out. These aids make the information to be memorized seem more manageable and less
daunting.

Create mnemonics: Memory devices known as mnemonics can help you retain information while only needing
to remember a unique phrase or letter pattern that stands out. They are especially useful when we want to
recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system (Bellezza, 1981). There
are different types of mnemonic devices:

Acronym: An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember. Such as
HOMES for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior)

Acrostic: In an acrostic, you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. For example, if you need to
remember the order of mathematical operations, recalling the sentence “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”
will help you, because the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication,
Division, Addition, Subtraction.

Jingles: Rhyming tunes that contain key words related to the concept, such as “i before e, except after c” are
jingles.

Visual: Using a visual to help you remember is also useful. Such as the knuckle mnemonic shown in the image
below to help you remember the number of days in each month. Months with 31 days are represented by the
protruding knuckles and shorter months fall in the spots between knuckles.

Other memory methods also include serial position effect (recency and primacy); part learning; distributed
practice and mnemonic aids.

Information Processing Theory views humans as information processing systems with memory systems
sometimes referred to as cognitive architecture (Miller, 2011). A computer metaphor is often applied to human
cognitive systems, wherein information (a stimulus) is inputted (sensed) and the brain then performs processes
such as comparing the information to previously stored information (schemas), transforming information
(encoding), or storing information in long-term memory. This theory views humans as machines, actively
inputting, retrieving, processing and storing information. Context, social content, and social influences on
processing are generally ignored in favor of a focus on internal systemic processes. Nature provides the
hardware, or the neurological processing system likely predisposed to economical and efficient processing, as
well as being pre-tuned to attend to specific stimuli. The “Nurture” component presents as the environment
which provides the stimuli to be inputted and processed by the system.

Information Processing Theory is currently being utilized in the study of computer or artificial intelligence. This
theory has also been applied to systems beyond the individual, including families and business organizations.
For example, Ariel (1987) applied Information Processing Theory to family systems, with sensing, attending,
and encoding stimuli occurring either within individuals within the system or as the family system itself. Unlike
traditional systems theory, where the family system tends to maintain stasis and resists incoming stimuli which
would violate the system's rules, the Information Processing family develops individual and mutual schemas
which influence what and how information is attended to and processed. Dysfunctions can occur both on the
individual level as well as within the family system itself, creating more targets for therapeutic change. Rogers,
Miller, and Judge (1999) utilized Information Processing Theory to describe business organizational behavior,
as well as to present a model describing how effective and ineffective business strategies are developed. In
their study, components of organizations that "sense" market information are identified as well as how
organizations attend to this information, which gatekeepers determine what information is relevant/important
for the organization, how this is organized into the existing culture (organizational schemas), and whether or
not the organization has effective or ineffective processes for their long-term strategy.

When children are faced with information that is unfamiliar to them, they are left with the task of developing
strategies to encode the information so as to store it and accurately and easily access it at a later time (Miller,
2011). Depending on the age of the child, the method of storing information into memory differs. As children
develop, increased cognitive abilities, increased memory capacity, and other social/cultural factors serve as
major contributors to their development. Older children are more likely to develop memory strategies on their
own, are better at discerning what memory strategies are appropriate for particular situations and tasks, and
are better able to selectively attend to important information and filter out extraneous information.

The strategies children use to encode and remember information are of interest to Information Processing
researchers (e.g., task analysis research). For example, “young children are capable of using rehearsal to aid
memory if they are told to rehearse, but they are deficient at spontaneously producing a strategy” (production
deficiency) (Miller, 2011, p. 283). Therefore, young children are unable to ascertain the appropriate time to use
particular strategies. On children’s encoding strategy development characteristics, Miller (2011) pointed out the
following:

As children develop they become more capable of developing appropriate strategies to acquire and remember
units of knowledge when necessary; A child’s ability to selectively choose which information they attend to is
another developmental milestone; A child may choose a strategy that does not produce a desired outcome
(utilization deficiency); Children may use several strategies on the same task; They may frequently change
their strategies used or strategies develop as a result of increased knowledge, development, etc.; Children
develop strategies over the course of their development; Children may employ strategies at an early age that
prove ineffective later in development; and Children may develop new strategies that they find effective and
useful later in life.

