Chapter 2: The Self:

Philosophical Perspective

Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. Determine the varied philosophical ideas about the nature of the ‘self’; and
2. Identify the differences in these perspectives

A number of philosophers through the ages have posited ideas about the nature
of the self. These philosophers include David Hume, Rene Descartes, Socrates,
Plato. Even Saint Augustine of Hippo was among the others who remarkably have
provided unique views about the real nature of the concept we call ’self’.

But before you proceed to the lesson, please do the activity below.

PRE-LEARNING ACTIVITY
Directions. Column A contains the list of philosophers. Column B contains words or
phrases related to each philosopher. Match them by writing your answer on the
space provided.

Column A Column B

_____ 1. Immanuel Kant A. “Know thyself”

_____ 2. Maurice Ponty B. “psyche”
_____ 3. David Hume C. Introspection

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 _____ 4. Socrates D. “I think, therefore I am”
_____ 5. Gilbert Ryle E. Tabula Rasa
_____ 6. Rene Descartes F. passion governs human
behaviour
_____ 7. Paul Montgomery Churchland G. inner and outer self
_____ 8. Plato H. psychoanalysis
_____ 9. Saint Augustine I. the ghost in the machine
_____ 10.John Locke J. materialism
_____ 11. Sigmeund Freud K. The Primary of Perception

How well did you fare? If you score:

11-9 Perfect! You probably are knowledgeable on this topic. However, you may want to
refresh your memory so go on and read.
8-5 Not bad, you got a decent score here. Read on so you may learn something new.
4-0 No worries; just read on and learn something!
SOCRATES

Socrates (470-399 BC) was a classical Greek philosopher and a pioneer in Western
philosophy. As a contribution to the field of philosophy, Socrates introduced the
Socratic problem also known as the Socratic question. The goal of which was to “Know
thyself”. Accordingly, there should be a dialogue between the self and the soul. One
should accept that he knows nothing and he knows and accepts that he know nothing
as this leads to learning and discovering the truth. Socrates who was greatly known for
his Socratic method stated that “An unexamined life is not worth living”. One has to
self-examine and discuss about the self as this is a duty to achieve what is the greatest
good to a life. It is the goal of Socratic perspective to better the quality of human life
through consistent self-examination.

PLATO

Plato (424-347 BC) was a classical Greek philosopher and the founder of Academy
in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the western world. An influential
figure in western philosophy and the founder of western spirituality. Plato stated that
the ‘psyche’ or the ‘mind’ is comprised of three elements.

1. The appetites which involve our pleasurable

desires such as those which provide us physical
pleasure and physiological comfort.
2. The spirited which denotes the part within us that
is agitated most of the time. It is highly spirited
and motivated to surpass and conquer life
challenges. It is the area within us that enjoys
triumph, honor, greatness, and affirmation.

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 3. The mind is the conscious awareness which thinks, meditates, weighs choices
and assess situations in our lives. This side is rational and logical as it chooses
only the best for us.

SAINT AUGUSTINE

Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 354-430) was a Christian

theologian and philosopher to have greatly contributed to the
progress of Western Christianity through his writings specifically The
City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions. Saint
Augustine pointed onto sin as the source of human unhappiness as
sin impairs human free will. Saint Augustine discovered and
developed the concept of individual identity. He conceptualized an
idea of the self and eventually achieving an identity. Saint
Augustine identified the two-fold process comprised of self-
preservation leading to self-realization. He reiterated that one
transforms as he struggles in both body and soul to ultimately achieve happiness
specifically found in God’s love. Augustine explored on the relationship between mind
and body which are all essential in the formation of a person. However, he stressed on
the superiority of the mind over that of the body. Understanding of the self and the
formation of identity is achieved through the process of ‘Introspection’ or ‘self-analysis’.

RENE DESCARTES

René Descartes (1596-1650) is believed to be

the father of modern western philosophy. He was a
French scientific thinker, mathematician and
philosopher. Descartes developed the Cartesian
philosophy which holds that mental acts determine
physical acts. Moreover he reiterated on the role of
cognition as the active acquisition of knowledge
involving the individual’s imagination, intellect,
perception as well as memory. He described the mind
as the “intellectual substance” which possess a will.
Descartes pointed onto the relationship
between the mind and the body. And from such
insight begun his quest for true knowledge and stated
his very brilliant principle which state that “Cogito,
ergo sum” which is “I think, therefore I am.” This is a method to assess one’s self. This
is Descartes’ first theory of knowledge which laid foundation in his concept of self. He
asserted that the idea of being human brings about an awareness of the self which may
lead to the development of a unique identity. For Descartes being self-conscious is
necessary to develop a personal identity. The essence of your self makes you a

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“thinking thing” engaged in all forms of mental operation determinant of being a human
with a distinct persona.

