Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics

PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021

Tutorial 1 Basics of E M Theory

1. Write the Maxwell’s equations relevant for (a) vacuum, (b) a linear and
homogeneous dielectric medium devoid of free charges and free currents,
and (c) a conducting medium with free charges and free currents.
2. Obtain the wave equations for the electric field of an electromagnetic wave for
propagation in all the cases of qn.1 given above. Suggest one solution to
each of these equations and an interpretation of its properties. Is it always
possible to suggest an analytical solution?
3. Derive from Maxwell’s equations, the boundary conditions to be satisfied by
the normal and tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields at
an interface.
4. Starting from the Poynting vector, show that the energy of an EM wave flows
in the direction of propagation of the wave under unbounded conditions.
5. Write the one-dimensional wave equation for the electric field of an
electromagnetic wave in free space. Verify that a traveling plane-wave
solution will satisfy the equation.
6. Write the three-dimensional wave equation for the electric field of an
electromagnetic wave in free space. Assume harmonic time dependence for
the field and obtain the Helmholtz equation. Verify any possible solution to the
Helmholtz equation.
7. Verify that the electromagnetic wave in a lossless unbounded medium is a
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave.
8. Find the period, wavelength, velocity and direction of a wave represented as
A(x,t) = cos [2(3t+15x)].
9. A transverse electromagnetic wave of linear frequency 300 GHz propagates
as a harmonic wave in vacuum along the positive x-direction. It has an
electric field of amplitude 28.28 V/m. The wave has its electric field vector at
an angle of 450 to the x-z plane. Write the expressions for Ex, Ey, Ez, Bx, By
and Bz explicitly in terms of the given quantities.
10. Consider an interface between air and glass (refractive index 1.5) defined as
the y-z plane. A transverse electromagnetic wave of linear frequency 300
GHz propagates as a harmonic wave in air and is incident on the interface
with an incidence angle of 45o. It has an electric field of amplitude Eo V/m.
Write the equations for the incident, reflected and transmitted waves for the
two cases of (a) incident electric field vector along z-axis and (b) incident
electric field vector within the plane of incidence, taking the given parameters
into account.
11. Verify the laws of reflection and refraction using Huygens’ construction. Prove
the Snell’s law using Fermat’s principle.
12. (a) Why is the intensity of light normally defined as a quantity averaged over
time? (b) Intensity is often taken to be proportional to the square of field
amplitude. Obtain this from the definition of intensity as the time-average of
Poynting vector.
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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021
Tutorial 2 Fresnel’s equations

13. Relate the reflection (r) and transmission (t) coefficients for s-polarization
through their analytical expressions. Plot r and t as a function of incident
angle; one figure for r and one for t. In each figure, show two graphs one each
for external reflection and another for internal reflection. Use refractive indices
of your choice for the first and second medium.
14. Using the Fresnel’s equations, verify that the sum of the energies of the
reflected and transmitted fields equals that of the incident field.
15. Relate the Reflectance (R) and Transmittance (T) for s-polarization, assuming
2
R= r and no loss in energy.
16. For an interface between water (n=1.33) and diamond (n=2.42), find the
critical and Brewster’s angles, in the case of s- and p- polarizations.
17. Only the light incident within the cone of half-angle  can be (note: it is not
“will be”) guided down a glass fiber, by total internal reflection, with the
cylindrical geometry of the fiber shown in the figure. This angle is known as
the acceptance angle and sin  is known as the numerical aperture of the
fiber. If n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials
respectively with n1 > n2, and light is incident from air, show that
  sin 1 n12  n2 2 .

 core

cladding
18. (a) What is the need for a cladding layer on the core of an optical fiber? Give
all possible reasons. (b) Assuming a fiber that is kept straight and is of length
L, find the difference in times of propagation of a ray that travels along the
fiber axis and another ray that is incident at the critical angle on the core-
cladding interface. Take the core and cladding indices to be 1.48 and 1.46
respectively and that of air to be unity. Assume the suitable angle of
incidence.
19. A beam of light enters normal to one side and is totally reflected off the
hypotenuse of a 450-900-450 glass prism of refractive index 1.6 and emerges
normal to the second side. What is the decay constant for the evanescent
wave at the point of total reflection, assuming the prism is kept in air? (Decay
constant is the inverse of penetration depth). What happens if the prism is in
water?
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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021

