Cells and Molecules of Life 3.1 Structure of the cell membrane Foeress esr, In Ch 2, we have learnt that the cell membrane is a differentially a your class and'anener te etmeable membrane mainly made up of phospholipids’ and proteins. ‘questions Ie controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. How does the cell membrane carry out this function? To answer this question, first we have to understand the structure of the cell membrane. 131A)Q5, video & & questions Since 1925, scientists have been proposing different models to illustrate Turn to p.6 to learn more © the structure of the cell membrane. The fluid mosaic model’ proposed. about the develonment of by Singer and Nicolson in 1972 is most widely accepted today. It Grins suggests that the'phospholipid molecules are arranged in a bilayer in the cell membrane.”The protein molecules are interspersed” among the the cell membrane mode hospholipid molecules (Fig 3.1). phospholipi (Fig 3.1). Gieewr carbonysrate '3D model 3.1 phospholid bilayer" inside of col (cytoplasm) 0 Phospholipid molecules Protein molecules “ pome plas? ipa. sphey are arranged in a bilayer. + They are interspersed among the con Ship Tym 1%. phey can move laterally’ | phospholipid molecules in a mosaic pattern out vILe Vers (thus the membrane is | (thus the membrane is described as ‘mosaic’), described as ‘fluid’): ‘+ Some of them are'attached to the surface girs phospholipid bilayer, some are | bedded half-way in the bilayer and others Span” the entire bilayer. * Carbohydrates are attached to some of them | to form glycoproteins, |” Fig 3.1. The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane ‘hud mosaic model AIOIMEBEE! —gheoproten REA —itespese RS laterally MRI phosphoind s Sg eeian bloer IRS spon ae a — ete3 Movement of substances across cell membrane Phospholipids There are different types of lipids. The commonest type is trigtyerides (fats and oil). A triglyceride molecule is formed from one glycerol an three fatty acid molecules (Fig 3.32). A triglyceride molecule has no charged regions, ie Background chemistry on © non-polar”. When triglycerides Bieler ». 4 explains the mean Leia aes oad are added to water, they do not ‘non-polar mix with water (Fig 3.2). This is . 2 ae because triglyceride molecules are repelled by water, which is polar’, * hyatophic hydrophobic © "They are said to be hydrophobic’ hae In Latin, ‘hydro! means (water-hating). neues wate, ‘phic means Fig:32 Triglycerides do not mic with ‘loving’ and ‘phobic’ water means ‘hatred””. Wugdie = watey ) A phospholipid molecule has a structure similar to that of a triglyceride prilic = long i \molecule except that one of the fatty acid molecules is replaced by a Phabie + hatreh ea) posphate oroup (Fig 3.3b). 4p is polar and is attracted to water which is also pricy Thersiove, « phospholipid molecule consists of two parts which exhibe siticrent properties: + a hydrophilic’ (vater-loving) ‘head’ ~ polar phosphate group and glycerol * hydrophobic ‘tails’ ~ non-polar fatty acids Phospholipid molecule hydrophilic hydrophobic head tails catycort” fatyacig" phosphate glycerol faty aia group Fig 33 Basic structure of () a triglyceride molecule and (b) a phospholipid molecule faty acd AB ghee! tH haed MIE ycrophie UKE ydrophobic UKE nonpolor EH phosphate group NEAR por HL) wighcende = Be MeCells and Molecules of Life Due to the chemical nature of phospholipid molecules described above, the phospholipid molecules are arranged in a bilayer in the cell membrane. The hydrophilic heads point outwards, in contact — with the aqueous solutions inside and outside the cells, while their hydrophobic tails point inwards, being protected from contacting the aqueous environments (Fig 3.4). Under an electron microscope, the cell membrane appears as two dark lines with a lighter region in between. The dark lines correspond to the hydrophilic heads, while the lighter region corresponds to the hydrophobic tails (Fig 3.5). “ ieee molecule hydrophilic heads aqueous solution inside the cel (cytoplasm) Fig 3.4 Arrangement of phospholipid ‘molecules in the cell membrane —Background chemistiy —_. . Polar and non-polar molecules ‘Atoms contain positively-charged nuclei and negatively-charged electrons. In a molecule, atoms are held together by the attraction between the nuclei and electrons. If the nuclei attract the electrons equally, the molecule will have no charged regions. The molecule is said to be non-polar (Fig 3.6a). On the other hand, in some molecules, one of the nuclei attracts the electrons more strongly. The rnegatively-charged electrons are ‘pulled’ towards that nucleus. As a result, there is a small negative charge at one end of the molecule and a small positive charge at the other end. These molecules are said to be polar (Fig 3.6b). cleus RFA ‘aqueous solution outside the coll (extracellular fui) hydrophilic heads hydrophobic tals Fig 35 Cell membrane under an electron microscope 2 Non-potar molecule electron ‘no charged regions: b Polar molecule electron pulled towards one nucleus ‘small ‘small postive negative charge ‘charge Fig 36 (a) A non-polar molecule and (0) polar molecule3 Movement of substances across cell membrane BF Proteins Membrane proteins can be classified into different typ their functions. Below are some examples. uuel ovrtein = channels made of putel 1 Channel proteins* es according to ‘They provide channels for certain substances to move across the membrane, e.g. ion” channels in cells allow ions to enter or leave the cells. i 7 protein 2 Carrier proteins” ae ‘They bind to certain substances and transport them to the other side of the membrane, eg. sugar carriers in the cells in the small intestine help the uptake of sugars into the cells. carer . protein 3 Receptors They bind to chemical messengers chemical venue (e.g. hormones) outside cells. The binding may C Sayan turn on certain activities in the cells. For Cross-link © example, insulin’ receptors in the liver cells : i The details of blood glucose bind to insulin and may turn on activities that regulation will be discussed in Bk 2, Ch 18. Cross-link © 4 Antigens" More about antigens will be . . Giecussed in Bk 3, Ch 24. They are glycoproteins for cell recognition’ Cross-link The role of enzymes mubelaneee in breakdown of food substances in the small help lower the blood glucose level. For example, some white blood cells recognize antigens on our body cells as ‘self’ and do not attack them. Antigens on bacteria are recognized as ‘foreign’ and they are attacked. 