Information processing theory combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative development. Qualitative
development occurs through the emergence of new strategies for information storage and retrieval, developing
representational abilities (such as the utilization of language to represent concepts), or obtaining problem-
solving rules (Miller, 2011). Increases in the knowledge base or the ability to remember more items in short-
term (working) memory are examples of quantitative changes, as well as increases in the strength of
connected cognitive associations (Miller, 2011). The qualitative and quantitative components often interact
together to develop new and more efficient strategies within the processing system.

Information Processing Theory views memory and knowledge formation as working together, and not as
separate and mutually exclusive concepts. Humans are better able to remember things they have knowledge
of, which increases the recall of stored information. Increased knowledge allows the person to more readily
access information because it has been categorized and the bits of information relate to one another. As
children develop, they also gain an understanding of their own memory and how it works, which is called
metamemory. Also, children also gain information about how human cognitive functioning, which is called
metacognition. These are other important developmental milestones, which indicate the child is able to process
much more complex and less concrete information. This is important in our overall functioning, because it
shows an understanding of our own functioning related to specific tasks and how to best adapt our learning
and memory strategies.

Younger children have less memory capacity. A child’s level of comprehension is integrally connected with
their memory (Miller, 2011). As the child develops, they are able to process information at a faster speed, and
they have an increased capacity of how much information they can take in at a time. Increased memory
capacity allows the child to process and store more bits of information (Miller, 2011). Thus, older children are
able to take in more information at a faster rate, therefore allowing better efficiency of information processing.
Increased knowledge enables the child to more readily access information from their long-term storage and
utilize it in appropriate situations. The more associations one is able to make and the more complex their
network of associations, the better their information recall. A developmental milestone examined in children is
their ability to take information and expound upon it. Younger children are more likely to purely recall the
information they process. However, as children develop and gain knowledge, they are better able to gather
information, make inferences, judgments, and go beyond pure recall.
One's culture greatly influences how one remembers bits of information by how the culture emphasizes various
elements, emotions, or even events. As the text discusses, children can manage and handle more information
at once due to increased capacity, and “because new information can be packaged into preexisting categories
and structures” (Miller, 2011, p. 290). The knowledge gained, however, is not obtained without interaction with
the child’s external environment. Attitudes and beliefs about gender, race, sex roles, etc. greatly influence how
a child processes and recalls information. Beck (1975) suggests that as we develop we learn how to process
external stimuli, and these messages are processed, interpreted and incorporated into one’s internal schemas.
For example, children in a school setting who are taught that men and women occupy certain gender-
stereotypic jobs are thus more likely to process information through such a “filter”. The text points out that
children may even reconstruct images later to fit with their schema of a particular occupation. This relates to
the construction of scripts, which are assumptions or expectations about what is supposed to happen in a
particular situation. They can greatly influence how a child remembers events and may potentially lead to
assumptions about people, events, etc. While scripts are helpful in making the information processing system
more efficient, they can hinder the recall of specific information and enhance the generalizations made about
people, events, etc. Language is an integral part of one's culture that can greatly influence the information
processing system. Language, the nature of a task's instruction, and the type of task can all greatly impact the
processing of information (Shaki & Gravers, 2011). Furthermore, individualistic versus collectivistic cultures
can have different outlooks on human development as well as the proper formation and development of an
individual, which therefore influences motivations and actions toward goals.

Models based upon Information Processing Theory take a somewhat simplistic view of cognitive processing,
with information processing being viewed largely as a linear process. This IP model does not take into account
simultaneous or parallel processing. For example, with the linear model, which suggests rehearsal is required
to encode information in long-term memory, is likely faulty in cases of trauma, where information can be
encoded automatically and without rehearsal due to a single exposure to traumatic stimuli. The metaphor of
the computer is off-putting to many, who dislike comparing human beings to machines. Moreover, no current
computer program can truly simulate the full range of human cognition. Computer constructed models that are
based upon this theory are highly complex and again cannot take into account all the nuances of human
thought despite their complexity. Information Processing Theory does not account for fundamental
developmental changes, or changes to the "hardware" of the brain. For example, how do humans gain the
ability to utilize representational thought utilizing language? How do people develop "formal operations"
thinking, such as abstract logical or social thinking when previously their thoughts were in "concrete" terms?
There is an excessive focus on internal cognitive processes, with little attention being paid to environmental
influences or the nature of the external stimuli the individual is exposed to. Lastly, the impact of emotions or
behaviors on cognitive processing or interpretation is not sufficiently included in this model. For example, the
Information Processing model does not consider how an individual can process a stimulus differently if they are
angry versus if they are in a calm state. The Information Processing model is described as being universal,
with little attention being paid to individual differences or cultural differences.