Tutorial 3 Dispersion

20. Augustin Cauchy determined an empirical equation

for n() for substances that are transparent as
B C
n  A  2  4  .... where A, B, C,.. are all
 
constants. Let us assume that this equation is
satisfactory for the wavelength range of 200 nm to
1000 nm in BK-7 glass. Restricting the expansion to
these three terms in n, find the values of A, B, C
which fit best to the values in the figure shown here.
21. Augustin Cauchy’s empirical equation for n() for substances that are transparent is given by
the equation in the above question. What can be the physical significance of A? If we move
from one transparent region to another at a much lower frequency, how would A vary? Why?
22. Derive and show that the maximum and minimum values of the real part of the refractive index
(or susceptibility or permittivity) occur at those wavelengths where the imaginary part is at its
half-maximum value.
23. Consider a plane wave propagating in the x-direction through a medium. Take the real part of
refractive index to be 1.60 and that of the imaginary part to be 0.12 at a wavelength of 500 nm.
Find the distance xd by which the incident amplitude falls to 1/e of its initial value. (a) Plot a
graph with field amplitude along the y-axis and distance of propagation on the x-axis; ensure
that the x-axis range goes from zero to 10xd. (b) Draw another graph with intensity on the y-
axis and distance of propagation on the x-axis, ensuring the same range on x-axis as in (a).

Tutorial 4 Anisotropy 1

24. Two orthogonal components of electric field from a He-Ne laser, at a wavelength of 632.8nm,
are incident normally on a crystal plate of Lithium Niobate (n = 2.29, n = 2.20) of thickness
10 mm. The optic axis of the crystal is parallel to one of the components of the incident electric
field. Determine the phase difference between the emerging ordinary and extra-ordinary
beams.
25. For an incident wavelength of 550 nm, the refractive indices of an anisotropic medium along
two orthogonal directions are 1.405 and 1.460. Consider an isosceles prism of this medium.
Unpolarized light is incident from air normally on one of the two equal sides of the prism.
Light reflected from the hypotenuse and the light transmitted through the hypotenuse are both
found to be highly linearly polarized. What can cause this? Is the direction of OA important
for this case?
26. Anisotropic media usually introduce a fixed phase difference between the two orthogonal
components of the incident electric field. Discuss how to design a “Phase compensator” which
can introduce any value of phase difference in a continuously varying fashion.
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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021
Tutorial 5 Anisotropy and Polarization

28. If you are given a set of linear polarizers without marking the transmission axis (TA) on any
of them, how will you find out the position of TA? State a few possible methods and the likely
error in each case.
29. Light is incident from air on a horizontal water surface (ref index 1.33) at such an angle that
the reflected light is completely linearly polarized. (a) what is the angle of incidence? (b) The
light refracted into the water surface falls on the top surface of a block of glass (of index 1.50)
kept inside water at some angle, such that the reflected light from the glass block is completely
linearly polarized when it emerges into air. What is the angle between the surface of water and
the top surface of the glass block? Sketch the arrangement, neatly showing the polarization of
the light at each stage.
30. What is the (complete) state of polarization of the following waves? Justify your answers.
(a) E = E0 {i cos(t-kz)+j cos(t-kz+5/4)}
(b) E = E0 {i cos(t+kz)+j cos(t+kz-/4)}
(c) E = E0 {i cos(t-kz)+j cos(t-kz+/6)}
31. Show using Jones calculus that circularly polarized light is obtained by sending light through
a linear polarizer (LP) and a quarter-wave plate (QWP) in the correct order. Describe the
orientations of the LP and QWP to get right-circularly polarized light. What is the effect if left
and right circularly polarized light are incident independently on a polarizing element whose
 1 i
Jones matrix is given to you as  .
 i 1
32. Let two incoherent light beams with Stokes parameters of (1,1,0,0) and (3,0,0,3) be
superposed. (a) What is the polarization state of each of these? (b) Determine the resulting
Stokes parameters of the combined beam and describe its polarization state, amd (c) what is
its degree of polarization?
33. Quartz is a positive uniaxial crystal. For an incident wavelength of 550 nm, its refractive
indices along the slow and fast axes are 1.546 and 1.555 respectively. Assuming that the light
propagation is along z-axis, describe one orientation of this quartz crystal and its thickness that
will make it behave as a quarter wave plate in terms of introducing the appropriate phase
difference  between two perpendicular components of the electric field. What will be the
(new) orientation if the phase difference required is -?
34. Draw the index plot in x-y plane for a positive crystal (n|| > n) which has its optic axis at 300
to the vertical y-axis. Mark the ordinary and extra-ordinary wave indices.
35. Incident He-Ne laser beam, at a wavelength of 633nm, with an equal mixture of two orthogonal
polarization states, is incident normally on a crystal plate of Lithium Niobate (ne = 2.29, no =
2.20) of thickness 1 mm. The optic axis of the crystal is perpendicular to the normal of the
plate. Determine the phase retardation between the emerging ordinary and extra-ordinary
beams. How will be result change if the angle of incidence of the beam is made oblique, as
300? Draw neat figures for both the above cases.