5 Enzymes They speed up chemical reactions. For example, some enzymes in the cells in the © small intestine speed up the breakdown of food intestine will be discussed in che, antigen 108 carrer protein ALEFEE channel protein WAABIEE insulin BME — receptor SAL recognition KF BSCells and Molecules of Life Development of the cell membrane model In the past decade, scientists carried out many investigations into the structure of the cell membrane and proposed models based on their findings. Our understanding of cell membrane structure is the collective effort of them. ‘The membrane is made up of two layers of ¥ Evidence Nini * Overton found that lipid-soluble substances penetrated cells ‘easily, suggesting the membrane is mainly made up of lipids. ‘+ Langmuir found that the major component of the membrane exhibited both water-ioving and water-hating properties. ‘© Gorter and Grendel found that the lipids extracted from a cell could cover twice the area needed ‘> enclose the cell 7 Limitation ‘+ The model did not include proteins ‘The membrane is made up of a phospholipid Evidence bilayer sandwiched between two layers of 1 Scientiss observer tw dark nes in electron micrographs. a reread yin er swe oer Fase toa a acim phesphod ade nad Bre cot nes | The proteins extracted from the membrane were mainly hydrophobic. They are not likely to be located at the surfaces, of the membrane, where they are in contact with water. ‘The membrane is made up of @ phospholipid Evidence bilayer with protein molecules interspersed in @ Scientists split the membrane of a frozen cell and observed ‘mosaic pattern, some particles on the inner surfaces, suggesting that some protein proteins are interspersed among the phospholipids. molecules phospholipid bilayer—Key learning. 3 Movement of substances across cell membrane —N@S ideas Which of the following aspects of nature of science is/are demonstrated in the development of the cell membrane model? Put a 'Y’ in the correct box. Scientific knowledge is tentative and subject to change. b Doing science requires creativity and imagination L Scientific knowledge is based on or derived from observations of the natural world (ie. empirically based or evidence based), What is the structure of the cell membrane according to the fluid mosaic model? Phospholipids ‘© The phospholipid molecules are arranged in a bilayer, with their hydrophilic heads pointing outwards and hydrophobic tails pointing inwards. ‘0+ The phospholipid molecules can move laterally. Proteins ‘© The protein molecules are interspersed among the phospholipid molecules in a mosaic pattern. ‘0 Some protein molecules are attached to the surface of the phospholipid bilayer, some are embedded half-way in the bilayer and others span the entire bilayer. © Carbohydrates are attached to some protein molecules to form glycoproteins. STEM Ys" Making a cell membrane model Design and make a model to show the structure of the cell membrane. Compare your model with those of your classmates and discuss the advantages and limitations of each model. Fig 3.7 A cell membrane model You can see how other people make their models at ‘nttpsillwww youtube.comiwatch?v=]VdQe6VeOBg XCells and Molecules of Life 14(18)Q7, 16(1A)Q1, 2 3.2. Relationship between the structure, properties and functions of the cell membrane In this section, we will see how the structure of the cell membrane is related to its properties and functions. 1 The cell membrane is differentially permeable’ The core of the phospholipid bilayer is hydrophobic. It is permeable, to non-polar substances but impermeable to polar substances and lons are particles which carry © ions. Polar substances and ions can be transported across the membrane charges. by channel proteins or carrier proteins, The table below shows how different substances move across the cell membrane. © Small, Oxygen, carbon | They dissolve in the non-polar dioxide, glycerol, __| phospholipid bilayer and molecules fatty acids, vitamin A, _ move across the membrane. vitamin D @ Small, polar — Water, urea, arnino are repelled by the molecules glucose Mipid bilayer and | a canne! move through it | © Small ions um ion, calcunn Tye cor be tansported by ebeiin or carrier © Large Starch, triglycerides, They conot move across the molecules | proteins phospholipid bilayer Fig 38 Substances move across the membrane along different paths3 Movement of substances across cell membrane Factors affecting the permeability of the cell membrane ‘Temperature and organic solvents affect the structure of the cell membrane and hence its permeability | Temperature ‘© When temperature increases, the phospholipid ‘molecules in the cell membrane have more kinetic energy: They Move faster and pack less closely together. Therefore, substances can move across the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane more easily, ice. the permeability of the membrane increases. + Boiling can