MODULE 10 – PERMUTATIONS

Objectives : At the end of the module, the students are expected to,
1. Distinguish what is permutation, notations and cycles; and,
2. Operate permutations or cycles by mathematical algorithms.

Topic 1 – Permutations

Definition: A permutation of a set A is a bijection from A to A.

Example 1. Let A = {1, 2, 3}

ɸ: A → A
ɸ: 1 ↦ 3
2↦1
3↦2

Example 2. Let A be a set

ϵ: A → A
ϵ: a ↦ a ∴ ϵ is a permutation of A, called the identity function.
Example 3. Let A = {1, 2, 3}
ϵ: A → A
ϵ: 1 ↦ 1
2↦2
3↦3

Theorem: Let SA denote the set of permutations of A. Then S A is a group under

composition of function called the symmetry group.

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3, …,n}, we write S n for SA.

A = {1, 2}
ϵ: A→A α: A → A α -1: A → A ϵ α
ϵ: 1↦1 α: 1 ↦ 2 α -1: 1 ↦ 2 ϵ ϵ α
2↦2 2↦1 2↦1 α α ϵ
S2 = {ϵ, α }

Example 2: A = {1, 2, 3} S3 = {ϵ, α , α 2, β , αβ , α 2 β }

All functions are from A to A.
ϵ: 1 ↦ 1 α: 1 ↦ 2 β: 1 ↦ 1
2↦2 2↦3 2↦3
3↦3 3↦1 3↦2

αβ : 1 ↦ 3 α 2: 1 ↦ 3 α 2β : 1 ↦ 2
2↦2 2↦1 2↦1
3↦1 3↦2 3↦3
 A better notation… ϵ = [ 11 22 33 ] α= [ 12 23 31] β [ 11 =
2 3
3 2 ]
αβ [
3 2 1] [ 13 21 32] α β [ 12 3]
1 2 3 2 3
= α2 = 2
=
1

Topic 2 – Permutation and Cycle Notations

Permutations Notations: α= (11α 2 3 … n

2 α 3 α … nα )
Illustrating example: In S6 … If ɸ = (13 2 34 5 6
4 52 1 6 )
Then ɸ-1 = (15 2 34 5 6
4 12 3 6 )
Cycle Notations: Let A = {1, 2, 3, … , n}
Let a1, a2, a3, … , ar be distinct elements of A.

The permutation π : A → A which has the following effect

a1 ↦ a2 ↦ a3 ↦ …. ↦ ar
and leaves the remaining elements fixed is called a cycle of length r
or an r-cycle and is denoted as (a1a2a3…ar)

Illustrating example: 1. Let A = (12 2 3

3 1 )
⇒ 1 is taken to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 1 and is written as (1 2 3)

2. Let B = (13 2 3
1 2 )
⇒ (1 3 2) or (3 21) or (2 1 3)

Let C = (11 2 3
3 2 )
⇒ (2 3) or (3 2)

Note: The order of a cycle is equal to its length or if more than one cycle,
the least common multiple.

o(B) = o(132) = 3
o(C) = o(23) = 2 ⇒ means C2= ϵ or (11 )(
2 3 1 2 3
3 2 1 3 2
=
1 2 3
1 2 3 ) ( )
Exercises for submission.
A. Transform the following into cycles and determine its respective orders.
 1).
1
1 [ 2
5
3
4
4
2 ]
5
3
2).
1
3 [ 2
1
3
7
4
8
5 6 7 8 9
5 2 7 9 6 ]
B. Transform the following cycles into permutations as prescribed, and its order.
3). (2 4 8 9 5)(1 10) in S12
4). (5 6 2 1)(2 4 3 7)(4 5 6)(1 2) S10
Topic 3 – Permutations, Products of Disjoint Cycles and Transposition.

Illustrating example: 1. Write as a product of disjoint cycles,

(12 2 3 4 5 678
4 6 1 8 375 )
= (1 2 4)(3 6)(5 8)(7) or (1 2 4)(3 6)(5 8)
If a permutation notation contain just a sole number, can be excluded.
The disjoint cycles are also commutative.

2. Write as a permutation in S12,

(7 2 1)(4 8 1)(5 9) = (17 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4 3 8 9 6 2 1 5 10 11 12 )
3. Write as a permutation in S12,
(1 2 3 4 5)(6 7 5 2 9)(11 12) = (19 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 4 2 1 7 5 8 6 10 12 11 )
If the cycles are not disjoint and you have a hard time imagining its equivalent permutations, the longer
method is to convert each of the cycle in its equivalent permutation then solve.

Theorem: The order of a product of disjoint cycles is the least common multiple of
the lengths of the cycles.

Illustrating example: Let A = (2 3)(1 4 5). A has order 6 ⇒ A = (2 3)(1 4 5)

⇒ A2 = (2 3)(1 4 5) (2 3)(1 4 5)
= (1 5 4)
⇒ A4 = (1 5 4) (1 5 4)
= (1 4 5)
6
⇒ A = (1 4 5)(1 5 4) = ϵ
o(A) = 6 is also the number of multiple to become an identity.

Note: Cycles which are not disjoint may not commute.

Definition: A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.

A cycle of any length may be written as a product of transpositions, ie.
(a1a2a3…ar) = (a1a2)(a1a3)(a1a4)…(a1ar)

Illustrating example: (3 7 2 5) = (3 7)(3 2)(3 5)

A permutation may be written as a product of transposition.

Illustrating example: (15 2 3 4 5 67 8
3 82 7 61 4 )
= (1 5 7)(2 3 8 4) = (1 5)(1 7)(2 3)(2 8)(2 4)

Whenever a permutation is written as a product of transpositions, the number of transposition

appearing is always even (even permutation) or always odd (odd permutation).

Exercises for submission.

A. Show as a single permutation as required.

1). [ 13 2
1
3
7
4
5
5
2
6
6
7
4 ][112
4
3
6
4
7
5
5
6
3
7
2]in S7

2). [ 13 2
1
3
7
4
5
5
2
6
6
7
9
8 9
8 4 ][ 1
1
2
4
3
6
4
7
5 6 7 8 9
5 3 9 2 8 ]
in S9
3). (2 4 7)(3 8 6)(1 3 10) in S12
4). (1 8 6 4)(3 5 11 10) in S12
5). Transform problems numbers 1 and 2 as disjoint cycles.

---- END OF MODULE 10 ----