In K-12 classrooms, most teachers hand out worksheets to help students practice (or rehearse) their new
information. To improve students' encoding, teachers should look for ways to incorporate more senses. For
example, when learning new vocabulary (such as in a foreign language) teachers could have the students act
out the words. In higher education classrooms, the more modes of information an instructor can provide to
students the better. If the classroom or course doesn't condone itself to a lab-like lesson or environment to
allow students to actually experience the concept on their own, instructors could point the students in the
direction of a good video tutorial on that day's lesson. The instructor could even make their own videos.

Making learning multi-modal. The more modes the teacher or the instructor have working at one time, the more
likely learners are going to remember (e.g., the more senses used, the better). Humans, like computers, need
to do something with new information so to store it in our brains so that we can recall it again later when
needed. We need to create a similar pathway so we make sure our brain knows not to discard the newly
learned information. This process is called encoding. A good example of encoding we are all familiar with is
ROY G BIV. This acronym was created as a way to remember the colors on the color spectrum: Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet. Additionally, the more times we practice pulling the information out, the
easier and easier it becomes when needed. During encoding, a learner may watch, listen, repeat, recall, etc., it
is very important to keep cognitive load in mind when trying to learn, recall, and remember new information.
Cognitive load is a term concerning the manner in which cognitive resources are focused and used during
learning and problem-solving. It is argued that cognitive load can be reduced for learners via instructional
design. When designing and presenting information, teachers and the instructors are encouraged to consider
learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. Overloading a learner with information and stimuli can
have negative effects on task completion and comprehension.
 MODULE 11

Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Robert Gagne’s seminal work is his conditions of learning theory. It includes five categories of learning
outcomes and the nine events of instruction. Together, these two themes of Gagne’s learning theory provide a
framework for learning conditions. Gagne’s work (1985) focuses on intentional or purposeful learning, which is
the type of learning that occurs in school or specific training programs. He believed that events in the
environment influence the learning process. His theory identifies the general types of human capabilities that
are learned. These capabilities are the behavioral changes (learning outcomes) in a learner that a learning
theory must explain. Once the learning outcomes are identified, an analysis of the conditions that govern
learning and remembering can occur (Gagne, 1985, p. 15).

For example, a learner who is participating in a situation where the right conditions for learning are
invoked, then he or she will experience the five categories of learning outcomes that include the human
capabilities of intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes. Gagne also
relates learning outcomes to the events of instruction. He provides systematic statements of theory to describe
the ways that instructional events are designed for each of the learning outcomes or capabilities. While
Benjamin Bloom (1956) developed his taxonomy of cognitive outcomes based on increasingly complex levels,
Gagne (1985) developed his five categories of learning outcomes based on the characteristics of the content
that a learner must learn. His outcomes do not consist of any particular order or complexity of levels, other than
the sub-categories within the Intellectual Skills category. Gagne separated Bloom’s knowledge class into a
category he named verbal information, and he added another category of learning outcomes he named
cognitive strategies. He believed cognitive strategies were learning strategies that learners adopted and
applied in the process of learning, and that they are not subject specific (Wager, n.d.).

Gagne’s conditions of learning theory draw upon general concepts from various learning theories in
order to define what learning is. The theory looks at the observable changes in human behavior that confirm
that learning has occurred. Gagne’s theory provides an answer to the question, “what is learning?” In
answering that question, Gagne provides a description of the conditions under which learning takes place by
referring to situations in ordinary life and in school where learning occurs, and by referring to experimental
studies in learning.

Gagne (1985) postulates that proof of learning shows by a difference in a learner’s performance before
and after participating in a learning situation. He claims that the presence of the performance does not make it
possible to conclude that learning has occurred; but instead, it is necessary to show that there has been a
change in performance. In other words, the capability for exhibiting the performance before learning requires
consideration as well as the capability that exists after learning (p. 16).