even damage the membrane, causing it to become fully permeable. Nowe polar “Organic solvents * Organic solvents dissolve the phospholipids, (eg. alcoho!) causing damage to the membrane. As a result, the permeability of the membrane increases. Effects of temperature and organic solvents on the permeability of cal! membrane Practical ep Introduction Beetroot” cells contain a red pigment, If the permeability of ihe cell membrane @ ca a1 inereases, or ifthe membrane is damages 32 pigmen, ak out, Ee Procedure Se XC 1 Add 5 cm’ of distilled water into 12 test tubes. Label six of them Al to The cork borer and F1, and six of them A2 to F2. knife are very sharp. sande ce 2 Prepare six groups of beetroot discs as shown below. Ve cbt cute stint 18m. cut nna no te win coe Sse ta pated SEES onan Sane ext beetroot beetroot stip > knife > a & 3. Rinse each group of discs in running water to wash off the pigment on the surface. Blot them with tissue paper. beetroot aise1 Celis and Molecules of Life 4 Use a water bath to heat tube A1 to 30 °C. Put one group of discs into the tube and wait for 1 minute. Transfer the discs to tube A2. Keep it at room temperature and wait for 20 minutes, ny octet BS destroot attr °C) disc} minute distilled — asm ase — Saersvanr st one eset 5 Remove the beetroot discs from tube A2. Shake the tube gently and observe the colour intensity of the solution. Record the result. 6 Repeat the steps for tubes BI to F1 which are heated to 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C and 80 °C respectively. Effect of alcohol 1 Add 5 cm’ of distilled water, 10% alcohol, 30% alcohol and 50% alcohol ET TETI into four test tubes + Alcohol i Prepare four groups of beetroot discs as stated in sieps 2 ond @ of Part A. ee eae Put one group of discs into each tube. Was ievute of naked flame +The cork bover and [ me knife are very sharp. scar th 4 =e % 8 ee am eB 4 Remove the beetroot discs from the tubes. Shake the tubes gently and ‘observe the colour intensities of the solutions. Record the results. Results and discussion ‘The higher the temperature, the higher the intensity of the red colour in the solution, This indicates that membrane permeability increases as temperature increases. ‘Alcohol is an organic solvent. Alcohol damages the cell membrane, causing the red pigment to leak out # The higher the alcohol concentration, the higher the d colour in the solution. ‘This indicates that membrane permeability increases as alcohol concentration increases. tensity of th3° Moverent of substances across cell membrane 2. The cell membrane is fluid in nature Since the phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane can move laterally, the cell membrane is fluid in nature. This allows the cell membrane to change shape and fuse with one another during processes like phagocytosis" and cell division (Fig 3.9) Photomicrographs : of cells undergoing es coll division (<1000) Two cells cal are formed, membrane ‘changes shape as the call begins to divide. Drawings of the ‘cell membrane Fig 3.9 Cell membrane changes shape and fuses during cell division How is the sirtn iire ¢ vnbrane related to its properties and functions? Structure of How it is related to the properties and the cell membrane | __funetions of the cell membrane ‘© The phospholipid © This makes the cell membrane molecules are arranged | differentially permeable. ina bilayer. The core of | « small, non-polar molecules can the phospholipid bilayer dissolve in the phospholipid bilayer is hydrophobic. and move across the membrane * Some protein molecules | + Small, polar molecules and small act as channels or ions are transported by channel carriers proteins or carrier proteins * The phospholipid This makes the cell membrane fluid in molecules can move nature. This allows the cell membrane laterally. to change shape and fuse with one another during processes like phagocytosis and cell division. phagocytosis 7Cells and Molecules of Life Checkpoint The diagram on the right shows the fluid x *? mosaic model of the cell membrane. Which of the following parts of the cell yyy j} 3 membrane prevent(s) polar substances and ions from entering the cell? z A Xonly Y only ©” Zonly DY andZ only ps 2 Which of the following correctly describe(s) the possible way in which an ion moves across the cell membrane? (1) through the phospholipid bilayer (2) through a channel protein (3) transport by a carrier protein A (1)only B (1) and (2) only @) and (3) only D (1), @) and (3) #78 3. Which of the following are the most possible paths along which fatty acids and amino acids move across the cell membrane? phosphoteid Biever TY protgin molecules Fatty acids Amino acids x Y x Y3 Movement of substances across cell membrane | 3.3 Movement of substances across membranes Substances move across the cell membrane by four main mechanisms: diffusion’, osmosis’, active transport” and phagocytosis g CSE [ Diffusion [19dayQa, 11 1 What is diffusion? all things ave mage up of particles When a tea bag is put into a cup of hot water, brown colour spreads out Anipation 2:1 ey from the tea bag. Eventually the whole cup of water becomes brown. & Why does this happen? pwentornine vost veqesiveat Substances are made up of particles. In liquids and gases, particles move ooamnss -randomilyrinyalldirections, and thus they tend towistributelevenly” Kphagouatons When there is a difference in the concentrations of particles between two regions (ic. aCORCeHtatOH!GFadient" exists), there will be aut” “moyement of particles from the region ofihigheticoncentration! to the region oflowemiconeentration (i.e. down the concentration gradient), until the particles are evenly distributed. This is called diffusion (Fig 3.10) region