Research in Science & Technological Education

ISSN: 0263-5143 (Print) 1470-1138 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/crst20

Pupils’ Ideas on Conservation during Changes in

the State of Water

Vassilia Hatzinikita & Vasilis Koulaidis

To cite this article: Vassilia Hatzinikita & Vasilis Koulaidis (1997) Pupils’ Ideas on Conservation
during Changes in the State of Water, Research in Science & Technological Education, 15:1,
53-70, DOI: 10.1080/0263514970150104

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514970150104

Published online: 07 Jul 2006.

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Research in Science & Technological Education, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1997 53

Pupils' Ideas on Conservation during

Changes in the State of Water
V A S S I L I A H A T Z I N I K I T A , University of the Aegean, Greece
V A S I L I S K O U L A I D I S , University of Patras, Greece

ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to explore both the qualitative and quantitative dimensions of pupils' ideas
relevant to conservation during the changes occurring in the physical state of water. For the study of these ideas a
questionnaire was developed and applied to a large sample of primary and secondary students. The items of the
questionnaire concern the phenomena of evaporation, boiling and condensation. The analysis of the data showed that
qualitative understanding precedes quantitative. The latter is achieved by pupils of 14-15 years old. Furthermore,
our analysis showed that pupils acquire the school science view at an earlier age than that suggested in previous
literature.

Introduction
This paper attempts to explore students' views (both at primary and secondary level, i.e.
10-18 age range) on conservation during changes occurring in the physical state of
water. More specifically, it investigates their ideas on (a) the qualitative dimension of
conservation, i.e. the conservation of water as a substance during its transformation from
liquid to gas and from gas to liquid, and (b) the quantitative dimension of conservation,
i.e. the conservation of the weight of water during its transformation from liquid to gas
and from liquid to the solid state.
This topic has been chosen because changes concerning the state of water are related
to the cycle of water in nature. Pupils are familiar with this topic from their early years
and it appears systematically in the curricula of primary education. It should also be
stressed that research carried out on pupils' representations of changes in the state of
water has mainly dealt with the qualitative dimension of conservation, e.g. Z'Arour
(1976), Osborne & Cosgrove (1983), Beveridge (1985), Bar (1989), Dibar Ure &
Colinvaux (1989), Russell et al. (1989), Bar & Travis (1991), Bar & Galili (1994).

Methodological Framework
Research Instrument
To explore pupils' ideas about changes occurring in the state of water, a questionnaire
consisting of seven items was constructed. Table I shows the topics addressed by the
questionnaire:
0263-5143/97/010053-18 © 1997 Carfax Publishing Ltd
54 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

TABLE I. The structure of the questionnaire

Topic Description of the question

Evaporation Drying of water in a dish (item 1)

Drying of laundry (item 2)
Boiling Composition of bubbles during water boiling (item 3)
Condensation Condensation of water vapour on to a cold dish (item 4)
Condensation of the atmospheric water vapour on to the
external surface of a cold beaker (item 5)
Conservation of weight Weight estimation in the case of a closed system when
liquid water changes into vapour (item 6)
Weight estimation in the case of a closed system when
liquid water changes into ice (item 7)

• The items related to the conservation of the identity of water during changes of its
state, i.e. items 1-5, were constructed on the basis of similar problems that were used
in studies by Osborne & Cosgrove (1983), Bar & Travis (1991) and Bar & Gallili
(1994). This choice has die advantage of making possible a comparison of results.
• For the items referring to the quantitative dimension of conservation (i.e. items 6 and
7) the students were asked to choose between 'die increase', 'die decrease' or 'the
conservation' of the quantity (weight) of water in a closed system (conservation or
non-conservation) and subsequendy to justify their choices. It should be noted that the
wording of the response options was almost identical (see Appendix)

Sample

The sample consisted of 4297 primary and secondary school students (10-18 age range)
who completed the questionnaire. Table II shows the number of students who completed
the questionnaire (per grade and their corresponding age).
The number of diose declining to complete die questionnaire was very low, i.e.
roughly 3% (127 pupils). We believe that diis is due to the fact diat the questionnaires
were administered and collected by the teachers themselves during school hours. In
addition to this, the low rate of refusal to fill in the questionnaire seems to justify our
assumption that the readability of the questionnaire was adequate. Our analysis is based
on the students who completed the questionnaire.

Presentation and Interpretation of the Results

The presentation and interpretation of the results is divided into diree sections: conser-
vation of the identity of water (qualitative conservation) in the changes of its state;
conservation of the weight of the system (quantitative conservation); and relationships
between pupils' views and school science.