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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021
Tutorial 6 Interference

36. Thomas Young (who is famous for the Young’s double-slit experiment) had used sunlight for
his interference experiment. What are the challenges of doing an interference experiment with
sunlight as the source, and how can they be overcome?
37. Consider Young’s double slit experiment done with a sodium lamp as the source. A thin plate
of transparent glass of refractive index 1.6 is placed over one of the slits in the Young’s
double-slit experiment. It has the effect of displacing the zeroth order bright fringe to the
position previously occupied by the bright fringe of order +6 on a screen placed at a distance
D from the plane of the double-slit. Determine the thickness of the glass plate. What is the
likely effect if the plate is 2cm in thickness? Assume that the incident light waves pass through
the plate at normal incidence. Draw a neat figure and indicate all the relevant quantities.
38. Young’s double slit is illuminated with light that consists of two wavelengths. One wavelength
is known to be 436 nm. On the screen, the fourth minimum of 436nm light coincides with the
third maximum of the other wavelength. What is the value of this unknown wavelength? Is
this value unique?
39. If two beams of light are incident (with an acute angle between them) on a screen and
interference fringes are a parallel set of lines, find the plane these fringes will be parallel with.
40. Will fringes be observed if the two beams are counter-propagating in the previous question?
Discuss the answer.
41. The ratio of the amplitudes of the two beams forming an interference pattern is 3:2. What will
be the fringe contrast?
42. Show that if one beam of a two-beam interference set-up has an intensity N times that of the
√
other beam, the fringe visibility is given by . Determine the ratio of intensities of
interfering beams to get a visibility of 0.95.
43. In Newton’s rings experiment (shown on the
right), a plano-convex lens with a radius of
curvature of 20 cm for the convex surface is kept
with its convex surface resting on an optically flat
glass plate. It is illuminated with the incident wave
normal to the planar surface of the lens by sodium
lamp (take  = 589.3 nm). Interference fringes
seen with a microscope placed above will show
concentric rings due to interference. Explain why.
44. In the previous question, the small gap between the lens and the glass plate is slowly filled
with carbon tetrachloride (index of 1.461) using a syringe, while observing the pattern. What
is the radius of the 10th dark ring before introducing the liquid and after introducing the liquid?
Such changes can be precisely measured using traveling microscopes and refractive indices
of liquids can be evaluated.

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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021
Tutorial 7 Interferometers