of region of brown particles evenly distributed higher lower {equilibrium state) concentration concentration ovement sill nave waoement "BS santies nove © randomly Fig 3.10 Diffusion $ When the particles become evenly distributed (i.e. the concentration wen ven, disttbuted gradient no longer exists), we can say that an.equilibrium,stateris eylibviven state teached. There ist#@NHEP MOVEMENT Of particles between the two v r y aotnet smmenesg BONS but the particles are still moving randomly in all directions. w fs 4¥4,si0n ended Diffusion depends on the spontaneous and random movement of Particles. It docs notmequirerenergy® It is aypassivesprocess. cine vansport EMiF — concentration gradient MISH diffusion IAB equilbrium Eii osmosis #8 313,1 Cells and Molecules of Life fucititated diffusions diffusion uf substances tung a caannel | CArrIEY prsteir, 2. Factors affecting the rate of diffusion across membranes \ / Mynte Concentration | The €€epér the-concentration gradient between two gradient suave aver to volume vertin Surface area |_swface avea ( = aa Distanc ae — Aste. ‘Temperature Size of the regions, the higher the rate of diffusion. ‘The laiiGEr the surface area over which diffusion ‘occurs, the\HigheP'the rate of diffusion. ‘The SHOHIEr the distance between two regions of different concentrations, théihighen the rate of diffusion. At fiighteritemperatures, particles have more KifTEi®, ‘steggy, This results in aghigher rate of diffusion (Fig 3.11). Diffusion is also involved in many life processes likeabsorption in AS PRIIEP Particles diffuse faSterythan large particles. lav mens chaygedle) Particles 4 Polar molecules and ions = © Nature of the | N@HEPOIAF substances usually diffuse 448tergehan diffuse across the cell © 1, particles jolar substances because they move across the GLO wy Pe y membrane withthe help of f° membrane through the phospholipibilayendirectly. Channel proteins and-earier Weyl wet z proteins. ‘pola chor, carbon dite etic puay (newtol) 3 Importance of diffusion * Diffusion enab!: s waste praconton OMS svients (eg. carbon dioxide) Ela M venue ‘environment. ¢ “ \ materials like ‘ CM aie is nutrients and remove wast 3 ° on fecal on ‘carbonldioxide by diffusion a lina " uid surrounding the ce Fig 3.11 Cells exchange materials with the environment by diffusion Cross-link Human small intestine and human lungs are well adapted for diffusion. For example, they have large surface areas. The details wal ha be discussed in Ch 6 and Bk 18, Ch7. learning. . What is diffusion? Diffusion is the(R(BEIRVBVEFMent of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (i.e. down the concentration gradient)13(1A)Q23 | te(a)a24, 25, 17(1B)Q2, 18(18)Q2, | 194aVQ8 ° Water potential is measured in kilopascals (kPa). ox 32 me | pve water solvent must et water water potential #8 3 Movement of substances across cell membrane El Osmosis - a special kind of diffusion aiftuson of water 1 What is osmosis? ¢ (ena of ) Like particles of other substances in liquids and gases, water molecules also move around randomly and tend to distribute evenly. If some substances are dissolved in water, the tendency of water molecules to move decreases because the solute particles attract the water molecules. We can describe the tendency of the water molecules to move from cone place to another using the term water potential’. The more the solute particles in a solution (ce. the higher the concentration of the solution), the lower the tendency of the water molecules to move. We can say the solution has a lower water potential. When two solutions of different water potentials are separated by a differentially permeable membrane which does not allow the solute particles to move across, more water molecules will move from the solution of higher water potential to the solution of lower water potential (Fig 3.12). The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential =» 0 tvyion of lower watc potential across a differentially permeable mem rane is caller osinosis. Like diffusion, osmosis does not requ sgy- His a pas acess: y bate © lowes cnseuctvatian i water mutuals region of iterentialy [[ENEaveteea teu permeable rr —~ [Ee less concentrated soution Pe™@bIe more concentrated solution (fewer solute particles per (more solute parties per unitvolume) i unit volume) @.°.° 4°99 ° ° ie aa oo °@ oo o By S ° : "O° ° ° 1 . Osmu¥s Linstan) water molecule solute particle ‘can move across teannot move across OSMOSE Lvevly) Pe Fig 3.12 Osmosis 3151 Cells and Molecules of Life Water potentials 4 Tsi=W 659K] Water molecules in pure water have the highest tendency to move. grin ov watts potential thus pure water has the highest water potential, which is defined as zero! All solutions have a water potential lower than that of pure water, ice. a negative value. The higher the concentration of the solution, the 2 Which of the folowing _ lower (more negative) its water potential (Fig 3.13). solutions has a higher water potential? a 20.5% sucrose solution and a 2% sucrose solution b assolution with a pure waier water potential highest water potential of -600 kPa and, 0 a solution with a water potential of 300 kPa Fig 3.13 Relationship between concentration and water potential of a solution Introduction Dialysis tubing” is differentially permeable. It has many small pores wh: allow small molecules (e.g. water molecules) to pass through but not large ‘ones (e.g. sucrose molecules). It can be used to demonstrate osmosis. Procedure ‘Animal tissues like a 1 Wet two dialysis tubing of 15 em long. Tie a knot at one end of each chicken crop", a pig | bladder” and a fish | tubing. . ‘swim bladder” are also | 2. Fill one of the dialysis tubing with 20% sucrose solution and another