The following four elements provide the framework for Gagne’s Conditions of learning theory.
Conditions of Learning
Association Learning
The Five Categories of Learning Outcomes
The Nine Events of Instruction
Conditions of Learning

Gagne (1985) describes two different types of conditions that exist in learning: internal and external.
Capabilities that already exist in a learner before any new learning begins make up the internal conditions
necessary for learning. These internal conditions are transformed during the learning process. External
conditions include different stimulus’s that exist outside the learner such as the environment, the teacher, and
the learning situation. This means that each new learning situation begins from a different point of prior
learning and will consist of a different external situation, depending on the learner and on the learning
environment. Therefore, the useful prototypes of learning by association (described next) are delineated by
internal and external learning conditions (p. 17).
Association Learning

There are three basic prototypes of learning that demonstrate the characteristics of associative
learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and verbal association. Gagne adds a fourth that relates
to the three prototypes: chaining. Classical conditioning is the process where the learner associates an already
available response with a new stimulus or signal. Operant conditioning is the process where a response in a
learner is instrumental and thereby leads to a subsequent reinforcing event. Verbal association occurs when
the learner makes verbal responses to stimuli that are words or pairs of words. Chaining is a process where a
learner connects individual associations in sequence. For example, a learner can recite verbal sequences
consisting of lists of words, or the alphabet from A-Z (Gagne, p. 24).

Gagne (1985) believes these four prototypes of associative learning are components of learned human
capabilities and link together as basic forms of learning (pp. 17-18). Gagne refers to them so he may present a
comprehensive picture of how these prototypes of learning relates to the five categories of learning outcomes.

The Five Categories of Learning Outcomes

One of the themes of Gagné’s theory is distinguishing the types of outcomes that learning has: the
categories of learned capabilities – observed as human performances – that have common characteristics.
Gagné describes five categories of human performance established by learning:

Intellectual skills (“knowing how” or having procedural knowledge)

Verbal information (being able to state ideas, “knowing that”, or having declarative knowledge)

Cognitive strategies (having certain techniques of thinking, ways of analyzing problems, and having
approaches to solving problems)

Motor skills (executing movements in a number of organized motor acts such as playing sports or driving a car)

Attitudes (mental states that influence the choices of personal actions)

The five categories of learning outcomes provide the foundation for describing how the conditions of learning
apply to each category.

Gagne (1985) postulates that if the five categories of learning outcomes and the ways of analyzing
learning requirements are combined in a rational and systematic manner, then it will be possible to describe a
set of ideas that make up a theory of instruction. He adds that a theory of instruction should attempt to relate
the external events of instruction to the outcomes of learning by showing how these events lead to appropriate
support or enhancement of internal learning processes.

Gagne proposed a series of critical conditions of learning which he then regarded as important in the learning
of different outcomes. These outcomes are distinct in terms of internal organization in long-term memory and
required mental processing:

Verbal information includes declarative knowledge that is stored in distributed forms. It should be related to
previous information that draws attention to other features by including variations in speech or print, and
provides meaningful content for effective encoding and cues for effective recall and generalization. Another
category of learning outcomes is verbal information. This refers to the organized bodies of knowledge that we
acquire. They may be classified as names, facts, principles, and generalizations. Verbal information is referred
to as declarative knowledge, or knowing that. The performance or learning outcome achieved through verbal
information is the ability of being able to state in a meaningful sentence what was learned. Some examples of
acquired verbal information are the ability to define Piaget’s stages of cognitive development; or, stating the
rules for scoring in a tennis match.

Intellectual skills include procedural knowledge such as steps of a process or hierarchies with higher and lower
order skills. There is a need for prior knowledge here, it calls attention to distinctive features and stimulates the
recall of previously learned components' skills. The sub-divisions of intellectual skills include discriminations,
concrete concepts, defined concepts, rules, and, lastly, higher-order practices. He give the following as the
sub-groups of this category: recognition of stimulus, generation of a response, following the procedure,
terminology use, discrimination, formation of concepts, application of rules, and solving problems. Intellectual
skills’ learning tasks are organized hierarchically based on their complexity. The central significance of the
aforementioned order is to establish prerequisites that need to be completed to conduct learning at every level.
The requirements are identified by carrying out a task analysis of the training or knowledge acquisition
process. Learning hierarchies provide a foundation for instruction sequencing and organization. Intellectual
skills involve the use of symbols such as numbers and language to interact with the environment. They involve
knowing how to do something rather than knowing that about something. Intellectual skills require an ability to
carry out actions. Often, they require the interactions with the environment through symbols such as letters,
numbers, words, or diagrams. When a learner has learned an intellectual skill, he or she will be able to
demonstrate its application to at least one particular instance of the subject matter learned.

Out of the five categories, intellectual skill is the only category that is divided into sub-categories. The division
is according to the complexity of the skill level, and how they relate to each other. The more complex skills
require the prior learning or mastery of the simpler skills before the learning process is complete. The links
below will take you to a brief summary of the five sub-categories of intellectual skills.

