MOC Low Volume Rural Road

Republic of the Union of Myanmar
Low Volume Rural Road

Design Manual
Ministry of Construction
Department of Rural Road Development
2020
Foreword
Low Volume Rural Roads (LVRR)s provide important links from homes, villages and farms to markets and offer the
public access to health, education and other essential services. These roads also provide important links between rural
communities and the main Myanmar road network.
There is a wealth of local and international information, experience and research that when utilised, can change past
practices and thinking and provide Myanmar with an enhanced and affordable rural road network. To benefit fully
from these advances and to see necessary improvements implemented on the ground, the Ministry of Construction,
Department of Rural Road Development (DRRD) has in partnership with the UKAID-Funded ReCAP initiative
commissioned this comprehensive national road design manual specifically for low volume roads.
Compilation of the documents was undertaken by H.P. Gauff Ingenieure GmbH & Co. KG -JBG- in close cooperation
with technical specialists from DRRD and with the key input from representatives from the Ministry of Construction,
other key ministries, local industry, national and local authorities and other relevant road projects funded by World
Bank, ADB, KfW and JICA. Local experience was a vital component on the geometric, earthwork, drainage, pavement
and safety issues for this volume.
This Manual has been structured in such a way that it can be easily updated and, in this context, can be considered a
living document to be amended and improved as additional key research, information and experience becomes
available.
On behalf of the Ministry of Construction and DRRD I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Department for
International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom, the ReCAP/AsCAP team for support in the development of
the Myanmar Low Volume Rural Roads Design Manual. I would also like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to
all of the industry stakeholders and participants who contributed their time, knowledge and effort during the
development of the documents.
I trust that the Myanmar Low Volume Rural Roads manual will provide the essential information needed to guide our
road asset managers and design engineers in the provision of an appropriate and sustainable rural road network.
His Excellency Han Zaw
Minister of Construction
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar i

Preface
Purpose
The purpose of the Manual is to serve as a nationally recognised document, the application of which is deemed to
serve as a standard reference and ready source of good practice for the planning, investigation, design and
construction of low volume rural roads (LVRR)s in Myanmar. In so doing, it will assist practitioners in developing the
country’s LVRR network in a cost effective, environmentally optimized and sustainable manner and hence support the
Myanmar Government’s objectives for rural development as defined in the National Strategy for Rural Roads and
Access.
This Design Manual provides practical guidance to roads practitioners responsible for the design of low traffic earth,
gravel or paved roads throughout Myanmar. The Manual has been drafted to be fully adaptable for use by different
stakeholders, at national, state, township and local level administered by authorities, enterprises or communities.
How To Use This Manual
This manual is designed to help you locate information quickly and easily. Each Chapter contains the following
information:
SECTION A: KEY PRINCIPLES Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Policy, Standards and Specifications
Chapter 3 The Approach to LVRR Design
Chapter 4 Myanmar Road Environments
SECTION B: DESIGN Chapter 5 Ground Investigations

Chapter 6 Geometric Design
Chapter 7 Surfacing and Pavement Design
Chapter 8 Construction Materials
Chapter 9 Cross Drainage and Small Structures
Chapter 10 Earthworks
Chapter 11 Design Process
SECTION C: IMPLEMENTATION Chapter 12 Construction

Chapter 13 Asset Management
Chapter 14 Technical Audit
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar ii

Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the contribution of the AsCAP partner DRRD and particularly the staff in the district and
state offices of DRRD, project consultant staff of Rural Road and Access Project and Rural Development Program RRAP
and RDP for all their assistance and sharing of information. We further thank all stakeholder organisations and
development cooperation partners for their time and information shared.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar iii

Abbreviations and Acronyms
$ United States Dollar (US$ 1.00 ≈ provide conversion to local currencies)
£ GBP – Great Britain Pounds (£ 1.00 ≈ MK 2,024.0)

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
ADT Average Daily Traffic
ARRB Australian Road Research Board
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ADB Asian Development Bank
AfCAP Africa Community Access Partnership
AfDB African Development Bank
AFNOR Association Française de Normalisation
ARI Average Return Interval
AsCAP Asia Community Access Partnership
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BMMS Bridge Maintenance Management System
BoQ Bill of Quantities
CPT Cone Penetration Test (“Dutch” Cone)
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CRD Central Road Database
CRRN Core Rural Road Network
CS Cape Seal
DBM Dry-Bound Macadam
DBST Double Bitumen Surface Treatment
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DCS Double Chip Seal
DDG Deputy Director General
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DFID Department for International Development
DG Director General
DoLIDAR Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads
DPBANRD Department of Progress of Border Areas and National Races Development
DRD Department of Rural Development (DOALI)
DRRD Department of Rural Road Development (MoC)
DOB Department of Bridges (MoC)
DOH Department of Highways (MoC)
DOS Double Otta Seal
DOT Department of Transportation
ECD Environmental Conservation Department
EOD Environmentally Optimised Design
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar iv