differentially permeable | ‘with distilled water. Tie each tubing to a capillary tube with thread. and can ako be used in this experiment, ‘Watch the video below capilary tubes which demonstrates the experiment. ene Video 3.1 dialysis tubing 20% distited ‘sucrose water solution bladder BREE crop RAR ialysis tubing i4"EF swim bladder 8 3163 Movement of substances across cell membrane f Rinse the outside of the tubing with distilled water. Immerse each tubing in a beaker of distilled water as shown below. Mark the initial liquid levels. Observe any changes in the liquid levels after 30 minutes. ‘experimental set-up control set-up capillary tubes Initial quid levels distiled water Results and discussion Video 3.2 ‘The liquid level in the experimental set-up rises. The (inal liquid level of the experimental set-up is higher than that of the control set-up. ctup das date te eyonty In the experimental set-up, distilled water has a higher water potential than 20% sucrose solution. There is a net movement of water molecules from distilled water in the beaker to the sucrose solution in the dialysis tubing, 'J|| Which of the following changes in the experimental set-up would affect the rate at which the liquid level rises? Which would affect the final liquid level? a using a longer dass tubing Axtey yatt b using a lage volume of 20% sucrose soliton Sac Wieiney Hee | € Using a larger volume of distilled water Some vote, seme level d increasing the temperature fustew val t © wsing @ more concentrated sucrose solution fastey yale | hat a71 Cells and Molecules of Life 2 Osmosis and cells Solutions surrounding cells may cause the cells to lose or gain water by osmosis. The table below shows what happens when animal cells are put into solutions of different water potentials. Titled water —_wo.gyy sole (45 NOA/ LL yoiter) ‘+ hypotonic, isotonic, ° Hypotonic” Isotonic’ solution | Hypertonic” hypertonic solution (same water solution In Greek, ‘hypo’ means (higher water potential as the | (lower water “below, “so means ‘equal’ and ‘hyper’ means ‘above’ D é cave convey CoRcauE potential than the | cytoplasm) | potential than the cytoplasm) cytoplasm) Enters the cells | No net movement | Leaves the cells Mare ase gata wea 0 volume Swell and may No chang Sheik’ and Tonge at finally Bare me wrinkle” veal blood cells howiy omen ' ¥ nucteas os * V move Daemon lata suit (20 dlays The bursting of red blood =O cells with the release of haemoglobin is known as haemolysis” 3) Why do some red * blood cells burst while ‘others remain intact in : Fig 3.14a7 Fig 3.14 Red blood cells in a (a) hypotonic, (b) isotonic and (¢) hypertonic solution (400) _Right and wrong €3 When a cell is put into an isotonic solution, there is no water movement across its cell membrane. tw When a cell is put into an isotonic solution, there is no net water movement actoss its cell membrane. Water enters and leaves the cell at the same rate. bust RL hypertonic BM — hypotonic AH) hemes iM iotonc AFI svine HR wrinkle 3-182 Whats the substance between the cell wall and the cell ‘membrane in a plasmolysed cell? (re hypertowic Solution 3 Movement of substances across cell membrane The table below shows what happens when plant cells are put into solutions of different water potentials. Hypotonic solution | Isotonic solution ‘Hypertonic solution Enters the cells, No net movement Leaves the cells ae Become turgid” ‘No change es flaccid” | and plasmolysed"; | vacuoles shrink : | Vacuole | cytoplasm is pushed ‘gaint the cell wall cell membrane is SKS pulled away from the | also -flaceidh cell wall plasmolysed) In hypotonic solutions, plant cells gain water by osmosis. As plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall, the swelling of cytoplasm causes a pressure to build up on the cell wall which prevents further entry of water. Eventually, water will stop entering the cells. The cytoplasm is pushed against the cell wall and the cells are said to be turgid. On the other hand, in hypertonic solution, plant cells lose water by osmosis. The cytoplasm is no longer pushed against the cell wall. The cells are said to be flaccid. If water loss continues, the cell membrane will be pulled away from the cell wall, This phenomenon is called plasmolysis (Fig 3.15). Fig 3.15 (a) Normal plant cells and (b) plasmolysed plant cells (x400) flaccid Bhi plasmolysis BEEP ML turgid BIR 31s1 Cells and Molecules of Life lant cells are surrounded and press against one f the plants, e.g. keeping i I: When water supply to a plant is plentiful a by hypotonic solutions. The cells are turgi se ort o _—— © anothe Th i n ant doesnt have enough ater, the Te Sa ot suet the leaves stretching out. When a plant The leaves plants will be discussed in 3 il to press against one another. Bk 18, Ch 10. cells become flaccid and fail to “droop” (Fig 3.16). __p yyiyty desertion of the plat, water ‘When water supply is plentiful When the plant does not have enough =, Flaccid cells fail to press against each other and give ‘no support to the plant, Turgid calls press against each other to give support to the plant. Fig 3.16 How cell turgidity provides support to a plant —STSE comnections...._. Spring onion ‘flow Spring onion ‘oviers. for decorati need to cut put it into we ;o make, You just n ‘ing onion section and When the spring onion section is aut into water, water enters its cells by ‘osmosis. The cells increase in size, but the outer waxy layer of the spring onion prevents the cells in the outer layer from stretching, The cells in the inner layer expand more than those in the outer layer. As a result, the cut tips ofthe spring onion section curl outwards, and a spring onion ‘lower’ is formed, cells in inner layer ‘expand more \ waxy