Electric Circuits II

Chapter 9: Sinusoids and Phasors

Prof. Kuang-Wei Cheng

Department of Electrical Engineering

National Cheng Kung University

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-1

Outline
 Sinusoids
 Phasors
 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
 Impedance and Admittance
 Kirchhoff’s Laws in Frequency Domain
 Impedance Combinations
 Applications
 Phase-Shifters
 AC Bridges

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-2

Direct Current V.S. Alternating Current
 Historically, direct current (dc) sources were the
main means of providing electric power up until the
late 1800s
 Nowadays, alternating current (ac) is the dominant
form of electrical power that is delivered to homes
and industry
 Because ac is more efficient and economical to transmit
over long distances
 Analysis of circuits in which the source voltage or
current is time-varying

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-3

Sinusoids
 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or
cosine function
 A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating
current (ac)
 Why are we interested in sinusoids?
 Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal
 Motion of a pendulum, vibration of a string, ripples on the
ocean surface, … etc.
 A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit
 Through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic signal can
be represented by a sum of sinusoids
 A sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-4

Sinusoids and Period
 Consider the sinusoidal voltage
v  t   Vm sin t
 Vm = amplitude of the sinusoid
 ω = angular frequency in radians per second (rad/s)
 ωt = argument of the sinusoid (in radians or degrees)
 Sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds 2
T
 T is called the period of the sinusoid 

 2 
v  t  T   Vm sin   t  T   Vm sin   t 
  
 Vm sin t  2   Vm sin t  v  t 

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-5

Sinusoids and Frequency

 Periodic function f(t):
 f(t) = f(t+nT), for all t and for all integers n 1
 Period (T): time of one complete cycle f    2 f
T
or the number of seconds per cycle
 Frequency (f): number of cycles per second, hertz (Hz)
 Consider a more general expression for the sinusoid
v  t   Vm sin t   
 (ωt + ϕ) is the argument
 ϕ is the phase 起始的相角
 Consider two sinusoids
 v2 leads v1 by ϕ or v1 lags v2 by ϕ
 v1 and v2 are out of phase for ϕ ≠ 0
 v1 and v2 are in phase for ϕ = 0
角頻率相同
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-6
 Sinusoids and Trigonometric Identities
 Sinusoid can be expressed in sine or cosine form
 Using trigonometric identities for transformation

sin t  180    sin t


cos t  180    cos t sin t  180    sin t
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B  

 
cos  A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B sin t  90    cos t



cos t  90    sin t


cos t  90   sin t

 Add two sinusoids of the same frequency
A cos t  B sin t  C cos t   
 Where B
C  A2  B 2 ,   tan 1
A

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-7

Example (9.1)
 Find the amplitude, phase, angular frequency,
period, and frequency of the sinusoid
v  t   12 cos  50t  10  V

 Amplitude: Vm = 12 V
 Phase: ϕ = 10°
 Angular frequency: ω = 50 rad/s
 Period: T = 2π/ω = 0.1257 s
 Frequency: f = 1/T = 7.958 Hz

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-8

Example (9.2)
 Calculate the phase angle between v1 and v2, and
state which sinusoid is leading
v1  t   10cos t  50 V , and v2  t   12sin t  10 V
 Method I: express in cosine form with positive amplitudes
v1  t   10cos t  50  10cos t  50  180  10cos t  130
v2  t   12sin t  10  12cos t  10  90  12cos t  100
 Method II: alternatively, express v1 in sine form
v1  t   10 cos t  50   10sin t  50  90   10sin t  40 
v2  t   12sin t  10 
 Method III: graphical method
 v1 as −10cosωt with phase shift of +50°
 v2 is 12sinωt with phase shift of −10°
 Thus, v2 leads v1 by 30°

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-9

Complex Numbers
 Phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid
 Complex number (z) can be represented
Rectangular form z  x  jy j  1
Polar form z  r
Exponential form z  re j
 x is the real part; y is the imaginary part
 r is the magnitude, and ϕ is the phase
y
r  x2  y2   tan 1
x
x  r cos  y  r sin 
 Thus, z may be written as
z  x  jy  r  r  cos   j sin  

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-10

Mathematical Operations of Complex Numbers
 Given z1  x1  jy1  r11 , z2  x2  jy2  r22
Addition z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2 
Subtraction z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2 
Multiplication z1 z2  r1r2 1  2 
z1 r1
Division   1  2 
z2 r2
1 1
Reciprocal     
z r
Square Root z  r   / 2 
Complex Conjugate z *  x  jy  r    re  j
 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better
performed in rectangular form
 Multiplication and division are better done in polar form

