HEAT TRANSFER

TOTAL HRS : 45
PRACTICAL HRS : 30

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 HEAT TRANSFER
Objectives:
• To provide knowledge of different modes of heat transfer.
• To study different laws of conduction, convection and radiation.
• To provide understanding of different applications of conduction,
convection and radiation.
Outcomes:
After successful completion of this course, students should be able to
• Understand the basic laws of heat transfer.
• Analyze realistic problems involving different modes of heat transfer.
• Apply basic principles of heat transfer to design heat transfer devices.
• Syllabus-C:\Users\Swati Donde\Desktop\B TECH VI sem 2020-
21\B.Tech_Mechanical_Sem-VI_Syllabus_2020-21_q99uvSyf7d.pdf
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ICA marks distribution for Heat Transfer

Assignment Tools Marks

Tests M1 and M2 40

Class Participation 10

Lab Work 20

Lab Viva / exam 20

Presentation 10

Total 100

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 Heat Transfer
• Temperature-
• It is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the
• molecules of a substance. Degree of hotness / coldness .
• Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two mechanisms: heat Q
and work W. An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a
temperature difference. Otherwise, it is work.
• Heat-
• Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
• Energy transferred by virtue of a temperature difference.
• Heat is energy in transit.
• Flowing in the direction of decreasing direction.
• Heat transfer is a vector quantity.
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such4
 Heat Transfer
Transport phenomenon

It is a law of nature which states that driving force causes the

respective flux from higher to lower potential. Reverse never
possible spontaneously.

The transfer process indicates the tendency of a system to proceed

towards equilibrium.
Subject dealing with the rate at which heat flows occurs is called
heat transfer. The larger the temperature gradient , the higher the
rate of heat transfer. 5
Heat Transfer

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 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics Heat Transfer
In thermodynamics we learned that Heat transfer is concerned with the
energy can be transferred by interactioncalculations of the rate at which heat
of a system with its surroundings. flows from or to the surrounding and
These interactions are called heat and thus the time required for cooling and
work transfer. it gives no indication heating.
about how long the process will take How heat is transferred (Mode of heat
transfer) conduction, convection,
radiation.
It deals with the system in equilibrium It deals with systems that lack thermal
and calculate how much heat is equilibrium, and thus it is a
transferred to change a system from one nonequilibrium phenomenon.
equilibrium state to another.
How much work is done. What is the temperature distribution
inside the body.

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 Applications of Heat Transfer
• The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its surroundings. We try
to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing to the
environmental conditions.
• the electric or gas range,
• the heating and air-conditioning system,
• the refrigerator and freezer,
• the water heater, the iron,
• the computer, the TV, and the VCR.
• energy-efficient homes are designed on the basis of minimizing heat loss
in winter and heat gain in summer.
• Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many other devices, such
as car radiators, solar collectors, various components of power plants,
and even spacecraft.
• The optimal insulation thickness in the walls and roofs of the houses, on
hot water or steam pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on8the
basis of a heat transfer analysis with economic consideration
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Ex- 1 Kg. iron ball is quenched from 1000oC to 100oC in an oil bath.

Thermodynamics tells us the loss of energy of the ball = M Cp ΔT

But thermodynamics cannot tell us about the time required to drop
from 1000 oC to 100oC.

Time depends- 1. Temperature of oil

2. properties of oil
3. motion of oil

An appropriate heat transfer analysis consider all these factors.

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10
Applications of Heat Transfer

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 Engineering Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers,
condensers, radiators, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar
collectors are designed primarily on the basis of heat transfer
analysis.
• The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be
considered in two groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.
• The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat
transfer rate for an existing system at a specified temperature
difference.
• The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a
system in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified
temperature difference.

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 Modes of Heat Transfer
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

1. Conduction - Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more

energetic particles(present in a higher temperature zone) of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interaction between the particles.

• Conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
A. In solids –
1. Vibrations of molecules in lattice
(lattice vibration) (solids in general, non metallic solids)
2. Energy transport by free electrons
(free flow of electrons) (pure metals)
Lattice- atoms bounded in a periodic arrangement.

B. In liquids and gases-

It is due to collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
When they move in the random fashion transfer of energy occurs due
to collisions between molecules.
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Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• High k for metals due to – primarily
electronic component.
• Dimond- which is a highly ordered
crystalline solid, has the highest known
thermal conductivity at room temperature
due to lattice component.
• Crystalline solids- diamond and
semiconductors(silicon) are good heat
conductors but poor electrical conductors.
• Therefore such materials are used in
electronics industry.