outer layer Fig 3.18 The cut tips curl outwards because the cells in the inner layer expand more Fig 3.17 A spring onion ‘fower droop BF 3-203 Movement of substances across cell membrane ( Study of osmosis at cellular level Practical @ Introduction Zebrina’ and Rhoeo discolour’ contain red pigments in their leaf epidermal cells @ Practical 3.3 ‘They are often used in the study of osmosis because the epidermal cells can ee be observed clearly under a microscope. Procedure exer A. Observe plant cells in a co: i ‘The forceps are very P ncentrated sucrose solution eee 1 Obtain a leaf of Zebrina or Rhoeo discolour. Prepare a temporary mount of -—_ with care. the lower epidermis of the leaf as shown, Tear the leaf diagonally. Peel Lay the piece of lower epidermis ‘Add a drop of concentrated off a small piece of the lower flat on a side. ‘sucrose solution and put a cover ‘epidermis ofthe leat slip on i. coverslip lower lower epidermis concentrated ‘sucrose solution 2 Wait for 3 minutes. Observe the lower epidermis with a microscope under high-power magnification, Draw a labelled high-power diagram of the cells. Observe plant cells in a less concentrated sucrose solution Using the same temporary mount in Part A, dilute the concentrated sucrose solution slowly with distilled water as shown below. [—add distilad water slowly at this side ‘raw dlstiled water slowly to the right by issue paper atthis side Observe the epidermis again, Draw a labelled high-power diagram of the cells. Observe plant cells in a very dilute sucrose solution 1 Using the same temporary mount in Part B, further dilute the sucrose solution with distilled water. Observe the epidermis again, Draw a labelled high-power diagram of the cells. Rhoeo discolour BABE Zebrina MH1 Cells and Molecules of Life Results and discussion ‘+ The appearances of Zebrina epidermal cells in different liquids are shown on the right. Fig 3.19 Zebrina epidermal cells in concentrated sucrose solution (lft) and very dilute sucrose solution (right) («100) ‘The concentrated sucrose solution is hypertonic to the epidermal cells. In this solution, the cells lose water by osmosis and become plasmolysed. Dilute sucrose solution is hypotonic to the epidermal cells. When the sucrose solution is slowly replaced by distilled water, the cells gain water by osmosis and become turgid again. Plasmolysis is usually reversible without causing permanent damage to the cell. Study of osmosis at tissue level Practical @ Introduction In this practical, we will study the changes in texture, length and mass of Practical 34 potato strips when they are immersed in distilled water and sucrose solutions ee of different concentrations. Procedure 1 Add 20 cm’ of distilled water, 10% sucrose solution and 20% sucrose solution into boiling tubes A1 to A3, B1 to B3 and C1 to C3 respectively 2 Prepare nine potato strips a: shown below. Peres Make nine potato strins Cut each strip to 5 om long The cork borer and with a core borer Ensure that no peet is lft knife are very sharp. - Handle them with con: bor care, potato rotato stip { \ sone Blot the sp super, Weigh them with an electron 3-223 Movement of substances across cell membrane 4 Put one potato strip into each boiling tube as shown below. Cover the tubes with plastic food wrap and leave them for 1 hour. In distilled water 110% sucrose solution _n 20% sucrose solution plastic G3 3 3 Det food Jarl Jaa). [aa eal cel Ico i | jer Joel caf Joe) foo I potato strip 5 Remove the strips from the boiling tubes, Blot each strip with tissue paper. Feel the texture of each strip and measure their length and mass immediately. 6 Calculate the percentage changes in length and mass for each strip. © The change in length or mass of the potato Percentage change _ final length initial length, 1999, strips can also be in length (%) initial length ‘expressed in the fis ratio of fina to initial Percentage change __final mass ~ initial mass_ 199, length or mass. in mass (%) initial mass Calculate the average values of the percentage changes in length and mass for the three strips in each solution. Results and discussion «The following table summarizes the changes in the potato tissues, In 10% sucrose | In 20% sucrose solution solution In distilled water | Change in texture | Become harder | No change Become softer Change in length | Become longer _—_| Change only slightly Become shorter Change in mass “| Become heavier _ | Change only slightly | Become lighter | listilled water, the potato strips become harder, longer and heavier. This shows that there is a vec movement of water into the cells by osmosis. Distilled water is hypotonic to the potato tissue. In 10% sucrose solution, the potato strips show no change in texture and change only slightly sn iength and mass. This shows that the net amount of water moving into or out of the cells by csmosis is very small, The 10% sucrose solution is nearly isotonic to the potato tissue. + In 20% sucrose solution, the potato strips become softer, shorter and lighter. This shows that there is a net movement of water out of the cells by osmosis. The 20% sucrose solution is hypertonic to the potato tissue. 3-23© Cutth Cells and Molecules of Life 'n an investigation, potato strips were immersed in boiling tubes containing sucrose solutions of different concentrations for one hour. The initial and final mass of the potato strips were measured and 2 graph was plotted using the results. The graph is shown below. SSS pepe wit Se 104- rato of final mass to initial mass t | 09 i : HEBRSEEEEEE 4 ft Ht | O 3 10 18 concentration of sucrose solution (%6) @ Using the graph, determine the water potential of the potato tissue in terms of sucrose solution concentration. (1 mark) | Determining water b Describe the texture of the potato strips after they were immersed in potentialiigern'= | 20% sucrose solution for one hour. Explain your answer. (4 marks) | fae (oa | ¢ State two modifications that can be made to the experiment so that the results can be obtained faster, (2 marks) Suggested answers _ a Water potential of the potato tissue equals that of 7% sucrose solution 1 b The mass of the strips decreased after they were immersed in 20% sucrose solution for one hour. 1 That means {here was 4 net loss of water from the potato strips. 