People can suffer from multiple colds a year. Propose why this might be so.

: Individuals who suffer from multiple colds a year may have a weak immune system which prevents their bodies immune
responses from being strong enough and efficient enough to develop antibodies, T cells, and phagocytes (or in general white
blood cells) in an attempt to fend off invasive pathogens and bacteria. This then allows for the pathogens to surmount the
body’s defence systems such as the 2nd line of defence, and 3rd line of defence, thus making the body entirely vulnerable at
all times to the colds. If the cold were to be the same, then the weakened immune system may also be a factor for the inaction
of producing memory cells, or simply immunity against the particular type of pathogen.

Propose a reason why recent pandemics typically don’t kill as many people as the Black Death and the Spanish flu.

: Due to the fact that technological advancements within healthcare departments and research departments have evolved and
significantly developed over the course of time, society is now able to harness the effectiveness of these technologies in order
to develop vaccines, medicines, or some form of treatment against recent pandemics such as COVID-19, Monkeypox, and
smallpox. Linking back to previous pandemics in history such as the Black Death, their contemporary society wasn’t able to
effectively adapt to the pervasiveness and deadliness of the pathogen due to their lack of technologies, thus resulting in more
deaths in older pandemics, rather than recent pandemics.

Describe the features of the body’s first line of defence.

: The body’s first line of defence can include the use of the airways, urine, tears from the eyes, and earwax within the ears. The
airways of a humans body allows for mucus to trap invading pathogens within the nose and oesophagus, by which then it can
be pushed down (or swallowed) by saliva into the bladder where acidic urine is found. This then allows for the pathogens
engulfed by the mucus to die in the bladder, as well as fail to reproduce inside of the body by any means. Tears from the eyes
are able to wash pathogens out before they are able to enter the airways through the eyes, since the eyes are connected with
the mouth and thus the airways. Earwax in the ears acts as a shield that prevents pathogens from entering the body, by which
it traps the pathogens within the earwax.

Explain what an antibody is.

: An antibody is a protein produced by B cells after a non-specific immune response has been triggered, which allows for the
destruction and decimation of invasive pathogens.

Explain how the specific immune system remembers pathogens for the next time you are infected by them.

: The immune system remembers pathogens after they have been fought off after triggered the third line of defence, by which
memory cells that have been produced by B cells are replications of antibodies and T cells that destroyed a particular type of
pathogen. The memory cells and T cells/antibodies all match the receptors of the particular pathogen, which then allows for a
longevity of immunity against that body, since the memory cells remain within it for an extended period of time.

Describe in your own words how the non-specific immune response works.

: The non-specific immune response is also known as the activation of the second line of defence, by which this means that
pathogens have invaded the body, and the receptors within the body have detected its presence. This then allows for
inflammation to take place, by which blood movement hastens, allowing white blood cells to travel faster to local pathogens.
These white blood cells, also known as phagocytes perform phagocytosis within the body, killing off pathogens before they
can deal any harm. Simultaneously, some pathogens may have attacked the body, by which the hypothalamus then receives a
stimuli to alter the internal body temperature to 37.8 degrees Celsius, which is also known as a fever. The high temperatures
prevent pathogens from surviving internally. If a blood vessel, vein, or tissue has been penetrated, then platelets within the
body travel through the hastened blood vessels (as a result of the inflammation) to the penetration (where bleeding has
occurred) in order to construct a blood clot, preventing any other pathogens from entering the body.

Distinguish between a gene and an allele.

: A gene is a particular type of characteristic that an organism posseses, which can be passed onto offspring, whilst an allele is
a different form of a particular gene, which can appear in a dominant form or recessive form within the genotype.

Distinguish between heterozygous and homozygous.

: Heterozygous refers to the genotype of an organism which possesses 1 dominant gene, and 1 recessive gene, which results
in the dominant being present in the phenotype. On the contrary, homozygous is when there are 2 forms of the same type of
allele, which can be 2 dominant genes (represented in the phenotype), or 2 recessive genes (only within the genotype).

Assess whether all mutations are heritable. Justify your answer.