JOHN LOCKE
John Locke (1632-1704) was a prominent thinker during
the “Age of Reason”. He is an English philosopher and physician.
Remarkably Locke is considered the “Father of Liberalism” as he
had posited the “theory of mind” which is a breakthrough in the
origin of modern understanding of the concept of identity and the
self. It was Locke who developed the concept of “Tabula Rasa”.
He pointed onto the theory that at birth, the mind is a blank slate
without innate ideas, and it is experience that provides us
knowledge provided by sensory experiences and reflections.
John Locke stated that personal identity or the self is found
in the consciousness. He identified the brain as comprising the
consciousness which has one’s identity. It is alleged that life is a quest for the
understanding of what is after death and immortality. He argued as well that a person
may only be judged for the acts of his body but the truth according to him is that one is
liable only for the acts of which he is conscious.

DAVID HUME

David Hume (1711-1776) a prime mover in western

philosophy is a Scottish philosopher from Edinburgh, known for
his insights on the psychological basis of human nature where
he posited that passion rather than reason governs human
behaviour. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas,
positing that all human knowledge is ultimately founded solely
in experience. He reiterated that reason is only the slave of
passion which implies that logic and intellect is basically
superseded by an individual’s passion, drive and motivation.
Hume also perceived that experiences are derived from internal
and external stimulus and they create impressions on the
individual. According to Hume the self and one’s mind is like a
machine that can be turned on and off as they are only active
when one is conscious.

IMMANUEL KANT

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was born in Prussia and

was a great contributor in modern western philosophy. He

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asserted that it is the human mind which creates experiences. These experiences are
similar among human on the level of abstraction as we share important characteristics
that resemble in specific points of interests. Human experiences make up our persona
according to logical effects provided by certain causes. Evidently, the development of
individuality and the self is a result of unique human experiences as it forges significant
learning within the person. More so, Kant said that every person has an inner and
outer self which comprises the consciousness. According to Kant, the intellect as well
as the psychological state of a being is what we call as the inner self while the outer
self is made of the senses and the physical self. Largely, the object of the inner self is
the “soul” while the outer self is directed to the “body”.

SIGMEUND FREUD

Sisigmund Schlomo Freud also known as Sigmeund

Freud (1856-1939) was a neurologist from Austria. He
established psychoanalysis. This is a school of thought
revolving around the role of psychological conflicts within the
unconscious which is relevant in the development of human
behaviour as well as personality. It was Freud who stated
that there are three components in the mind that interact to
produce the individual persona. This concept in the structural
theory of personality involves the id, ego, and superego
which are largely formed within the unconscious. The conflict
between these three components gives rise to human
persona.

The id and the superego are in constant conflict

brought about by differences in their desire. As the id demands pleasure and
gratification of urges, the superego requires compliance to societal norms. The conflict
is resolved by the ego which is ‘the self’ by maintaining the balance between these two
structures of the mind. Freud considered the ego as the realistic area of one’s persona
that maintains the balance and harmony within the individual.

SUPEREGO ID

EGO
The ego balances the conflicting force between the superego and the id (S. Freud)

GILBERT RYLE

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 Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) was born in Brighton, England. He was a British
philosopher, a behaviourist who coined the phrase “the ghost in the machine”. Ryle
believed that mental phenomena are explained by observing public behaviour. Ryle, in his
book’The Concept of Mind’ (1949) explained how the mental states are inseparable from
the physical states. Ryle focused on observable behaviour in defining the self. He stated
that every human being has both a physical body and a non-physical mind which are
ordinarily “harnessed together” while we are alive.

According to Ryle, though the physical body is subject to the

mechanical laws; the mind, on the other hand, is not accessible to
the public and definitely never subjected to mechanical laws. He
stated that “A person therefore lives through two collateral
histories, one consisting of what happens in and to his body, and
other consisting of what happens in and to his mind. The first is
public, the second private.” This simply explains how the mind is
operating within the person himself while the body is subjected to
the observation and criticisms of the public.

PAUL MONTGOMERY CHURCHLAND

Paul Montgomery Churchland (1942-)was from

Vancouver,Canada. He is a modern-day philosopher whose
studies greatly focuses on the workings of the brain.
He argued that ‘nothing but matter exists’ which is also known
as materialism.

Paul hypothesized that the human consciousness can be

explained through the neural networks communicating through
its hub in the brain which is the thalamus.
As we begin to use empirical evidence to describe how our
brain and bodies functions we learn to determine how we feel
and how certain situation affects us. Churchland believes that
many are unaware of the appropriate terms do determine the
exact emotions and sentiment that they are undertaking.
Hence, this leads to confusion as to how we understand ourselves.

MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY

Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher, wrote the book

Phenomenologie de La Perception in 1945. In this book, he
expounded his thesis on ‘The Primacy of Perception’ where he
revealed how the body is central to one’s perception. As an

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existentialist, Merleau-Ponty argued that perception is the determinant of one’s
consciousness. It is our prejudice that creates the perception that we have in our mind.
This is the “primary of perception” where Merleau-Ponty said that “there is harmony
between what we aim at and what is given, between intention and performance”. The
same provides an explanation as to Merleau-Ponty’s claim that “consciousness is
primarily not a matter of “I think that”, but of “I can”.

Hence in this argument, it shows how action is required in the formation of self-
perception as well as self-concept.