1 The potato ca! became flaccid and failed to press against one © The term acce? another 1 should be used instead of ‘plasmolysis' here Plasmolysis' describes trips into several discs to increase the surface area for the separation of a «ell membrane from The potato str rne soft. osmos the cell wall. is not Immerse hs Lolling tubes into a water bath to increase the temerature ——Sufeent to explain the at which the experiment is carried out 1 teitiee SPtha tive,3 Movement of substances across cell membrane | Determining water potential from a graph ‘A net movement of water into or out of the potato strips would cause a change in mass of the strips. To determine the water potential of the potato tissue in terms of sucrose solution concentration, ‘we have to find the concentration of the solution in which the mass of potato strips remains unchanged after immersion, i.e. the ratio of final mass to initial mass equals 1 { EES ESSEREESESE i 2 Draw a horizontal ine from the wt y-axis untiit hits the graph line, 8 Draw a vertical line {rom the point on: ‘graph line down to th axis, Read the value con the axis, ratio of final mass to intial mass a9. 0 5 @) 1 15 ‘concentvation of sucrose solution (96) Pe RU a Ua od Secs LOU The graph below shows the percentage changes in the mass of sweet potato strips after they were immersed in salt solutions of different concentrations for one hour. percentage ‘change concentration of salt solution (M) ° vs TH t j HSS EH } Determine from the graph the water potential of the sweet potato tissue, in terms of salt concentration. (1: mark) rs a ] par ke #219 (p.37) 3-251 Cells and Molecules of Life wee fod 3. Importance of osmosis © Osmosis is the main mechanism by which water enters and leaves cells in all organisms. Cross-link © © Absorption of water in human intestines and absorption of water es Gels ae from the soil into plant roots are also carried out by osmosis. in plants will be discussed in Ch 6 and Bk 18, Ch 10 respectively. _STSE connections ———_—__ Preservation of food Growth of microorganisms on food may — cause food decay’. We can preserve" foods by immersing them in concentrated salt or sugar solutions (Fig 3.20). Since these solutions are hypertonic to the microorganisms, water is drawn out from the microorganisms by ‘osmosis, The microorganisms will die or stop 4g 3.20 Peaches preserved growing due to a lack of water. Fe ee eee sugar solution _Key learning 4 What is osmosis? + Osmosis is the net movement to 2 region of lower water potent 2 What happens to enimal cells and plant cells if the hypertonic solution? of water molecules from a region of higher water potential tial across a differentially permeable membrane. 1ey are put into a hypotonic, an isotonic or 2 Hypotonic solution _| Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution ‘higher water potential | (same water potential | (lower water potential than the cytoplasm) —_| as the cytoplasm) than the cytoplasm) [net mover Enters the cells No net movement eaves the cells of water Sa Change: i: tne Swell and may finally No change Shrink and become animat cells i wrinkled Changes in the | Become turgid No charge come figeaidfartd plant c=! plasmolysed; vacuoles shrink food decay RAEIR preserve HF 3-26‘Many people drink isotonic drinks after exercise. Visit the following website and learn mote about isotonic drinks, Discuss with your classmates the possible benefits of drinking isotonic drinks ‘hetpsfblog.hiddit.com! isotonic-for-triathion i 3. Movement of substances across cell membrane f Checkpoint Questions 1 and 2: State whether the statements are true or false. 11 When a cell is placed in a concentrated sucrose solution, sucrose solution enters the cell. F 7.18.19 ‘An animal cell shrinks when it is placed in a hypertonic solution. 7 p18 The diagrams below show the appearances of the cells in three pieces of leaf epidermis before and after they were immersed into solutions. Which piece of epidermis was likely to be immersed in a distilled water? X b dilute sucrose solution? © concentrated sucrose solution? Y #9 The appearances of three potato strips before and after they were immersed in three sucrose solutions (xX, Y and Z) are shown below. x Y Zi Before immersion | 0 aa am After immersion anbeed | ac = The water potentials of the solutions from the lowest to the highest are AXZY. BY,x,Z ©v2x. D ZY,Xx. 7.22.23 Im the set-up on the right, the weight of the dialysis tubing changed from 10 g to 11.2 g in 30 minutes. Which of the following may be X and Y? Taos x Y A. distilled water 59% sucrose solution ar B 5% sucrose solution 5% sucrose solution © 5% sucrose solution 10% sucrose solution (©) 10% sucrose solution distilled water 7.16.17 3-271 Cells and Molecules of Life 19014)98 dipusion oct0t¥y even HEF WHT Wreplaitne, (no energy weeded) Fig 3.21 shows the uptake of a particle into the cell as ‘an example. Substances can also be transported out of the cells by active transport active tvanspov t ay | Vv entvay Wigner lowe | 19 wer > hainagy Tes SS passe Se ‘Animation |3.3 a eqhange ¢ | Aale w Active transport 1 What is active transport? ©" pumpin, Swings We have learnt on p. 5 that in the cell membrane, there ardiearriey \PFOTIHS which help the transport of substances across the cell membrane, Some of these carrier proteins can help move substances from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration usinglenergy ‘The transport mechanism is called active transport (Fig 3.21). cartier protein ° lower ten 1 The particle binds to a carer protein. 