Direct and Indirect Observations
• Direct observations
– applying a tape to a line
– fitting a protractor to an angle
– turning an angle with a total station
instrument
• Indirect observations
– secured when it is not possible to apply a
measuring instrument directly to the quantity
to be observed
Errors in Measurements
Observation or measurements are numerical
values for random variables which are subject to
random fluctuation Ex. Measuring a distance
using a tape length
• No observation can be repeated exactly.
• Since all measurements are subject to
variation, it follows that no quantity that is
measured is completely determinable.
• That means that what we conceived as
the “true value” of a quantity, which we
measure several times, is merely an
“estimate” of the true value.
• If we expect variation on our
measurement, then we must expect a
difference between a measured value of
the quantity and its true value.
𝐸 = 𝑋 − 𝑋̅
Where:
E =error in an observation,
X =observed value
𝑋̅ = its true value
Facts about Error
(1) no observation is exact
(2) every observation contains errors
(3) the true value of an observation is never
known
(4) the exact error present is always unknown
Mistake
• observer blunders
• They must be detected by careful and
systematic checking of all work, and
eliminated by repeating some or all of the
measurements.
Reasons for Mistakes
• lack of understanding
• carelessness
• fatigue
• miscommunication
• poor judgment
Sources of Errors
• Natural or Physical
1) Settlement of the tripod
2) Unequal atmospheric refraction
3) Unequal expansion of the parts of the
telescope due to temperature
changes
4) Wind, producing vibration of the
transit or making it difficult to plumb
correctly
• Instrumental
1) Errors in horizontal angles caused by
non-adjustment of the plate levels
2) Errors in vertical angles caused by
non-adjustment of the plate and
levels
3) Line of sight not perpendicular to
horizontal axis
4) Horizontal axis not perpendicular to
vertical axis
5) Effect of lack of coincidence between
line of sight and optical axis
6) Errors due to eccentricity
7) Imperfect graduations
8) Lack of parallelism between axis of
telescope level and line of sight
• Personal
1) Effect of not setting up exactly
2) Effect of not centering the bubble
3) Errors in setting and reading the
instrument
4) Not sighting exactly on the position
5) Imperfect focusing (parallax)
Types of Errors
• Systematic Errors
A systematic error is called a constant
error if its magnitude and sign remain the
same throughout the measuring process.
a) Systematic errors are so called
because they occur according to
some deterministic system which,
when known, can be expressed by
some functional relationship.
b) A systematic error follows a
pattern, which will be duplicated if
the measurement is repeated
under the same conditions.
-can be due to observer
-instrument used
-environment (temp, wind)
c) Natural causes (temp, humidity,
pressure)
d) Instrumental factors (imperfection
during construction, lack of
adequate adjustment)
e) Observer’s main limitation
• Random Errors
a) After all blunders are detected and
removed, and measurements are
corrected for all known systematic
errors, there will remain some variation
in the measurements.
b) This variation results from observational
errors, which have no known functional
relationship, based upon a deterministic
system.
 c) These errors, instead, have random
behavior, and must be treated
accordingly.
d) Whereas systematic variations are dealt
with mathematically using functional
relationships or models, random
variables must use probability models.
Precision and Accuracy
• Discrepancy
- difference between two observed
values of the same quantity
• Precision
- degree of refinement or consistency of
a errors.
group of observations and is evaluated
on
the basis of discrepancy size
• Accuracy
- absolute nearness of observed
quantities to
their true values
Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors
• Perform the observations using
standardized repetitive procedures
• Comparing several observations of the
same quantity
• Making a common-sense estimate and
analysis
• Casting out the doubtful value, or
preferably repeating the observation can
eradicate this mistake
• Systematic errors can be calculated and
proper corrections applied to the
observations
Probability
• Probability is the ratio of the number of
times that an event should occur to the
total number of possibilities.
• When an event can occur in m ways and
fail to occur in n ways, the probability of
its occurrence is m/(m+n), and the
probability of its failure is n/(m+n).
Elementary Concepts on Probability
• Since random errors are dealt with
probability models, knowledge of the
concepts in probability is important.
• One concept wherein probability model
arises is the frequency distribution.
Most Probable Value
• can be calculated if redundant
observations have been made
̅=
∑𝑀
𝑀
𝑛 𝐸90 = 1.6449ℴ
Where:
𝑀̅ = most probable value
ΣM = sum of individual measurement
n = total no. of observations
Residuals
• difference between the most probable
value and any observed value of a
quantity, which in equation form
𝑣=𝑀 ̅ −𝑀
General Laws of Probability
• Small residuals (errors) occur more often
than large ones; that is, they are more
probable.
• Large errors happen infrequently and are
therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusually large ones
may be mistakes rather than random
• Positive and negative errors of the same
size happen with equal frequency; that is,
they are equally probable.
Standard Deviation and Variance
• The magnitude of dispersion is an
indication of the relative precisions of the
observations.
• Other statistical terms more commonly
used to express precisions of groups of
observations are standard deviation and
variance.
Standard Deviation
∑𝑣 2
ℴ =±√
𝑛−1
Variance
ℴ2
The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors
• probability of an error of any percentage
likelihood can be determined. The
general equation is
𝐸𝑃 = 𝐶𝑃 ℴ
Where:
EP = percentage error
CP = corresponding numerical factor
ℴ = standard deviation
E50 or 50 Percent Error
• Also known as Probable Error
• It establishes limits within which the
observations should fall 50% of the time.
𝐸50 = 0.6745ℴ
E90 and E95
• Commonly used to specify precisions
required on surveying (geomatics)
projects
• Also known as 2sigma error (2 ℴ)
𝐸95 = 1.9599ℴ
99.7% Error
• Also known as three sigma error (3s)
• also often used as a criterion for rejecting
• individual observations from sets of data
Error Propagation Error of a Product
Because all directly measured quantities
contain errors, any values computed from them
will also contain errors. This intrusion, or 𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑. = ±√𝐴2 𝐸𝑏2 + 𝐵 2 𝐸𝑎2
propagation, of errors that occurs in quantities
computed from direct measurements is called Where:
error propagation. A = Independent measurement
B = Independent measurement
Defines as the process of evaluating errors in
computed quantities as a function of the errors Ea = estimated error in determining the value of
in measurements or known errors from previous A
computations. Eb = estimated error in determining the value of
B
Let:
• a, b, c, ...n - observed quantities
(independent) Error involving more than 2 independent
• Ea, Eb, Ec,...., En - corresponding errors measurements
• Z - computed quantities from observed Formula:
quantities Z = f (a, b, c, …, n)