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-11

Phasors
 Phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity
e  j  cos   j sin   cos   Re  e j  , sin   Im  e j 
 Phasor is complex representation of magnitude and
phase of sinusoid
v  t   Vm cos t     Re Vme jt     Re Vme j e jt 

 v  t   Re  Ve jt  where V  Vme j  Vm

 V is phasor representation of sinusoid v(t)
 Phasor may be regarded as a mathematical equivalent of a
sinusoid with the time dependence dropped
 Transform sinusoid from time domain to phasor domain
 Express sinusoid in cosine form, written as real part of a
complex number
 Take out time factor ejωt, and whatever left is the phasor
corresponding to the sinusoid
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-12
Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation
 Consider the plot of sinor Ve jt  Vme jt  

Vmcos?

 Note:
 Regard v(t) as the projection of the sinor Vejωt on real axis
 Whenever a sinusoid is expressed as a phasor, the term ejωt
is implicitly present
 Keep in mind that the frequency (ω) of the phasor is
constant
 Transform sinusoid from time domain to phasor
domain v  t   V cos t     V  V 
m m

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-13

Aside：Time domain vs Frequency domain

 Diagram of time domain and frequency/phase
domain of the signal
 Fourier Transformation

弦波訊號轉換到frequency domain上只會有單一個頻
率
(只會在某個頻率上有值，其他都為0)

不同的頻率大小會對應到不同的振幅大小跟相位

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-14

Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation
 Representation: time domain vs. phasor domain
Vm cos t    Vm
Vm sin t    Vm  90
I m cos t    I m
I m sin t    I m  90
 Phasor diagram
 Example:
V  Vm
I  I m  
 Phasor domain is also known as frequency domain
v  t   Re  Ve jt   Vm cos t   

 Vm sin t     Vm cos t    90  Re Vme jt e j e j 90   Re  j Ve jt 
dv
dt
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-15

Phasor Domain
 Differentiating and integrating a sinusoid
Time  domain Phasor  domain
Original v  t   Vm cos t     V  Vm
dv  t 
Derivative  j V
dt
V
Integral  v t  dt 
j

 Differences between v(t) and V :

 v(t) is instantaneous or time domain representation, while V
is frequency or phasor domain representation
 v(t) is time dependent, while V is not
 v(t) is always real, while V is generally complex
 Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-16

 Example (9.3)
 Evaluate these complex numbers:
相加用直角坐標；開根號用極座標
1 10  30   3  j 4 
 a  :  4050  20  30 2 , b :
 2  j 43  j5


 (a) Using polar to rectangular transformation

4050  40  cos 50  j sin 50   25.71  j 30.64
20  30  20  cos  30   j sin  30    17.32  j10
4050  20  30  43.03  j 20.64  47.7225.63
1
 4050  20  30  2  6.9112.81
 (b) Using polar-rectangular transformation, addition,
multiplication, and division
10  30  3  j 4  8.66  j5  3  j 4  11.66  j 9  14.73  37.66  0.565  160.13

 2  j 43  j5

 2  j 43  j5 14  j 22 26.08122.47

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-17

Example (9.4) and Example (9.5)

 Transform these sinusoids to phasors:
 a  : i  6cos 50t  40 A, b : v  4sin 30t  50 V
 a  : i  6cos 50t  40  I  6  40
 b : v  4sin 30t  50  4cos 30t  50  90
 4cos  30t  140  V  4140

 Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors:

 a  : I  3  j 4, b : V  j8e  j 20
 a  : I  3  j 4  5126.87  i  t   5cos t  126.87
b : V  j8e  j 20  j8  20  1908  20
 8  90  20  870  v  t   8cos t  70

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-18

Example (9.6)
 Given i1  4cos t  30 A, i2  5sin t  20 A , find their
sum
 Important use of phasors: summing sinusoids of the same
frequency

i1  4cos t  30  I1  430

i2  5sin t  20  5cos t  20  90
 5cos t  110  I 2  5  110

I  I1  I 2  430  5  110
  3.464  j 2    1.71  j 4.698 
 1.754  j 2.698  3.218  56.97
 i  t   3.218cos t  56.97  A