Conservation of the Identity of Water in the Changes of its State

Evaporation (items 1 and 2). As shown in Figs 1 and 2 and Tables III and IV, the great
majority of all pupils interpret both the problems of'drying of water in a dish' (item 1)
and 'drying of laundry' (item 2) in terms of changes in die state of water from liquid to
gas. The second student preference is the interpretation of evaporation in terms of
 g

Primary school Lower secondary school Upper secondary school

Fifth grade Sixth grade First grade Second grade Third grade First grade Second grade Third grade
(10-11 yrs) (11-12 yrs) (12-13 yrs) (13-14 yrs) (14-15 yrs) (15-16 yrs) (16-17 yrs) (17-18 yrs)

Items 3,4 1051 1135 418 328 394 421 219 331
Items 1-2, 5-7 955 1135 418 328 394 421 219 331

Oi
56 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

100
90
80 Disappearance
70 Absorption
S 60 Evaporation
S
§ 50 Hydrogen
2
and/or oxygen

30 Various

20 No response

10
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 17
Children's age

FIG. 1. Students' responses on the problem of drying of water in a dish (%).

transformation of water to hydrogen and/or oxygen. Characteristic of this interpretation
is that it is found more frequently as students get older.
There are statistically significant associations between pupils' age and the chosen
interpretations regarding item 1 'drying of water in a dish' (%2 = 257-4, df = 35) and item
2 'drying of laundry' (x2 — 435-6, df=42). Students of the fifth grade of primary school
(10—11 age range) tend to prefer the choices of absorption and disappearance, rather
than the transformation of water from liquid to gas; older students (i.e. 13-18 age range)
tend to choose the transformation of water to gases like oxygen and/or hydrogen, rather
than absorption and disappearance. Secondly, students of the fifth grade of primary
education (10-11 age range) tend to interpret the 'drying of laundry' in terms of
absorption, disappearance, alteration to air while the interpretation in terms of changes

Absorption
Hydrogen
and/or oxygen
Evaporation
Disappearance
Air
Various
No response

10 11 12 ' 13 ' 14 16 17
Children's age

FlG. 2. Students' responses on the problem of drying of laundry (%).

Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 57
TABLE III. Students' responses on the problem of drying of water in a dish

Categories

Hydrogen or/
Age Disappearance Absorption Evaporationi and oxygen Various No response

10-11 75 106 608 111 52 29

11-12 52 76 833 76 85 22
12-13 19 26 300 60 14 4
13-14 5 12 245 56 3 10
14-15 7 9 290 76 8 4
15-16 7 8 306 71 26 5
16-17 1 5 160 37 8 8
17-18 6 2 254 59 5 5

in the state of water from liquid to gas is not chosen. Older students (i.e. 14—18 age
range) tend to select the transformation of water to gases like oxygen and/or hydrogen
as a valid interpretation, rather than absorption and alteration to air.
It should be stressed that in both cases the consistent use of the scientifically accepted
view has been adopted by 17 year-old students both for the 'drying of water in a dish'
and the 'drying of laundry'. It should also be noted that the explanation of evaporation
in terms of 'water vapour consists of hydrogen and/or oxygen', as well as a tendency for
this view to increase in frequency with age, have also been noticed by other researchers.
Treagust (1988) and Bar & Travis (1991) regard them as an indication that pupils
consider the chemical decomposition of water when asked about evaporation. Osborne
& Cosgrove (1983) construe them as a consequence of education. In contrast, Bar &
Galili (1994) claim that 'pupils of this age understand oxygen and hydrogen as
components of the gas state of water' and not in terms of chemical decomposition.
With respect to the difference between the preference for the choice of transformation
of water to 'hydrogen and/or oxygen' for the questions of'drying of laundry' and 'drying
of water in a dish', a first explanation, proposed by Bar & Galili (1994), was in terms of
the dependence of this choice on the natural context used in each case. Specifically, the
association with an 'open air' environment seems to encourage pupils to choose this view.
However, this result was not found to be statistically significant.