: Within an individuals body and its systems, all mutations are heritable due to the fact that a mutation caused by radiation
exposure, chemicals, etc, has the potential to alter an individuals nucleotide arrangement within the DNA, resulting in a
permanent change to its coding and programming. Although, not every mutation is heritable, due to the fact that that concept
only applies to gamete cells such as sperm and ovum, since a mutation can be passed onto offspring through that pathway.
The only mutations which aren’t heritable are ones other than mutations that take place within the gametes of individuals
reproductive systems, or simply body cells (not sure if thats the right term).

Does a chromosome or a gene provide the most information about the make-up of an individual? Evaluate the reasons why.

: A chromosome or a gene consists of characteristics passed down from an ancestor to their offspring in forms known as
alleles, which can tend to be recessive or dominant within the phenotype. The makeup of an individual can also be their
phenotype alongside their genotype, by which the physical representation can be used to define which inherited genes are
dominant and which are recessive.

Explain what natural selection is and what the four essential factors for this process are.

: Natural selection is the process that organisms go through within an environment which allows for the development and
longevity of efficient and significant genes in response to adapting to the local environment and its circumstances, resulting in
a stronger gene being reproduced through generations, and the frequency of weaker genes deteriorating. The four essential
factors for the process of natural selection can include:

• large number of organisms within its population

• Variation: the act of different types of genes being introduced within the gene pool

• Adaptation to the local environment: responses to stimuli within the local environment which decimates weaker genes, and
allows more prominent and desirable genes to flourish within the gene pool (in terms of frequency)

• Survival of the fittest: organisms with weaker genes die out, whilst those with stronger genes increase in survivability and
reproductive nests

What is comparative dating?

: the process of comparing rocks dependent on their layers to approximate their age

Distinguish between the terms ‘transitional fossil’ and ‘living fossil’.

: a transitional fossil reveals the heritability that takes place between an ancestor and a recent offspring, which reveals the
dynamic progression with genes. A living fossil is an organism with the same/extremely similar genes as of an ancestor, and
it’s offspring which is older than the living fossil.

Explain precisely how fossils provide evidence for evolution.

: Fossils provide evidence for evolution, due to the fact that fossils can reveal genes which were ones apart of ancestors and
their phenotypes/genotypes, which can be tracked through their dynamic progression to observe if those genes have
sustained within the genotype and phenotype, or if they have been replaced with a more efficient gene.

Propose why a vestigial structure, once it has been reduced to a certain size, may not disappear altogether.

: due to the fact that the vestigial structure is within the phenotype of the organism, which means it can still be passed onto its
offspring as long as no mutations take place within its genotype. It’s presence within the phenotype of its offspring is an
indication that it is a dominant gene within the ancestry.

List the types of evidence for evolution that may be gained from living organisms and those that may be gained from fossil
evidence. Explain how the two types of evidence complement each other. Explain how the two types of evidence complement
each other.

: the types of evidence from evolution that may be gained from living organisms can include biogeography, comparative
anatomy, and comparitive embryology. The ones that may be gained from fossils can include relative dating, comparitive
dating, and living fossils. Comparitive anatomy and embryology in synergisation with relative dating and comparitive dating,
allow for scientists to approximate when particular structures of an organism took place, alongside other organisms. This can
synergise to reveal how the developments in embryos and phenotype took place at similar times, as a result of convergent
evolution.

Explain how DNA sequencing supports the evolution from a common ancestor.

: DNA sequencing between organisms allows for the comparison of nucleotides between multiple organisms, by which an
example can be apes and humans, which both possess similarities within their nucleotide arrangement (DNA programming).
This proves that all organisms once had a common ancestor together, due to the similarities in nucleotide arrangement.

Discuss how the study of DNA sequences help in our understanding of evolution.

: The study of DNA sequences allows for the comparison of nucleotide arrangements between multiple organisms, allowing for
scientists to reveal similarities which are a result of a common ancestor. This allows for the conclusions of how a common
ancestor has allowed for similar DNA within its offspring, which has been altered (slightly or significantly) due to convergent
evolution or divergent evolution. This assists society to understand why evolution has occurred, which is that desirable genes
have sustained over the course of time, whilst weaker genes were removed from the gene pool as a result of selection
pressures.

Summarise theories of why each species died out.

: a theory can be the theory of natural selection which results in the extermination of organisms who possess genes that
reduce their rates of survivability. (I lack knowledge here 100%)