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-19

Example (9.7)
 Using the phasor approach, determine the current
i(t) in a circuit described by the integro-differential
equation di
4i  8 i dt  3  50 cos  2t  75
dt
 Obtain phasor form
8I
 4I   3 j I  5075
j
For   2  I  4  j 4  j 6   5075
5075 5075
I   4.642143.2
4  j10 10.77  68.2
 i  t   4.642 cos  2t  143.2 A

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-20

 Phasor Relationships for Resistor
 Resistor
 Voltage-current relations for resistor
 By Ohm’s law
iR  I m cos t     I R  I m  
  VR =RI R
vR  iR R  RI m cos t     VR  RI m  
 Note: voltage and current are in phase

Time Frequency
domain domain

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-21

Phasor Relationships for Inductor

 Inductor
 Voltage-current relations for inductor
iL  I m cos t     I L  I m  
電桿電壓領先電流90？  VL =j LI L
diL 
vL  L   LI m sin t    VL   LI m    90    VL
dt  頻率的函數  I 
j L
L

  LI m cos t    90   j LI m  

 Note: voltage and current are 90° out of phase
 Current lags voltage by 90° (Voltage leads current by 90°)
Time Frequency
domain domain

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-22

Phasor Relationships for Capacitor
 Capacitor
 Voltage-current relations for capacitor
vC  Vm cos t     VC  Vm  
 IC =jCVC
dvC 
iC  C  CVm sin t    IC  CVm    90    IC
dt   V 
jC
C

 CVm cos t    90   jCVm  

 Note: current and voltage are 90° out of phase

 Current leads voltage by 90°
Time Frequency
domain domain

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-23

Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

 Summary of voltage-current relationships
Element Time  domain Frequency  domain
R vR  RiR  VR  RI R
di
L vL  L L  VL  j LI L
dt
dv 1 IC
C iC  C C , vC   iC dt  VC 
dt C jC
 Example (9.8):
 V  12cos  60t  45 is applied to a 0.1-H inductor. Find the
steady-state current through the inductor.
V 12 45 12 45
V=j LI  I     2  45 A
j L j 60  0.1 690
i  2 cos  60t  45 A

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-24

 Impedance and Admittance
 Voltage-current relations
 Obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of circuit element
IC
VR  RI R VL  j LI L VC 
jC
不隨頻率改變
VR VL90？相位差 V 1
ZR   R ZL   j L ZC  C  j?¹=-j
IR I L 永遠為正 IC jC
實部是電阻，虛部是電抗 永遠為負
 Impedance (Z) of a circuit 電流改變的時候抵抗電動勢
 Ratio of phasor voltage V to phasor current I  V
 Z 
 Measured in ohms (Ω) I
V  ZI  
 Admittance Y 導納 實部是電導，虛部是電納 Y  1  I
 Reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S)  Z V
 Z and Y are frequency-dependent quantity
阻抗跟導納都屬於頻率函數
 Z and Y are complex number but NOT phasor

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-25

Impedance and Admittance

 When ω = 0 (i.e., for dc source):

ZL  j L Z L  0 and ZC  
 When ω → ∞ (i.e., for high frequency):
1
ZC  Z L   and ZC  0
jC
 Impedance, as complex quantity, can be expressed in
 Rectangular form as
Z  R  jX
 where R = Re(Z) is resistance and X = Im(Z) is reactance
 X > 0 is said to be inductive, while X < 0 is capacitive
電感性電抗 電容性電
 Polar form as
 where
抗 Z  Z 
X
Z  R 2  X 2 ,   tan 1 , R  Z cos  , X  Z sin 
R
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-26
Impedance and Admittance
 Admittance, as complex quantity, can be expressed in
 Rectangular form as
Y  G  jB
 where G = Re(Y) is conductance and B = Im(Y) is susceptance
 By rationalization
1 1 R  jX R  jX
Y  G  jB     2
R  jX R  jX R  jX R  X 2
R X
G 2 , B  
R  X2 R2  X 2 阻抗跟導納的虛部正負號相反

 Note:
 G ≠ 1/R as it is not pure resistive circuit
 If X = 0, then G = 1/R

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-27

Example (9.9)
 Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit
 Voltage source in phasor domain
Vs  100
 Impedance 1 1
Z  5
 5  5  j 2.5 
jC j 4  0.1
 Current in phasor domain
Vs 100 10 5  j 2.5
I    1.6  j 0.8  1.789 26.57 A
Z 5  j 2.5 52  2.52
 Voltage across capacitor in phasor domain
1.78926.57 1.78926.57
I
V  IZC     4.47  63.43 V
jC j 4  0.1 0.490
 Convert I and V to time domain
i  t   1.789 cos  4t  26.57  A, v  t   4.47 cos  4t  63.43  V