TABLE IV. Students' responses on the problem of drying of laundry

Categories

Hydrogen or/
Age Absorption and oxygen Evaporation Disappearance Air Various No response

10-11 232 162 356 46 58 91 44

11-12 143 162 628 29 59 88 35
12-13 57 99 206 16 19 19 7
13-14 35 61 190 5 25 13 1
14-15 22 147 187 6 11 22 1
15-16 21 129 219 11 10 25 6
16-17 10 59 113 143 5 10 10
17-18 13 83 206 6 8 6 10
58 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

Regarding 'absorption', both Beveridge (1985) and Russell et al. (1989) have noted that
its dependence on the experimental situation can be understood in terms of the capacity
for absorption of the different materials that are involved in the problems on evapor-
ation. Again, this is not statistically significant (x2 = 4-5, df = 7).
A possible reason which encourages a number of pupils, though small, to choose to
interpret the problems of evaporation in terms of alteration to air could be the gaseous
state of the air. At the same time, accepting Bar & Galili's (1994) explanation of older
pupils' tendency to choose the option 'hydrogen and/or oxygen' (hydrogen and oxygen
are in a state of gas), the question posed is why pupils prefer the view 'hydrogen and/or
oxygen' to 'air', since both interpretations refer to substances in a gaseous state. The
answer to this question can be given if one considers that pupils have a greater tendency
to choose the view 'hydrogen or/and oxygen', because, apart from the fact that these are
usually associated with the gaseous state, they are also components of water. That is, the
source of this view can be traced in the combination of the gaseous state of hydrogen and
oxygen, in the school knowledge which presents these two elements as components of
water (it is included in the Greek school curriculum for the fifth grade of primary school
[Daskalakis et al., 1991]), as well as in the pupils' tendency to choose in the multiple-
choice questionnaires diose views which look more 'scientific' (see Osborne & Cosgrove,
1983; Bar & Travis, 1991).
Finally, Bar & Galili (1994), taking into account the similar results concerning
'disappearance' (e.g. Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Bar & Travis, 1991; Bar & Galili,
1994), propose the following two interpretations of the word 'disappearance': (a) the
pupils (12-15 age range) use the term 'disappearance' to denote the non-reversibility of
die evaporation of water; and (b) the choice of 'disappearance' might have more the
meaning of 'I don't know'.

Boiling (item 3). The view that 'bubbles consist of water vapour' is one that systematically,
among all ages, attracts the highest percentage of pupils' answers (see Fig. 3, Table V).
However, it is interesting to note the absence of significant increases in frequency of this
view with age, as well the fact that the highest percentage corresponds to the first year
of lower secondary school (70%), that is before any systematic teaching of chemistry has
begun.
A statistically significant association is found (/2 = 303-1, df = 35) between the interpreta-
tions offered about the composition of the bubbles of boiling water and the age of the
students. This correlation appears to be due to the tendency of:
(a) pupils of the first and second year of lower secondary school and the third year of
upper secondary school to think that the bubbles consist of water vapour;
(b) older students (i.e. 14-18 age range) to choose the view that 'bubbles consist of
hydrogen and/or oxygen', but not the interpretation that 'bubbles consist of heat';
(c) pupils of the fifth and sixth grade of primary school and the first year of lower
secondary school (i.e. 10-13 age range) to choose the view that 'bubbles consist of
heat', but not the view that 'bubbles consist of hydrogen and/or oxygen'; and
(d) students of the third year of lower secondary school to think that 'bubbles consist of
air'.
Compared to other studies, our results suggest that a higher percentage of students (i.e.
roughly 70%) have views which are close to the ones appearing in school science (e.g.
Osborne & Cosgrove [1983] report approximately 36%, while Bar & Travis [1991]
report 25%).
Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 59

100
90
80
Vapour
70
Air
o) 60 Hydrogen
I« 50
and/or oxygen
2 Heat
S. 40
Various
30
20 No response

10
0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Children's age

FlG. 3. Students' responses on the problem of the composition of bubbles during water boiling (%).

To summarise, it is evident that as far as the younger ages under investigation are
concerned (10—13 age range), the view which is more dominant is that 'bubbles consist
of heat', while older pupils (14—18 age range) seem to hold the view that 'bubbles consist
of hydrogen and/or oxygen'. Regarding the source of these beliefs, the former ('heat')
could be accounted for by pupils' inclination to attribute material existence to heat
(Driver et al., 1985). The choice appearing to be compatible with the scientific view, i.e.
bubbles are water vapour, seems to be dominant in the age group between 12 and 14,
as well as among pupils at the end of their secondary education.