Discriminations: Discriminations is the first skill to master in intellectual skills. It is the ability to distinguish one
feature of an object or symbol from another such as textures, letters, numbers, shapes, and sounds. The
human performance or learning outcome achieved by discrimination is the ability to tell the difference among
various stimuli. It is the prerequisite to further learning.

Concrete Concepts: Concept learning occurs after discriminations learning is complete. Concrete concepts
are the simplest of the two concept types and consist of classes of object features, objects, and events. Some
are relational such as up, down, far, near, higher, lower. The performance or learning outcome achieved from
mastery of concrete concepts is the ability to identify a class of objects, object qualities, or relations by pointing
out one or more examples or instances of the class.

Defined Concepts: Concepts not only require identification, but also definition. Defined concepts require a
learner to define both general and relational concepts by providing instances of a concept to show its definition.
For example, if a learner were to explain the concept alliteration, he or she must define alliteration, and then be
able to identify the components of alliteration, such as consonant sound, beginning, sentence, etc., and then
be able to provide specific examples of alliteration.

Rules: Once concepts are learned, the next sub-category of intellectual skills is rules. A rule is a learned
capability of the learner, by making it possible for the learner to do something rather than just stating
something. For example, when a learner learns the rule for forming an adverb to modify an adjective, he or she
knows that ly must be added to the modifier. Because a learner knows the rule to add ly, he or she can apply it
to an entire class of words instead of learning an adverbial form for every adjective in the language, enabling
the learner to respond correctly to words he or she has never seen before. Rules make it possible to respond
to a class of things with a class of performances.

Higher-Order Rules: Higher-order rules are the process of combining rules by learning into more complex
rules used in problem solving. When attempting to solve a problem, a learner may put two or more rules
together from different content in order to form a higher-order rule that solves the problem. A higher-order rule
differs in complexity from the basic rules that compose it.

Problem solving using higher-order rules occurs in writing paragraphs, speaking a foreign language, using
scientific principles, and applying laws to situations of social or economic conflict.

Cognitive strategies are skills that influence the skills and activation of other systems by breaking the problem
into parts. It uses less prior knowledge and more practical examples and experiences backed by feedback on
the strategy or outcome. Cognitive strategies refer to the process that learners guide their learning,
remembering, and thinking. Where intellectual skills are oriented toward aspects of the environment by dealing
with numbers, words, and symbols that are external, cognitive strategies govern our processes of dealing with
the environment by influencing internal processes. A learner uses cognitive strategies in thinking about what
was learned and in solving problems. They are the ways a learner manages the processes of learning,
remembering, and thinking.

The performance or learning outcome achieved through cognitive strategies is having the ability to create
something new such as creating an efficient system for cataloging computer discs.

Attitudes are mental states that influence an individual’s actions and require a human to observe and learn
from those who also provide feedback. Another distinct category of learning outcomes is attitudes, the internal
state that influences the choices of personal actions made by an individual towards some class of things,
persons, or events. Choices of action (behaviors) made by individuals are influenced significantly by attitudes.
For example, an attitude towards the disposal of trash will influence how a person disposes of pop cans, food
containers, organics, etc. An attitude towards music will influence the choice of music an individual will listen
to.

General classes of attitudes include attitudes that affect social interactions, attitudes that consist of positive
preferences towards certain activities, and attitudes that pertain to citizenship, such as a love of country or
showing concern for social needs and goals. The performance or learning outcome achieved through attitudes
is evident in an individual’s choice of actions. For example, choosing swimming over running as a preferred
exercise, or choosing not to participate in group events reflects how attitude motivates choices.

Motor skills deal with skills where error-less performance is expected. It encourages mental practice. Prior
learning of the process and practice enhances the overall process. Motor skills are the precise, smooth, and
accurately timed execution of movements involving the use of muscles. They are a distinct type of learning
outcome and necessary to the understanding of the range of possible human performances. Learning
situations that involve motor skills are learning to write, playing a musical instrument, playing sports, and
driving a car. The timing and smoothness of executing motor skills indicates that these performances have a
high degree of internal organization.