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-28

Kirchhoff’s Laws in Frequency Domain
 KVL in frequency domain
v1  v2    vn  0
Vm1 cos t  1   Vm 2 cos t   2     Vmn cos t   n   0
Re Vm1e j1 e jt   Re Vm 2e j2 e jt     Re Vmn e jn e jt   0

Re Vm1e j1  Vm 2e j2    Vmn e jn  e jt   0

Re  V1  V2    Vn  e jt   0

 V1  V2    Vn  0

 KCL in frequency domain

i1  i2    in  0
 I1  I 2    I n  0

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-29

Impedance Combinations
 N series-connected impedances
V  V1  V2    VN
 I  Z1  Z 2    Z N 
V
Z eq   Z1  Z 2    Z N
I

 If N = 2
 Voltage-division principle
V
I
Z1  Z 2
Z1 Z2
V1  V, V2  V
Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-30

Impedance Combinations
 N parallel-connected impedances
I  I1  I 2    I N
 1 1 1 
 V     
Z
 1 Z 2 Z N 

1 I 1 1 1
     
Z eq V Z1 Z 2 ZN
Yeq  Y1  Y2    YN
 If N = 2
 Current-division principle

Z2 Z1
I1  I, I 2  I
Z1  Z2 Z1  Z2

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-31

Impedance Combinations

 Y-Δ conversion  Δ-Y conversion

Z Z  Z 2 Z 3  Z 3Z1 Z b Zc
Za  1 2 Z1 
Z1 Za  Z b  Zc
Z1Z 2  Z 2 Z 3  Z 3Z1 Zc Za
Zb  Z2 
Z2 Za  Z b  Zc
Z1Z 2  Z 2 Z 3  Z 3Z1 Za Z b
Zc  Z3 
Z3 Za  Z b  Zc

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-32

 Example (9.10)
 Find the input impedance of the circuit. Assume that
the circuit operates at ω = 50 rad/s.
電抗為正的
1 1
Z1     j10 
jC1 j 50  2  10 3
1 1
Z 2  R2   3  3  j2 
jC2 j 50  10  10 3
Z 3  R3  j L  8  j 50  0.2  8  j10 
電抗為負的
 Input impedance
Zin  Z1  Z 2  Z 3   j10 
3  j 28  j10
3  j 2  8  j10
  j10 
44  j14
  j10 
 44  j1411  j8
11  j8 112  82
  j10  3.22  j1.07  3.33  j11.07  實部的電阻串聯電抗性的負載
等效於電阻串聯電容
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-33

Example (9.11)
 Determine vo(t) in the circuit

 Transform time domain circuit to phasor domain

 Then, obtain Vo and vo
Z 2  Z3
Vo  Vs
Z1  Z 2  Z 3
vs  20 cos  4t  15  Vs  20  15
j100
Z1  R  60   20  15
60  j100
1 1
Z2     j 25    0.857530.96 20  15
jC j 4  10  10 3
 17.1515.96
Z 3  j L  j 4  5  j 20 
 vo  t   17.15cos  4t  15.96 V

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-34

Example (9.12)
 Find current I in the circuit
 Δ-Y conversion: (a, b, c)
j 4  2  j 4
Z an   1.6  j 0.8 
j 4   2  j 4  8
j4 8
Z bn   j 3.2 
j 4   2  j 4  8
8  2  j 4
Z cn   1.6  j 3.2 
j 4   2  j 4  8
 Total impedance
Z  12  Z an   Z bn  j 3   Z cn  j 6  8
 13.6  j1  13.64 4.204 
 Desired current V 500
I   3.67  4.204 A
Z 13.64 4.204
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-35