Condensation (items 4 and 5). As Fig. 4 and Table VI show, the majority of pupils at all
levels interpret the problem of the formation of drops on to a cold surface in terms of
changes in the state of water from gas to liquid. Indeed, this percentage rises from 62%
in the third year of the lower secondary school to 77% in the third year of die upper
secondary school. However, on the problem of condensation of atmospheric water
vapour (see Fig. 5, Table VII), the interpretation of drops produced on a cold surface in

TABLE V. Students' responses on the problem of the composition of bubbles during water boiling
Categories
Hydrogen and/or
Age Vapour Air oxygen Heat Various No response
10-11 604 134 139 190 23 27
11-12 623 132 93 260 28 22
12-13 280 25 39 78 5 2
13-14 211 32 45 41 2 1
14-15 217 56 74 44 0 5
15-16 230 47 111 27 4 3
16-17 135 11 62 8 3 3
17-18 210 35 67 18 0 4
 V. Hatzimhta & V. Koulaidis

Condensation
Vapour
Hydrogen
and oxygen
Various
No response

11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Children's age

FIG. 4. Students' responses on the problem of the condensation of water vapour on to a cold dish (%).

terms of changes from the state of water vapour to liquid attracts the preference of most
pupils, compared to the rest of interpretations. More specifically, this preference rises
from 34% in the fifth grade of the primary school to 60% in the second grade of the
upper secondary school. There also appears to be an increasing tendency to make this
choice as die age of pupils increases.
Also, it seems worth mentioning that the choice of the view 'the vapour made the dish
wet', which appears among younger pupils (from die fifth grade of primary to the second
year of lower secondary school, see Fig. 4) probably indicates pupils' difficulty in
understanding the reversibility of diese processes. Examining the pupils' view about the
transmutation of the cold into water, we found that it attracts a considerable preference.
This decreases from 11% in the first year of the lower secondary school down to 5% in
the first year of the upper secondary school (see Fig. 5). Thus, in our view, the problem
posed again is die one which has already been commented upon witii reference to the

TABLE VI. Students' responses on the problem of the condensation of water vapour on to a
cold dish

Categories

Hydrogen and
Age Condensation Vapour oxygen Various No response

10-11 673 250 130 7 18

11-12 789 207 113 13 21
12-13 312 56 50 2 3
13-14 248 46 32 1 3
14-15 245 73 74 0 2
15-16 287 51 77 4 2
16-17 168 16 30 1 5
17-18 235 29 66 1 1
Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 61

100
90
80
Melting of the ice
70
Hydrogen
and oxygen
Condensation
Transmission
Various
No response

10 12 13 14 15 16 17
Children's age

FlG. 5. Students' responses on the problem of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour on to
the external surface of a cold beaker (%).

composition of the bubbles of boiling water and which concerns the attribution of
material existence to heat.
The remarks just made are confirmed by a further analysis of our data by the %2 test,
which shows a significant relationship (/2 = 290-5, df = 35) between the interpretations
on the question of 'condensation of atmospheric water vapour' and the age of students.
This appears to be due to the tendency of:
(a) students of the fifth and sixth grades of primary school (10-12 age range) to prefer
the choice 'the drops of water come from the ice which melts' to the interpretations
of the production of drops on to a cold surface in terms of changes in the state of
water vapour and of 'hydrogen and oxygen';
(b) older students (i.e. 13-18 age range) to interpret the question of the condensation of

TABLE VII. Students' responses on the problem of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour
on to the external surface of a cold beaker

Categories

Hydrogen and
Age Melting of ice oxygen Condensation Transmutation Various No response

10-11 363 153 328 67 23 41

11-12 300 185 484 99 21 53
12-13 112 92 155 45 5 13
13-14 63 63 170 27 2 3
14-15 52 99 192 41 4 9
15-16 50 109 220 22 10 10
16-17 16 44 130 14 5 11
17-18 42 86 175 20 3 5
62 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

atmospheric water vapour in terms of changes in the state of water vapour and not
to prefer the choice: 'the drops of water come from the ice which melts';
(c) pupils of the third grade of the lower secondary school (14-15 age range) and the first
and third grades of the upper secondary school (15-16 and 17-18 age range
respectively) to choose the interpretation 'hydrogen and oxygen' for the question of
die condensation of atmospheric vapours; and
(d) students of die first and diird year of the lower secondary school (12-13 and 14-15
age range), to choose the view of the transmutation of the cold into water, contrasted
to die pupils of the first year of the upper secondary school (15-16 age range).