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2. Convection – It is a mode of heat
transfer between a solid surface and
adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion.
It involves two effect-
1. Diffusion (random molecular
motion ) conduction
2. Advection (fluid motion (bulk) )
macroscopic motion.
The faster the fluid motion, greater
the convection heat transfer.
• In the absence of any bulk fluid
motion, heat transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid
is by pure conduction.

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Convection Heat Transfer
Types of convection-
• 1. Natural convection- fluid motion occurs due to density
variations caused by temperature difference is known as free
convection.
• 2. Forced convection- Fluid motion is caused by external
agency like fan, pump, blower.

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Forced convection: If the
fluid is forced to flow
over the surface by
external means such as a
fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density The cooling of a boiled egg by
differences due to the forced and natural convection.
variation of temperature
in the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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 Radiation
• All physical matter in the solid, liquid or gaseous state
emits thermal radiations in the form of electro-
magnetic waves (photons) because of vibrational and
rotational movement of the molecules and atoms
which make up the matter.
• The radiations is emitted at all temperatures.
• Radiation energy is emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (photons) as a result of
changes in the electromagnetic configurations of the
atoms or molecules.
• All bodies above absolute zero emit thermal
radiations.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer
of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium.
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Radiation
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of
light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the
energy of the sun reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation,
which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of
their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids,
and gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying
degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface
phenomenon for solids.
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 Modes of Heat Transfer

1- Radiation
2-conduction
3-convection
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 Laws of heat transfer
1. Fourier’s law of heat conduction-
(French scientist 1822) Empirical law- based on observations and
or one dimensional wall

Rate of heat transfer (conduction) through a medium depends on

1. the geometry of the medium
2. its thickness
3. material
4. temperature difference across the medium

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Laws of heat transfer
Rate of heat transfer is linearly proportional
to the temperature gradient and heat
transfer area

K is a constant of proportionality,
K= thermal conductivity of the material,
It is a property of a material and is a measure
of the ability of material to conduct heat.

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Laws of heat transfer

• The Negative sign is used because heat flows in the direction of

decreasing temperature (from a high temperature to lower
temperature region) and serves to make the heat flux positive
in the positive direction.
• Temperature gradient is negative , it ensures that heat transfer
in the positive x direction is a positive quantity.
• In Cartesian co-ordinates Fourier’s law can be written as-
•

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 Thermal Conductivity
• It gives the information about the rate at which heat passes through a
specified material.
• It is the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per
unit area per unit temperature difference.
• A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good
heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat
conductor or insulator.
• thermal conductivity of gases is proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature T, and inversely proportional to the square root of
the molar mass M.
• Therefore, the thermal conductivity of a gas increases with increasing
temperature and decreasing molar mass. The thermal conductivity of
helium (M 4) is much higher than those of air (M 29) and argon (M 40).
Thermal conductivity of gases is independent of pressure in a wide range
of pressures encountered in practice.
• The thermal conductivities of liquids usually lie between those of
solids and gases.
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 Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a substance is normally highest in the
solid phase and lowest in the gas phase.
• Unlike gases, the thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease
with increasing temperature ( water is a exception).
• Like gases, the conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing
molar mass.
• Liquid metals such as mercury and sodium have high thermal
conductivities and are very suitable for use in applications where a
high heat transfer rate to a liquid is desired, as in nuclear power
plants

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 Laws of heat transfer

• Thermal conductivity is generally a function of temperature

for solids and liquids and of both temperature and pressure
for gases.

• For most metals ,the k lies in the range of 10 to 100, higher

values are found only with very pure metals.
• Non –metals and liquids generally have values from 0.1 to 1.
• For gases and vapors it is lowest.

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Heat Transfer depends on the
thermal conductivity of the material
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The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.

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Thermal Diffusivity
• The thermal diffusivity is a
measure of how quickly a
material can carry heat away
from a hot source.
• Since material does not just
transmit heat but must be
warmed by it as well, 
involves both the conductivity,
k, and the volumetric heat
capacity, ρ cp.

k Heat conducted
= = 
Cp Heat stored
J m 3 kg.K m 2

m  s.K kg J s 30
 Laws of heat transfer

2. Newton’s law of cooling-

• h is called the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
• The heat flow is independent of the properties of the material of
the surface and depends only on the fluid properties.
• h is not a property of fluid. It is experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all the variables
influencing convection-
1. Surface geometry
2. nature of fluid motion
3. properties of fluid
4. velocity of fluid
5. whether fluid is changing phase or not etc. 31
 Laws of heat transfer
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

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 Laws of heat transfer

3. Stefan- Boltzmann law-

It states that thermal radiation heat flux (W/m2)
emitted from a black surface is proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature of the surface and is given by

The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate

is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is
called blackbody radiation. 33