Applications: Phase-Shifters
 CR phase-shifter ?>0 Vi領先I
?<0 Vi落後I
Z  R  jX C  Z 
在第四象限
1
XC  
C
X   1 
  tan 1  C   tan 1  
負值  R    RC  Vo=Vi:?=0，代表沒有電容
電容視為短路
R jCR  2C 2 R 2  jCR
Vo  Vi  Vi  Vi
1
R 1  j CR 1   2 2 2
C R
jC 第一象限
 CR  1  1 
  tan 1    tan   
正值   2 2 2
C R    RC  ?越小，Vo接近Vi
 Vo leads Vi by ϕ  Vo leads Vi by θ 也就是當電阻阻抗大於電
容阻抗的時候
 If phase shift (ϕ) ≈ 90°  1/ωC >>R  Vi ≈ VC and Vo ≈ 0
Vo跟Vi的相位差由RC、工作頻率決定
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-36
 Applications: Phase-Shifters
 RC phase-shifter
Z  R  jX C  Z 
1
XC  
C
X  1 
  tan 1 C  tan 1  
R   RC 
1 90  
jC 1 1  jCR
Vo  Vi  Vi  Vi
1
R 1  j CR 1   2 2 2
C R
jC
 CR  1   1 
  tan 1     90   tan      90   
 1    RC 
 Vo leads Vi by ϕ  Vo lags Vi by 90°–θ
 If phase shift (90°–θ) ≈ 90°  1/ωC << R  Vi ≈ VR and Vo ≈ 0

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-37

Example (9.13)
 Design RC circuit to provide phase of 90° leading
 When R = |XC|, phase shift is exactly 45°
 By cascading two similar RC circuits with 45° phase shift
provides positive or leading phase shift of 90°

Z  20    j 20  20   12  j 4 
Z 12  j 4 2
V1 = Vi  Vi  45Vi
 j 20  Z 12  j 24 3
20 2
Vo = V1  45V1
 j 20  20 2
 2  2  1
 Vo   45   45  Vi  90Vi
 2  3  3
RC電路提供的相位0？~90？
只有電阻 只有電容

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-38

Example (9.14)
 For the RL circuit calculate the amount of phase shift
produced at 2 kHz

 Transform to impedance
10 mH  X L  2  2  103 10  103  40  125.7 
5 mH  X L  2  2  103  5  103  20  62.83 
Z  j125.7  100  j 62.83  34.7  j 60.3  69.5660.1 
 Obtain Vo related to Vi
Z 69.5660.1
V1 = Vi  Vi  0.358242.02Vi
150  Z 184.7  j 60.3
j62.83
Vo = V1  0.53257.86V1
100  j 62.83 電感提供領先相位，電容提供落後相位
 Vo   0.53257.86  0.358242.02  Vi  0.1906100Vi
Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-39

Applications: AC Bridges
 AC bridge circuit is used in measuring inductance L
of inductor or capacitance C of capacitor
 Similar in form to Wheatstone bridge for measuring an
unknown resistance

 Bridge is balanced: V1  V2
Z2 Zx j Lx R1  j Ls R2 R1 R2
V1  Vs =V2  Vs 
Z1  Z 2 Z3  Z x jC x jCs
R2
 Lx  Ls R1
ZZ R1  Cx  Cs
 Z 2 Z 3  Z1Z x  Z x  2 3 R2
Z1

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-40

Example (9.15)
 AC bridge circuit balances when Z1 is 1-kΩ resistor,
Z2 is 4.2-kΩ resistor, Z3 is parallel combination of 1.5-
MΩ resistor and 12-pF capacitor, and f = 2 kHz.
 Find Zx
Z1  1000 , Z2  4200 
1 1
Z3  R3   1.5  106   1.427  j 0.3228 M 
jC3 j 2  2  103 12  10 12
Z2 Z3 4200
Zx   1.427  j 0.3228  106   5.993  j1.356  M 
Z1 1000
 Find series components that make up Zx
1 1
Z  Rx  jX x  Rs   Rs  5.993 M , Cs   58.69 pF
jCs Xs
 Find parallel components that make up Zx
1 Rp R p 1  j R p C p 
Zx  Rp     R p  6.3 M , C p  2.852  F
jC p 1  j R p C p 1   R C 
2
p p

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-41

Summary
 Phasor v  t   Vm cos t  v   V  Vmv
 Complex quantity that represents both magnitude and
phase of sinusoid
 Impedance Z of circuit
 Ratio of phasor voltage to phasor current
 Admittance Y is reciprocal of impedance
R: vR  RiR  ZR  R
V
Z   R    jX   di
I L : vL  L L  Z L  j L
1 dt
Y   G    jB   dv 1
Z C : iC  C C  ZC 
dt jC
 Circuit laws and techniques also apply to ac circuits
V  IR, I k  0  KCL  , V
k  0  KVL 

Prof. K.-W. Cheng EC-II 9-42