This is due to the tendency of older pupils (i.e. 14-18 age range) to interpret die question
of condensation of the vapour of die 'atmosphere' in terms of its change from gas to
liquid; and students of the fifth year of the primary school (10-11 age range) and the first
year of the lower secondary school (12-13 age range) to interpret only the question of
die condensation of the vapour of die 'water which boils' in a way which is compatible
with school science. The tendency of pupils in the 10—13 age range not to choose the
scientifically accepted view regarding item 5 (condensation of atmospheric vapour) can
be attributed, as Bar & Travis (1991) also suggest, to their difficulty in understanding the
continuous existence of water vapour in the atmosphere.
Finally, comparing Figs 4 and 5, which refer to the problems of condensation, with the
findings of research studies conducted by Osborne & Cosgrove (1983) and Bar & Travis
(1991) in other countries, we note diat a significant part of our sample succeeds in
choosing the view which is compatible with school science from an earlier age (at least
from the age of 10). Indeed, the above mentioned studies report that pupils succeed at
die age of 12-13 for item 4, while for item 5 die corresponding age is 16-17.

Conservation of the Weight of the System during Changes of State of Water (items 6 and 7)

As Figs 6 and 7 and Tables VIII and IX show, firsdy, most of the pupils (more than 50%)
systematically choose answers which amount to non-conservation of weight of die closed
system within which a change in the state of water takes place. Secondly, die choice of
the non-conservation of weight is more frequent among younger pupils (60-70% of the
replies) dian older ones (at least 52% of the replies). The alternative views one gets from
die responses on item 6 vary from 77% in the sixdi grade of the primary school to 52%
in the second year of the upper secondary school, while on item 7 they decrease from
79% in die sixth grade of the primary school to 53% in the second year of the upper
secondary school.
Comparing the results which correspond to the conservation of weight in diese two
items, a tendency is discerned for pupils to choose this answer relatively more frequendy
when they are dealing widi the questions of item 6 than when they are dealing widi item
7. Widi reference to die alternative choices (increase/decrease of weight), one can
observe that the position that pupils choose more often is diat of a decrease in weight
when dealing witii die problem of change in the state of water from liquid to vapours,
and an increase in weight on the problem which refers to the change in the state of water
from liquid to ice (see Figs 6 and 7, Tables VIII and IX).
Further analysis showed that: (a) students of the fifdi and sixth grade of die primary
school and the first year of the lower secondary school (10-13 age range) tend not to
prefer the conservation of weight of die system but one of die alternative views; and (b)
older students (i.e. 14-18 age range) tend to choose the conservation of weight of the
Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 63

100
90
80
70

D) 60
CO

§ 50h
I 40
30
20
10
0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Children's age

FIG. 6. Students' responses on the problem of the weight estimation in the case of a closed system
when liquid water changes to vapour (%).

system and not one of the alternative views. There was a significant correlation
(/2 = 299-3, df=21) between the interpretations offered on the question of'the evalu-
ation of weight of a closed system within which a change of water to ice took place' and
the age of the pupils. This is because (a) Pupils of the fifth and sixth grade of the primary
school and the first year of the lower secondary school (i.e. 10-13 age range) tend to
choose the increase or decrease of weight of the system rather than conservation; and (b)
Older pupils (15—18 age range) tend to choose the conservation of weight of the system,
rather than one of the alternative views that are offered.

11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Children's age

FIG. 7. Students' responses on the problem of the weight estimation in the case of a closed system
when liquid water changes to ice (%).
64 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

TABLE VIII. Students' responses on the problem of the

weight estimation in the case of a closed system when liquid
water changes to vapour

Categories

Age Equal Less More No response

10-11 287 425 221 22

11-12 263 696 151 25
12-13 102 258 53 5
13-14 118 187 21 2
14-15 143 235 14 2
15-16 183 226 11 1
16-17 106 110 2 1
17-18 153 169 5 4

TABLE IX. Students' responses on the problem of the

weight estimation in the case of a closed system when liquid
water changes to ice

Categories

Age Equal Less More No response

10-11 214 201 517 23

11-12 244 119 743 29
12-13 97 35 271 15
13-14 110 13 201 4
14-15 121 49 220 4
15-16 171 16 233 1
16-17 102 7 108 2
17-18 154 13 161 3

Thus, one can draw the conclusion that younger pupils' thinking (primary school and
first grades of secondary school) is dominated by alternative views concerning the items
of estimation of the weight; this is in contrast to the pupils of the upper secondary school,
who tend to choose the accepted view.
The explanations that pupils give when arguing for the conservation of weight of a
closed system within which a change in the state of water takes place can be classified
into the following categories:

(ccl) 'The system is closed and nothing comes in, or out of it'. This kind of explanation
is similar to the idea of additivity that Piaget & Inhelder (1978) found in children's
thinking (which they discuss using the example of conservation of the quantity of
a sphere of argil).
(cc2) 'The water has simply changed its form. The weight of a gas or solid matter
(vapours or ice respectively) is the same as the weight of the liquid from which it
has been generated'. Similar categories of explanation have been identified and
referred to as 'intuitive rules' in the studies of Stavy & Stachel (1985), and Stavy
(1990a, 1990b). By 'intuitive rules' they mean a number of rules that pupils
Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 65

construct in order to talk about the relationship between weight and different states
of matter.
(cc3) 'If vapour or ice change back to water, their weight will be the same'. This is a
form of explanation which is equivalent to the 'operations of reversibility' which
were noted by Piaget & Inhelder (1978) in children's thinking when experimenting
on the conservation of weight (Host & Martinand, 1975).
(cc4) 'Tautology'. In this case, pupils do not construct explanations for their choices, but
simply refer to the fact of their confirmations.
The explanations that pupils give in order to argue for the non-conservation of weight
of a closed system, within which a change in the state of water takes place, can be
included in one of die following categories:

(cal) 'Weight depends on the physical state'. Here, one can distinguish further the
following cases: (i) 'Gases weigh less than liquids' (change from the state of liquid
to vapours); (ii) 'Gases have no weight' (change from the state of liquid to vapours);
(iii) 'Solid matter weighs more than liquid' (change from the state of liquid to ice);
and (iv) 'Solid matter weighs less than liquid' (change from die state of liquid to
ice). Again, some of the above are included in the 'intuitive rules' or are similar to
pupils' views referred to by Stavy & Stachel (1985), Furio Mas et al. (1987) and
Stavy (1990a).
(ca2) 'An increase in volume or density entails an increase or decrease in weight'.
Arguments of this kind indicate that pupils often confuse the concepts of volume,
density and weight, since they 'handle the weight (i.e. an extensive quantity) in
terms of density (i.e. an intensive quantity)' (Stavy, 1990b).
(ca3) 'Tautology'.
From the above mentioned categories of explanation, pupils appear to use those of
'additivity' and 'tautology' more frequendy; while on the issue of the non-conservation
of weight they resort to certain intuitive rules—'gases weigh less than liquid', 'solid
matter weighs more than liquid'—and confuse weight and volume or density. It should
also be noted that a considerable number of pupils do not provide sufficient arguments
to support their specific choice when asked to estimate the weight of a closed system.
The categories of explanation just referred to, that pupils handle to explain and argue
for their choices regarding the evaluation of weight of a closed system within which a
change in die state of matter takes place, can be related to some general traits that
characterise children's way of thinking. Specifically, categories cal and ca2—in contrast
to category ccl—refer only to one of the components (i.e. water) and not to the whole
system under investigation (water in a closed container). Thus, pupils seem to take into
account only limited aspects of the situation under study, focusing their attention
exclusively on the component that changes—the water which becomes vapour or
ice—leaving out of their considerations the component of the system which remains
stable during the development of the phenomenon—the closed container ('focus on
change rather than steady-state situations' [Driver et al, 1985]). Moreover, category ca2,
within the context of which weight, volume and density are used in an undifferentiated
way, indicates that pupils tend to use ideas which are 'more inclusive and global than
those of scientists' (Driver et al., 1985). Also, pupils' quantitative reasoning is character-
ised by their tendency both to blur the notion of weight with diat of volume and to focus
on die most salient trait of the situation, i.e. that of the state which has changed, as, for
example, die increased volume of water when frozen. In odier words, on the problems
66 V. HatziniMta & V. Koulaidis

of evaluation of weight, the visual information seems to affect pupils' choices. The
consequences of visual information are greater among young children (age up to 13),
while they tend to affect children less as they grow older (from age 13 to 14 to 18).
Similar conclusions about the influence of visual stimuli in the experiments on estimating
weights during changes in the state of matter have been drawn by Furio Mas et al. (1987)
and Stavy (1990a).
Furthermore, some of the 'intuitive rules', e.g. (i) 'Gases (water vapour) weigh less than
liquid', and (ii) 'Gases have no weight', applied by pupils when arguing for the
non-conservation of weight, apart from the fact that they can be correlated, as already
shown, to certain general traits of pupils' ways of thinking, reveal a more general
difficulty which is associated with the understanding of gases and especially the consider-
ation of their material existence.