Z = f (a, b, c, …, n) 2 2 2
𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
√
𝐸𝑍 = ± ( 𝐸𝑎 ) + ( 𝐸𝑏 ) + ( 𝐸𝑐 )
2 2 2
𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑐
𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
𝐸𝑍 = ±√( 𝐸𝑎 ) + ( 𝐸𝑏 ) + ( 𝐸𝑐 )
𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑐
𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝑆 𝐸 𝑆
𝛿𝐿 𝐿 𝛿𝑊 𝑊 𝛿𝐻 𝐻
Formula for Volume:
V = LWH
Error in a Sum
It is the square root of the sum of each of the 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
individual measurements squared. It is used = 𝑊𝐻 = 𝐿𝐻 = 𝐿𝑊
when there are several measurements with 𝛿𝐿 𝛿𝑊 𝛿𝐻
different standard errors.

𝐸𝑆𝑢𝑚 = ±√𝐸12 + 𝐸22 + 𝐸32 … + 𝐸𝑛2

Error in a Series
It describes the error of multiple measurements
with identical standard deviations such as
measuring a 1000 m line with a tape of 100 m
long.

𝐸𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = ±𝐸 √𝑛

Error in Redundant Measurement

If a measurement is repeated multiple times, the
accuracy increases, even if the measurements
have the same value.

𝐸
𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑. 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠. =±
√𝑛