Gagne gives two conditions that exist in a learning situation: external and internal. The external environment
includes the various stimulus found outside a student, such as a teacher and the surrounding. Therefore, this
means that every new instruction situation starts from a different viewpoint from past experiences. Moreover, it
consists of different external cases, depending on the learning environment and the student. On the other
hand, the internal learning condition includes existing capabilities in a learner before any new form of
instruction occurs. The aforementioned knowledge is transformed through the learning process. Different
external and internal environments are required for every learning type. For instance, to learn cognitive
strategies, an opportunity to practice how to develop new solutions to problems should be there. Moreover, to
study attitudes, the student should be familiar with persuasive arguments or a credible role model.

Gagne also bases his philosophy on association learning in which there are three basic prototypes that depict
the features of associative learning: verbal association, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning. The
theorist adds chaining to this list and describes it as an approach in which the learner links individual
relationships in a sequence. For instance, the student can recite the alphabet or verbal series that consists of
lists of words. In classical conditioning, the pupil associates available responses with new signals or stimuli. On
the other hand, operant conditions involve an instrumental response in a learner that results in subsequence
reinforcement. Lastly, the verbal association is where the student verbally responds to stimuli that are single or
pairs of words. According to Gagne, the prototypes mentioned above form the basic learning methods and are
components of acquired human capabilities.

Apart from these special conditions of learning, there are nine levels of instruction that are used as a starting
point for all types of learning and instructional design. These points help educators and trainers to maintain a
checklist for all their teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication and when one
step is completed, learners tend to retain and apply the skills taught in a better and effective way. The theory
includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes.

Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)

Start the learning process by gaining the attention of your audience. It starts the learning process when the
learner is being receptive to the information received. This may be achieved by calling names of learners
during the discussion to completely focus attention on learners. The first event of instruction is to gain the
attention of students so they are alert for the reception of stimuli. An instructor can achieve this by introducing
a rapid stimulus change either by gesturing or by suddenly changing the tone or volume of their voice. Another
way of stimulating alertness is by visual or auditory stimuli related to the subject matter. The stimulus chosen
for gaining attention will work equally well for all categories of learning outcomes.

Level 2: Informing learners of the objective (Expectancy)

Next, learners must know what they are about to learn and why. At the start of the lecture, they should be
aware of what they will have learned by the end of the session, its benefit to them and the organization. For
instance, explaining to learners why they will learn what they will learn and how to apply the concept to your
practice. This makes them more receptive to learning. The second event of instruction is to inform the learner
of the purpose and expected outcomes of the learning material. This will provide them with an expectancy that
will persist during the time learning is taking place. Feedback at the end of the lesson will provide the learner
with confirmation of learning. An important part of this event of instruction is to provide learners with motivation
if learner motivation is not apparent. An instructor can achieve learner motivation by relating an interesting
career field to the learning material. Instructional techniques that will inform the learner of objectives for all five
categories of learning outcomes are described below.

Intellectual Skills: Instructors can demonstrate the activity to which the concept, rule, or procedure applies.

Cognitive Strategy: Instructor describes or demonstrates the strategy

Verbal Information: Instructor describes what the learner will be expected to state.

Attitude: The learner encounters attitude later in the process. (This occurs through instructor demonstration or
modeling during instructional event five, providing learning guidance.

Motor Skills: Instructor demonstrates the expected performance.

Level 3: Stimulating recall of prior learning (Retrieval)

Matching the concept with what learners have learned previously. Prior experiences can be used to solve new
problems and resolve matters easily. This may also take the form of a simple Q/A session to establish a link
between specific material knowledge. The third event of instruction asks the instructor to recall skills or
knowledge learners have previously learned. The best kind of recall should naturally relate to the subject
matter being learned. The instructional technique for stimulating recall will be different for the different learning
outcomes as described below.

Intellectual Skills: Instructor recalls prerequisite rules and concepts

Cognitive Strategy: Instructor recalls simple prerequisite rules and concepts

Verbal Information: Instructor recalls well organized bodies of knowledge

Attitude: Instructor recalls a situation and action involved in personal choice. He or she reminds learner of the
human model and model’s characteristics.

Motor Skills: Instructor recalls the “executive subroutine” (the procedure that constitutes the active framework
within which the motor skill is executed, practiced, and refined), and part-skills (the different parts of the
procedure), if appropriate.

Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception)

Presenting new information in an effective manner using more examples, use of timelines, diagrams, concept
maps and student discussions. Try using different media and styles such as visual cues and verbal instructions
to suit people with different learning styles. The fourth event of instruction is presenting a stimulus that is
related to the subject matter. The content of the stimulus should be specific to the learning outcome. For
example, if the stimulus is verbal information, printed prose such as a chapter in a textbook or an audio tape
will achieve the learning objective. If the stimulus is an intellectual skill, the instructor can display the object
and/or symbols that require a concept or rule; or, he or she can present the problem learners need to solve.