Results on Pupils' Views and School Science

Associations between the choices on die topics of boiling, evaporation and condensation
and pupils' age were statistically significant (#2.= 93-2, df = 28). This is due to the
tendency of older pupils (14—17 age range) to choose die acceptable interpretation on the
question of condensation of atmospheric water vapour. Similar statistically significant
associations (x2 = 243-6, df = 42) existed between die choices, compatible with school
science, on the topics of boiling, evaporation, condensation, assessment of weight and the
age of pupils. This is due to die tendency of older pupils (14—18 age range) to choose the
acceptable solution on the problems of condensation of atmospheric water vapour and
the assessment of weight, and younger pupils (10-13 age range) to choose the acceptable
solution on die problems of boiling, evaporation and condensation of water vapour, in
the condition of boiling.
Furthermore, according to our analysis:

(a) Pupils of age 10-11 tend to choose the categories 'disappearance' and 'absorption' on
the topic of evaporation. Therefore, these categories attributed by Bar & Galili (1994)
to younger pupils' way of thinking (pupils under die age of 9) appear in our study to
be held by older pupils. According to Bar & Travis's (1991) findings, pupils of age
10-11 do not choose the category 'absorption'. Similarly, Bar & Travis (1991) and
Bar & Galili (1994) found diat the combination of the category 'disappearance' with
diat of 'air' ('the water turned to air and men disappeared') attracts the interest of
even older pupils (12-13 age range).
(b) The transition from die interpretation of the topic of evaporation in terms of
'disappearance' of water to those which indicate the conservation of water (conserv-
ers) can be traced very clearly among pupils of age 13—14. This contrasts with Bar
& Galili's (1994) finding that this transition is to be found among younger pupils
(according to them pupils start applying the principle of conservation from the age
of 7-8).
(c) Pupils over age 13 tend not to choose the category 'absorption', while diere is a clear
tendency among pupils of age 17-18 to choose die scientifically acceptable view. In
contrast to this, Bar & Travis (1991) note that in the age range of 6-12, pupils' view
that water penetrates solid objects ('absorbed') is replaced by the view that water
evaporates, thereby indicating a conceptual change occurring at this age. Similarly,
Bar & Galili (1994), also taking into account the findings of Osborne & Cosgrove
(1983), conclude that pupils already from the age of 12-13 choose the scientifically
Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 67

acceptable interpretation, i.e. the one on which older pupils (16-17 age range) usually
focus.
(d) On all topics (i.e. evaporation, condensation and boiling) older pupils (14—18 age
range) tend to choose the 'hydrogen and/or oxygen' answer. In particular, for
students in the 17-18 age range, the choice 'hydrogen or/and oxygen' on the topics
of evaporation and condensation tends to coexist with the scientifically acceptable
view. This contrasts with Osborne & Cosgrove's (1983) and Bar & Galili's (1994)
findings, which suggest that the scientifically acceptable interpretation is predominant
in this age group, while among younger pupils the choice 'hydrogen and/or oxygen'
is more frequent.

Conclusions
Our conclusions, based on the preceding discussion, can be summarised in two
dimensions: the quantitative and the qualitative conservation.
Regarding the quantitative conservation of water in cases of change in its state, the
pupils older than age 14-15 tend to choose the school science view. It should be stressed
that no studies were found in the relevant literature addressing this question. Further-
more, as one would expect, pupils are able to answer certain types of questions
concerning the qualitative dimension of conservation better than questions concerning
the quantitative dimension.
The main conclusions on the qualitative dimension of conservation of water are as
follows:

(a) It has been found that on all problems posed (the only exception being the problem
of the condensation of vapour produced from boiling water) the age of pupils is a
significant factor affecting their choice when confronted with alternative solutions.
Our study indicates that the categories 'disappearance', 'absorption', 'hydrogen
or/and oxygen' on the problems of the qualitative dimension of conservation of water
tend to be used by students of older ages than the ones suggested by the previous
studies (Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Bar & Travis, 1991; Bar & Galili, 1994). This
tendency probably reflects the way science is taught in Greek schools: it is formal,
textbook-and lecture-based with a lot of homework for the pupils, while pupil-led
investigations are notably absent. Especially in the secondary schools, science teach-
ing relies heavily on the use of formulae and students becoming familiar with them
(Koulaidis, 1995). As a consequence, they are not accustomed to dealing in scientific
terms with problems which are related to everyday knowledge (e.g. drying of
laundry).
(b) Interestingly, our study suggests that a higher percentage of students have views
which are closer to the ones appearing in school science concerning the problems of
boiling and condensation than the ones reported by Osborne & Cosgrove (1983) and
Bar & Travis (1991). This higher percentage can be accounted for by the fact that
the study of the changes of the state of water is included in the curriculum from the
very first grade of the primary schools.
(c) Furthermore, our findings suggest that the understanding of condensation of vapour
produced by boiling water precedes the understanding of condensation of humidity
of the atmosphere. It should be noted here that this finding could not have been
deduced from previous studies, since this distinction and its use have been introduced
by our study (items 4 and 5). Accordingly, there seems to be a coincidence in the age
68 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