2 The carrier protein 3 The particle is released on the other side of the membrane, Fig 3.21 Active transport P materials | additive substances Active transport is an active process. It requi The SiS yTSR active transport com . Therefore, active Cross-link The details of the will be discussed in Ch 6 Bk 18, Ch 10 respectively ojanide 4k transport occurs only in living cells. The cells with transport usually have a BighiFespiration|rate/and “mitochondria: » wwikodnondvig POURS EreIQy vy fespivotion Conditions that lower the rate of respiration would decrease the rate of active transport. Examples include Jowstemperature, 1OWlSXygei concentration andspresenee'Orehemicalsithatiinhibitrespiration’® (e.g. cyanide’) 2 Importance of active transport ¢ transport enables cells romtakeNipladteitionial eral fan cs which are already high in concentration in the cells, + wtive transport is involved in many processes in. organisms. les include ie, leg. 1) so acids) in the Stine, and th injoweals from these int plantlro..3 Movement of substances across cell membrane —Key learning. What is active transport? ‘© Active transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e. against the concentration gradient) using energy. Sueluytess= pagucrstsis (sulidA ) 1 What is phagocytosis? Diffusion, osmosis and active transport are mechanisms by which small molecules or ions are transported across the cell membrane. Sometimes + Phagocytosi paar “phage’ meone els also take in large particles. They do this by packaging the “eat’ and ‘ojto: means, particles into vacuoles formed from the cell membrane. This transport cal © mechanism is called phagocytosis (Fig 3.22) 1 ‘Tepes ot ase Pseudo = fake Sea surround the particle to be taken in. Pook «leg 2-Cell membrane peteitoe fuses to forma vacuole which encloses the pseudopodium” ‘cell membrane particle. >) How does the property Be e 2 Sr the call membrane Ca bin ) allow the cells to carry ‘out phagocytosis? o( Aloe cell ee \ 1 lls the 4 The digested wine ts Sreoteedieto cit vin TC ais alfans "OPED mvinnt {u fuse ansilaer to forma vacuules olurine & hag ucy tosis caeae Animation 3.4 Baga | PMago 3 The vactole i used with some other vacuoles whch contain ; digestive enzymes, The petite Video 3.3 ae ae Fig 3.22 Phagocytosis, Pseudopodium 42 32)sola Phagocytosis is carried out in certain types of c Fig 3.23 Amoeba fir . aos, food parties by phagocytosis (Fig 3.23). Phagocytosis is important for their nutrition, Phagocytosis Cells and Molecules of Life Phagocytosis is an active process. It requires energy. Energy is needed for changing the shape of the cell membrane, fusing the cell membrane and moving the vacuoles. 2 Importance of phagocytosis ells. For example: * Some unicellular organisms (e.g. Amoeba) engulf food particles by * Inhumans, certain types of white blood cells engulf harmful microorganisms by phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is important for body defence against diseases. —Key learning What is phagocytosis? ‘© Phagocytosis is the uptake of large particles into cells by packaging the particles into vacuoles formed from the cell membrane. _.____. Checkpoint 1 The table below shows a comparison of diffusion, osmosis, ative thon., ort and phagocytosis. Complete the table. (4 marks) ‘Movement of particles Pt e Diffusion _| Net movement of particles from a region of (a) o concentration to a region of (b) concentration Osmosis, Net movernent of water molecules from a region of © | (d) water potential to a region of (e) water potential active 7 Movement of substances across the cell membrane from a region | (i | transport | of @) ‘concentration to a region of (h) concentration Phagocytoss | Uptake of lage particles into the ces by packaging them into | @ vacuoles formed from the cell membrane | 497.13,15,28,293 Movement of substances across cell membrane t 2 Plants absorb ions such as nitrate and sulphate from the soil into the root hair cells in their roots The table below shows the concentrations of nitrate and sulphate in the root hair cells of a plant and in the soil fon | Concentration in the | Concentration in the Foot hair cells (ppm) —_| soil (ppm) Nitrate 20 000 1000 Sulphate | 1200 800 Which of the following are most likely to be the mechanisms by which the ions are absorbed? Nitrate Sulphate A diffusion diffusion B diffusion active transport C active transport diffusion D active transport active transport 7.13.28 Think about... (1) salty water has a lower water potential than the cytoplasm of the ce ‘Tioves out of the cells due to osmosis. Organisms may die due to ater loss, 2 Taking in salts reduces the water potential of the cytoplasm. This decreases the water potential gradient between the salty water and the cytoplasm. Therefore, less water moves out of the microorganisms by osmosis. Suggested answers to? P16 a 0.5% sucrose solution b solution with a water potential of ~300 kPa p.17 Affect the rate at which the liquid level rises: a, d and e Affect the final liquid level: b and e .18 The red blood cells may have different water potentials p19. The surrounding solution . 29 The fluidity of the cell membrane allows the cell membrane to change shape, forming pseudopodia. It also allows the cell membrane to fuse with one another to form vacuoles during phagocytosis. Suggested answer to N@S ideas p.7 abandc