The instructor must present the stimulus as an initial phase of learning, so clear indication of stimulus features
such as underlining, bold print, highlighting, pointing, or using a change in tone of voice to emphasize major
themes is helpful. The instructional techniques for presenting the stimulus to different learning outcomes are as
follows:

Intellectual Skills: Instructor delineates features or the objects and symbols that require defining as a concept
or a rule

Cognitive Strategies: Instructor describes the problem and shows what the strategy accomplishes

Verbal Information: Instructor displays text or audio statements, showing or highlighting the distinctive features

Motor Skills: instructor displays the situation at the initiation of the skilled performance, and then demonstrates
the procedure

Attitude: Instructor presents a human model that describes the general nature of the choice that learners will
be required to make.

Level 5: Providing learning guidance (Semantic Encoding)

Helping your team learn and retain most of the information by providing alternative approaches to illustrate the
information you are trying to convey to the learner. Examples include; case studies and graphics. Giving time
for discussion and answering queries with relevant additional materials.

The fifth event of instruction, providing learning guidance requires the instructor to make the stimulus as
meaningful as possible. There are several ways to achieve this, depending upon the learning outcome
expected. An instructor can enhance meaningfulness by using concrete examples of abstract terms and
concepts, and elaborating ideas by relating them to others already in memory. The instructional techniques for
providing learning guidance to different learning outcomes are as follows:

Intellectual Skills: Instructor provides varied concrete examples of the concept or rule

Cognitive Strategies: Instructor provides a verbal description of the strategy, followed by an example

Verbal Information: Instructor elaborates content by relating to larger bodies of knowledge; uses images
and/or mnemonics

Attitude: Instructor uses the human model and describes or demonstrates an action choice, followed by
observation of reinforcement of model’s behavior

Motor Skill: Continue practicing procedure, focusing on precision and accurately timed execution of
movements

Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding)

Now is the time to see if learners can demonstrate their knowledge with what was taught to them. Give them a
brief test after each task/ unit to see if they can apply it to their learning before moving forward. The sixth
instructional event eliciting performance asks a learner to demonstrate the newly learned capability. This may
be verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategy, attitude, or motor skill. The learner of verbal
information will have the ability to “tell it.” The learner of a new concept or rule (intellectual skills) will have the
ability to demonstrate its applicability to a new situation not previously encountered during learning. The
learner of a cognitive strategy of problem solving will solve an unfamiliar problem whose solution may use the
strategy. The learner of a motor skill demonstrates the learned performance. The learner demonstrates the
new attitude in the choices the learner makes.

Level 7: Providing feedback (Reinforcement)

After a clear demonstration of knowledge from the learners’ end, it's time to give feedback to them and guide
them on the points they missed. Your feedback and tips will help them improve. Discuss their results, be
professional with comments and give them guidelines to work on. This is a healthy exercise if conducted
properly. The seventh instructional event, providing feedback, asks the instructor to reinforce the newly
acquired learning. An instructor can accomplish this through informative feedback where the instructor informs
the learner of the degree of correctness or incorrectness of the performance. This feedback may be verbal or
written.

Level 8: Assessing performance (Retrieval)

When learners have had a good opportunity to practice and refine their learning it is time to assess their
learning with a test at the end of the course or any other measurement tool such as a case study or seminar to
show learners have learned the material or skill effectively. This test shall be completed without any assistance
or coaching. The eighth instructional event, assessing performance, consists of assessments to verify that
learning has occurred. In order to assure that learning is stable, an instructor will require additional instances of
the performance. The instructor assesses performance through testing the learner. The purpose of testing is to
establish that the learned capacity is stable, and to provide additional practice to assist in consolidating the
learned material.

Level 9: Enhancing retention and transfer (Generalization)

At this stage, learners show the transfer of knowledge through the application of skills and knowledge. They
should then be provided with real-life examples to apply the acquired knowledge. The ninth instructional event,
enhancing retention and transfer, refers to retaining the learned capability over a long period of time and
transferring it into new situations outside of the learning environment. Practice ensures retention, especially
with verbal information, intellectual skills, and motor skills. Instructors can enhance retention and transfer by
conducting spaced reviews. This means conducting recalls of information learned at various intervals of a day
or more after the initial learning. However, the recall is further enhanced when additional examples are spaced
in time over days and weeks following the initial learning, and when including a variety of different situations.