in which the understanding of condensation of atmospheric humidity and the

understanding of the quantitative dimension of conservation of water occur. This
interpretation can be based on the content of the Greek science curriculum. Indeed,
die teaching of die changes of die state of water is exclusively qualitative.
(d) As far as the problem of evaporation is concerned, our study is inconclusive. It
appears that pupils show a tendency to agree with the school science view at an
earlier age than that suggested by Bar & Travis (1991) and Bar & Galili (1994) when
faced with the situation 'drying of laundry', and at a later age for the item 'drying
of water in a dish'.
(e) With reference to the choices 'heat' and 'hydrogen a n d / o r oxygen' for the problem
of boiling, a tendency similar to diose found in the studies of Bar & Travis (1991) and
Osbome & Cosgrove (1983) has been discerned.
(f) We should also not diat the frequency of the 'no response' category was very low
(usually 2-5%).

Correspondence: Professor V. Koulaidis, Department of Primary Education, University of

Patras, Rio, Patras (26110), Greece. Email: koulaidi@upatras.gr

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BAR, V. & TRAVIS, A. (1991) Children's views concerning phase changes, Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 28, p p . 363-382.
BEVERIDGE, M. (1985) T h e development of young children's understanding of the process of
evaporation, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 55, pp. 84-90.
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Pupils' Ideas on Conservation of Water 69

TREAGUST, D. (1988) Development and use of diagnostic tests to evaluate students' misconceptions
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Appendix
Question 1
We place a plate with water in a room. A month later the plate is dried up.
What has happened to the water?

(a) T h e water has disappeared

(b) The water has been absorbed by the dish
(c) T h e water turned into vapour that scattered in the air
(d) T h e water turned into hydrogen o r / a n d oxygen that went to the air
(e) Something else
Describe it: ...

Question 2
Miss Mary hangs out her laundry to dry. A few hours later the clothes are dried completely.
T h e water of the laundry:

(a) Was absorbed by the clothes

(b) Turned into hydrogen o r / a n d oxygen and went to the air
(c) Turned into vapour and scattered in the air
(d) Disappeared
(e) Turned into air
(f) Something else
Describe it: ...

Question 3
When water boils in an electric jug we observe big bubbles.
What are the bubbles made of?

(a) Water vapour (steam)

(b) Air
(c) Hydrogen o r / a n d oxygen
(d) Heat
(e) Something else
Describe it: ...

Question 4
A dry saucer is placed above a saucepan with boiling water. After a while we can see drops of
water on the saucer.
How did the drops form?

(a) Water vapour turned into water

(b) Water vapour made the plate wet
(c) The hydrogen and the oxygen in the steam recombined to form water
(d) Something else
Describe it: ...

Question 5
A small jar is filled with ice cubes. T h e lid is closed tightly, and the outside of the j a r is dried with
a towel. Fifteen minutes later the outside of the jar is wet.
Where have the drops on the outside of the jar come from?

(a) They come from the ice cubes that melted inside the jar
(b) The cold of the ice cubes forces the hydrogen and the oxygen of the air to produce water
outside the jar
(c) T h e vapour in the air condenses on the cold glass
70 V. Hatzinikita & V. Koulaidis

(d) The cold of the ice cubes penetrates the jar and changes into drops
(e) Something else
Describe it: ...
Question 6
A balloon is well fitted at the top of a jug that contains water. The jug, the water and the balloon
weigh 300 g altogether. We heat the jug until all the water turns into vapour.
The jug with the balloon and the vapour weigh altogether
(a) 300 g
(b) Less than 300 g
(c) More than 300 g
Explain your choice ...
Question 7
A bottle is almost filled with water and is closed tightly. Both the bottle and the water weigh 500 g.
We place the bottle into the refrigerator for a week until the water changes into ice.
Both the bottle and the ice weigh
(a) 500 g
(b) Less than 500 g
(c) More than 500 g
Explain your choice ...
*Note: all questions are illustrated.