45. In a Michelson interferometer adjusted for circular fringes, discuss the following: (a) Are
the fringes equally spaced and why? (b) If the source has two closely spaced wavelengths
1 and 2 (with 1 > 2), and you see a doublet pattern, can you unambiguously say which
ring in the doublet belongs to 1? Justify your answer. (c) Give all the reasons as to why
the circular fringe pattern is useless if the source emits light at multiple wavelengths. (d) If
the interferometer is illuminated with plane waves, what can you say about the fringe
pattern?
46. Looking into a Michelson interferometer, one sees a central dark disc surrounded by
concentric bright and dark rings. One arm of the instrument is 2cm longer than the other,
and the wavelength of the light is 500nm. Determine the order of the central disc. If the
longer arm is further increased in length by 10m, how many fringes will move across the
cross-wire near the center of the pattern? (You can assume the same arrangement as used
in the lecture).
47. Discuss the condition under which very straight parallel fringes are obtained in a Michelson
interferometer. What does the fringe spacing depend on?
48. A Fabry-Perot (F-P) etalon of thickness 2 cm has a reflection coefficient of 0.9 for both the
mirrors. The space between the mirrors is filled with a material of index 4.5 and the etalon
is to be used for high transmission at 546nm. Determine the highest-order fringe in the
interference pattern and the ratio Tmax/Tmin.
49. F-P etalon is illuminated with two sources at wavelengths of 631.0 nm and 633.0 nm. The
reflection coefficients of the two reflecting surfaces (with air film of thickness 31.65 m
between them) are 0.95 each. Calculate the transmittance at the incident angle equal to 00
and 4.50. (a) Will the two wavelengths be ‘well-resolved’? Why? (b) Is there a possibility
of these wavelengths giving overlapping fringe patterns at some value of  and why?
50. F-P interferometer is commonly used in spectroscopy to resolve (and to calculate
unknown) wavelengths. The two reflecting plates of a Fabry-Perot (F-P) interferometer
have a reflection coefficient of 0.99 each. Calculate the resolving power and the plate
separation that will accomplish the resolution of the two components of the H doublet of
the hydrogen spectrum, whose separation is 0.0136nm at 656.3nm.
51. Discuss how the coefficient of finesse of an F-P interferometer is an indicator of the fringe
contrast possible with it.
52. How does the “sharpness” of the fringes compare in the case of F-P interferometer and
Michelson interferometer? To answer this, calculate the fringe-width at half-maximum
using the intensity of fringes in a Michelson interferometer as a function of phase. What is
the most important reason for this difference?
53. Consider a reflection coefficient of the two reflecting plates of the F-P etalon to be high
with a spacing of d between the plates. A medium of index n is placed inside the etalon
between the plates, and emits a broadband light in the range of 400nm to 700nm. Describe
how the F-P etalon acts as a wavelength-selective device for transmission in the angular
range of 00 to 300. (This is the principle of the Fabry-Perot cavity-based laser).
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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021
Tutorial 8 Single- and multi-layer coatings for interference

54. Find the reflection coefficient of s- and p-polarized light from a silicon surface, for the
incidence angle range of 0o to 70o. Then, calculate the reflectance for unpolarized light
incidence. This percentage of incident light is lost in reflection when sunlight falls on the
silicon-based solar cell. Now, assume a quarter-wave thick layer of silicon nitride coated
over it, for a design wavelength of 550 nm. How much is the reflection at 550 nm after this
single-layer coating? Use the refractive index values of silicon and silicon nitride as 4.0
and 2.1 (constants) for this question.
55. Quarter-wave thick layers of ZnS (n = 2.2) and MgF2 (n = 1.35) are deposited individually
on a substrate of silicon (nSi = 3.3) to produce minimum reflectance at  = 2m. (a)
Determine the actual ‘physical’ thickness of the layers. (b) How much do the refractive
indices of the layers differ from the ideal case of zero reflection? (c) what is the reflectance
and transmittance value obtained at the design wavelength? Assume normal incidence.
56. A thin wedge of glass (refractive index 1.50) is illuminated with light of wavelength 532nm
and Fizeau fringes of equal spacing are seen. The spacing between any two bright fringes
is 100 m. What is the wedge angle?
57. A glass substrate of index 1.5 is coated with a layer of MgF2 (index 1.35, thickness 82 nm),
followed by a layer of TiO2 (index 2.45, thickness 45.5 nm), then a second layer of MgF2
followed by TiO2 etc. There are a total of 5 layers of each material alternately coated
(referred as 5 bi-layer design). If the incident light of wavelength 446 nm is s-polarized,
show with the help of a figure, all the possible reflections and write the phase change at
normal incidence (and the corresponding path difference) for each of these reflections with
respect to the incident light. Comment whether this multi-layer structure is useful as a high-
reflectivity mirror at the given wavelength.
58. It is common to designate a multilayer structure of the type (air - low index – high index –
glass) as aLHg. With n representing the refractive index, assume na<nL<ng<nH. Consider
light at normal incidence on structures represented by (i) aHLHg, (ii) aLHLg and (iii)
aHLHHLHg. Every H and L layer is of quarter-wavelength optical thickness at the design
wavelength o. After clearly considering the reflection at each interface in terms of path
and phase, identify which among the three has the highest and which has the lowest
reflectance at o.
59. Consider a perfectly periodic 1-D quarter-wave stack with alternating layers of n1 and n2,
and respective thicknesses d1 and d2 (note d2=a-d1 where a is the period), designed for high-
reflection at 0 in normal incidence. (a) If the period a is increased, with n1 and n2
unchanged, what will be the effect on 0? (b) If the thicknesses d1 and d2 are slightly wrong
from the expected quarter-wave condition for 0, what will be the consequence?
60. A periodic stack of quarter-wave-thick bi-layers of two dielectric materials is coated. It has
n1 on top, and n1d1=n2d2 as well as n1=2n2 and is meant to be used as a high reflector. It
has a large number of bi-layers. This is placed in air. Given n1=2.05 and d1=91.5 nm, find
(i) the value of d2, (ii) the wavelength of high reflection at normal incidence and (iii) the
wavelength of high reflection at 30o incidence. Are the answers unique?
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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021
Tutorial 9 Fraunhofer Diffraction