Gagne’s conditions of learning have its own pros and cons. People who have learning issues may respond
better to this regime that is clearly very systematic where learners are provided with resources and a blueprint
for learning. It can also be adjusted to suit their needs. However, it also requires a great deal of assistance
overall where critical thinking and instructions can’t be avoided. This practice may restrict learners’ imagination
and exploration instinct. But overall, these 9 steps are nine events of instruction, systematically designed as
foundation blocks of learning in modern classrooms.

Gagne’s nine events of instruction are a valuable framework that can be used to deliver knowledge to learners
at the different levels of education in the Philippines. Ideally, the teacher should organize learning objectives
and course goals before fitting them into the structure to situate the ideas in the proper context appropriately
(Spector, 2020). Subsequently, the theory can be applied by modifying it to serve both the students’ level of
knowledge and the content being taught. For example, at lower education levels, a teacher can utilize the nine
events to help pupils identify an equilateral triangle. First, the instructor can gain the student’s attention by
showing them several computer-generated triangles with no identities. The tutor can then set the objective of
the class by posing a question, such as “what is an equilateral triangle?” Reviewing definitions of various
triangles is one way of recalling previous learning.

The subsequent event is presenting learners with a stimulus, which might be providing them with the definition
of an equilateral triangle. The teacher then guides the instruction by demonstrating how an equilateral triangle
can be created and elicits performance by asking pupils to construct different examples of the three-way
relationship and fulfill all the necessary conditions as stipulated in the previous events (Barclay et al., 2018).
The following instruction provides feedback, which can be done by checking if all the examples created are
correct. The performance of students should be assessed by giving them scores and remediation where
necessary. At the end of the class, the teacher should enhance retention and transfer of knowledge by asking
students to identify equilaterals from various forms.

The conditions of learning theory can also be applied to technology-supported learning environments. In an
online class, the tutor can get the student’s attention by sending email invitations to each member, sending
attracting video clips and audio with the invites, introducing the topic of study and faculty at the beginning of
the class, and giving learners a space to introduce themselves. Secondly, the instructor can inform others
about the objective of the course by providing an overview, background information, and a description of the
goals of the module. Thirdly, the teacher can relate the new content to the material used in the previous class
and incorporate pre-tests and reviews. The subsequent step is presenting the required texts, which should be
accurate, precise, and up-to-date. Working links to online resources and paper-based support sources should
also be provided.

As previously explained Gagne's theory of instruction is commonly broken into three areas. The first of these
areas that I will discuss is the taxonomy of learning outcomes. Gagne's taxonomy of learning outcomes is
somewhat similar to Bloom's taxonomies of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor outcomes (some of these
taxonomies were proposed by Bloom, but actually completed by others). Both Bloom and Gagne believed that
it was important to break down humans' learned capabilities into categories or domains. Gagne's taxonomy
consists of five categories of learning outcomes - verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,
attitudes, and motor skills. Gagne, Briggs, and Wager (1992) explain that each of the categories leads to a
different class of human performance.

Essential to Gagne's ideas of instruction are what he calls "conditions of learning." He breaks these down into
internal and external conditions. The internal conditions deal with previously learned capabilities of the learner.
Or in other words, what the learner knows prior to the instruction. The external conditions deal with the stimuli
(a purely behaviorist term) that is presented externally to the learner. For example, what instruction is provided
to the learner. To tie Gagne's theory of instruction together, he formulated nine events of instruction. When
followed, these events are intended to promote the transfer of knowledge or information from perception
through the stages of memory. Gagne bases his events of instruction on the cognitive information processing
learning theory.

The way Gagne's theory is put into practice is as follows. First of all, the instructor determines the objectives of
the instruction. These objectives must then be categorized into one of the five domains of learning outcomes.
Each of the objectives must be stated in performance terms using one of the standard verbs (i.e. states,
discriminates, classifies, etc.) associated with the particular learning outcome. The instructor then uses the
conditions of learning for the particular learning outcome to determine the conditions necessary for learning.
And finally, the events of instruction necessary to promote the internal process of learning are chosen and put
into the lesson plan. The events in essence become the framework for the lesson plan or steps of instruction.

REFERENCES

Imed Bouchrika, Phd; September 26, 2022 Research.com-What is Information Processing Theory?

Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing
information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.