61. Let the intensity at the center of the central, first and second Fraunhofer diffraction maxima
of a single (rectangular) slit be I0, I1 and I2 respectively. Obtain the ratio I2 / I0.
62. Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is formed using white light for a single (rectangular) slit.
Find the wavelength (1) whose second-order minimum coincides with the third-order
minimum of 2 = 400 nm.
63. (a) If d is the slit separation and b is the slit width in a double-slit, obtain the ratio of the
width of the central diffraction peak to the central interference fringe. Here, width means
the separation between the two minima on either side of the peak – it is not the full width
at half maximum. (b) Assuming d = 4b, draw the intensity pattern as a function of  and β
in the same figure for the case of 10-slits. All the quantities should be clearly identified.
Usual meanings: 𝛼 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝛽 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
64. From symmetry considerations, create a rough sketch of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
of an aperture in the form of an equilateral triangle. Then check if you are correct with a
Google search.
65. A single slit in an opaque screen is 0.10 mm wide. It is illuminated in air by (near) plane
waves from a krypton ion laser of wavelength 461.9 nm. If the observing screen is 1.0 m
away, determine whether or not the resulting diffraction pattern will be of the far-field
variety.
66. How many lines must be ruled on a transmission grating so that it is capable of just
resolving the sodium doublet (588.9953 nm and 589.5923 nm) in the first- and second-
order spectra?
67. Light having the frequency of 4.0x1014 Hz is incident on a grating having 10,000 lines per
cm. What is the highest-order spectrum that can be seen with this device? Explain your
answer.
68. Sunlight falls on a transmission grating which has 5000 lines per cm. Will the third-order
spectrum overlap the second-order spectrum for any wavelength range? Take the extent of
wavelengths to span 390 nm to 780 nm.
69. Assume a laser beam at a wavelength of 632.8 nm, having a 2-mm diameter, which is
diffraction-limited and has a constant intensity over its cross-section. On the basis of
spreading due to diffraction alone, how far must it travel to double its diameter?
70. The Lick observatory has a large refracting telescope, with an aperture diameter of 90 cm
and a focal length of 16.80 m. Determine the radii of the first and second bright rings
surrounding the Airy disc in the diffraction pattern formed by a far-away star at the focal
plane of the objective. The first two secondary maxima of the first-order Bessel function
occur at γ = 5.14 and 8.42.
71. No lens can focus light down to a perfect point due to the presence of diffraction effects.
Estimate the size of the minimum spot of light that can be expected at the focus of a lens.
Discuss the relationship between the focal length and diameter of the lens to the spot size.
State the assumptions made, if any.
72. Assume the range of pupil variation possible during the adaptation of a normal eye for
variation in intensity to be from a diameter of 2mm to 7mm. What is the corresponding
range of distances over which it can detect the separation of two objects that are 2 cm apart?
73. The Mount Palomar observatory has a telescope with an objective mirror of diameter 508
cm. Determine its angular limit of resolution at a wavelength of 550 nm, in radians, degrees
and seconds of an arc. How far apart must two objects be on the surface of the Moon if
they are to be resolved by the Palomar telescope? The Earth-Moon distance is
approximately 3.844x105 km; take the wavelength to be 550 nm. How far apart must two
objects be on the Moon if they are to be distinguished by the unaided human eye? Assume
a pupil diameter of 4.0 mm.

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 Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Physics
PHY 224A Optics Aug-Nov 2021

Tutorial 10 Fourier optics, spatial filtering and coherence

74. Find the Fourier series representation of a periodic square function represented over a period
symmetric with the origin by the following; the function for only one period (T) is shown; it repeats
every T:
f(t) = 0 for –T/2<t<-T/4
1 for –T/4<t<T/4
0 for T/4<t<T/2
75. What is the Fourier transform of the function given in the previous question? Does it match with
what you know from the spatial diffraction due to a grating (series of slits)? Note that we are not
forbidden from carrying out a Fourier transform when a function is periodic….
(t t 0 ) 2

76. Show that the Fourier transform of a Gaussian function f (t )  Ae 2 2
is another Gaussian


 e dx   to
2
x
function. Here A is the height and  is the width. You need the definite integral

complete this.
77. A continuous wave He-Ne laser beam (wavelength of 632.8 nm) is “chopped” using a spinning
aperture into pulses of 1 s time duration. Find the resultant bandwidth  and the linewidth .
These quantities will modify the coherence properties of the laser.
78. A person who is short-sighted cannot see objects at distances beyond a few meters with sufficient
clarity and requires spectacles to correct the vision. But that person will be able to see those far-
off objects much better without spectacles, by squinting the eyes or if the objects are viewed
through an aperture of a suitable size. Describe how this is possible. (Try this with your own eyes
by looking at far-off objects through an aperture of variable size in daylight!)
79. A spatial filter (SFT) is often used with inexpensive laser sources to ‘clean’ the beam. This is
because such lasers do not emit a ‘clean beam’ with precise modal qualities. A generic spatial filter
consists of two lenses of short focal length (usually called ‘objective’ lenses), with a pinhole kept
in between as shown below. This can ‘clean’ the beam. If the pinhole size is adjustable, it is the
best solution to get sufficient output power, but with clean modal profile. Consider an input laser
beam diameter of 2 mm, and objective lenses with a focal length of 1 cm. Calculate the minimum
diameter of the pinhole which will give a clean output beam profile of good power?

80. What is the idea of Fourier-transform spectroscopy? Fourier transform impacts optical
measurements in drastic ways. The use of finite sampling across a finite size (or window) leads to
 limitations in the resolving power of an instrument and the minimum wavelength that can be
handled unambiguously. Consider two Michelson interferometers, one in which the mirror
movement is possible on a rail of 5 cm length, and another in a rail of 15 cm length (the latter is
20 times more expensive). This is the restriction of data to a finite window xm and it leads to a
minimum resolvable wavelength (without a formal proof) of =(2)/xm. What is the minimum
resolvable wavelength if you use a light of wavelength 600 nm, in the above two instruments?
Note that the subsequent path difference limitation is double the rail length.
81. What is the idea of dark field microscope? Biological samples are mostly transparent and their
features (cells) may differ from the background with very small changes in refractive index. How
to image them? Dark field illumination helps to avoid staining the sample with a dye (and recording
the fluorescence as in former techniques used for imaging in bright field). In dark-field
illumination, one uses the same 4f-setup for imaging; but the light enters through an annular
aperture, passes through 4f distance (due to two lenses) and terminates on an annular stop (of
correct size) placed at 4f, which completely blocks the zero order light. An observer will see a dark
field. Then, the transparent sample (in the form of a slide) is inserted in the Fourier plane (at 2f
distance). The higher spatial frequencies (coming from the edges of the cell) will be imaged clearly
as they will not be lost in the zero order beam. Just a small extension of this is the Nobel prize-
winning phase contrast microscope of Zernike. Read about it…

Image courtesy: Z. Liu et al., J. Biomed Opt. Vol.19, 106002 (2014)

82. A narrow band-pass filter transmits wavelengths in the range of (500  0.05) nm. If this filter is
placed in front of a source of white light, what is the longitudinal coherence length of the
transmitted light?
83. Michelson found that the cadmium red line (643.8 nm) was one of the most ideal monochromatic
sources available during his time, allowing fringes to be discerned up to a path difference of 30
cm in an experiment such as the Michelson interferometer. Calculate the wavelength spread of the
source and the coherence time of the source.
84. Let a collimated beam of white light fall on one refracting surface of a prism and let the light
emerging from the second face be focused by a lens on to a screen. Let the linear dispersion at the
screen be 20 nm/mm. By introducing a narrow exit slit in the screen which is movable, one has a
monochromator that provides a nearly monochromatic beam of light. Sketch the set-up. For an exit
slit of 0.02 cm, what is the coherence time and coherence length if a light source with a mean
wavelength of 500nm is used?
85. A pinhole of diameter 0.5 mm is used in front of a sodium lamp (589.3 nm) as a source to illuminate
the Young’s double slit experiment. The distance from the plane of the pinhole to the plane of the
double-slits is 1 m. What is the maximum slit separation between the double-slits at which the
visible interference fringes just disappear?

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