EHP Eastern Highland Province
EHS Environmental Health and Safety
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ENS Engineered Natural Surface
EOD Environmentally Optimised Design
esa equivalent standard axles
FED Final Engineering Design
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMS Flood Management System
FS Feasibility Study
GIS Geographical Information System
GM Grading Modulus
GoM Government of Myanmar
GPS Global positioning system
GWC Gravel Wearing Course
HPS Hand-Packed Stone
IDF Intensity Duration Frequency
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IFC International Finance Corporation
IFI International Finance Institute
IMT Intermediate Transport
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (German Development Bank)
LIC Lower Income Country
LVR Low Volume Road
LVRR Low Volume Rural Road
LVRRDM Low Volume Rural Road Design Manual
LWC Low-Water Crossing
masl meter above sea level
MCEA Myanmar Construction Entrepreneur Association
MES Myanmar Engineering Society
mesa million equivalent standard axles
MLDM Myanmar LVRR Design Manual
MOALI Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation
MOBA Ministry of Border Affairs
MoC Ministry of Construction
MOECAF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry
MONREC Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental
NASA National Space Agency (USA)
NCDDP National Community Driven Development Project
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar v

NCDP National Comprehensive Development Plan
NEQG National Environmental Quality Guidelines
NMT Non-Motorised Traffic
NRC Non-reinforced Concrete
NSRRA National Strategy for Rural Road and Access
ORN Overseas Road Note
PCU Passenger Carrier Unit
PED Preliminary Engineering Design
PFS Pre-Feasibility
PMMS Pavement Maintenance Management System
PMU Project Management Unit
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
RAI Rural Access Index
RAMS Road Asset Management System
RDU Research and Development Unit
ReCAP Research for Community Access Partnership
RFP Request for Proposal
RMMS Routine Maintenance Management System
RRAP Rural Road and Access Project (DRRD with ADB funding)
RTS Road Transport Services
SBL Sand Bedding Layer
SAD Self-administered division
SADC Southern African Development Committee
SANRAL South African National Roads Agency
SAZ Self-administered zone
SCS Single Chip Seal
SBST Single Bituminous Surface Treatment
SDAC Standards of Decision-Making Across Cultures
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SE Super-Elevation
SEACAP Sustainable Energy Access and Climate Action Plan
SlS Slurry Seal
SME Small or Medium Enterprise
SMS Safety Management System
SOS Single Otta Seal
SPT Standard Penetration Testing
SS Sand Seal
STRM Security Threat Response Manager (software)
SuM4ALL Sustainable Mobility for All
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar vi

TAM Technical Audit Team
TDC Township Development Committee
TL Team Leader
ToR Terms of Reference
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
UCS Unconfined Compression Test
UK United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
UKAid United Kingdom Aid (Department for International Development, UK)
USAid United States Agency for International Development
VAR Vent-Area Ratio
VDC Village Development Committee
VOC Vehicle Operating Costs
VEF Vehicle Electric Flow
WB World Bank
WBM Water-Bound Macadam
WFB Western Fold Belt
WHO World Health Organisation
WLAC Whole Life Asset Cost
WLC Whole-Life Cost
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar vii

Manual Updates
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to new policies or revised laws of the
land or that are mandated by the relevant national or state Ministry or Agency should be incorporated into the
manual from their date of effectiveness.
Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the manual may be accumulated and made
periodically. When changes are made and approved, new page(s) incorporating the revision, together with the
revision date, will be issued and inserted into the relevant chapter.
The road sector is encouraged to not only to put into practice this initial version of the Myanmar Low Volume Roads
Manual but to feed back to the MoC Director any suggestions for future updates.
Ministry of Construction, Department of Rural Road Development

LVRR Manual: Change Control
MANUAL UPDATE To be completed by DRRD
Chapter Change Number
Section Explanation Modification

Table
Figure
Page
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar viii

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
Aggregate (for construction)

A broad category of particulate material including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag and recycled material that forms a
component of composite materials such as concrete and pre-mix asphalt.
Apron
The flat invert of the culvert inlet or outlet.
Asphalt
A mixture of inert mineral matter, such as aggregate, mineral filler (if required) and bituminous binder in
predetermined proportions (sometimes referred to as Asphaltic Concrete or Asphalt Concrete). Usually pre-mixed in a
plant before transport to site to be laid and compacted. Expensive and usually only used on main roads. Also used as
an alternative term for Bitumen in some regions, and may be a petroleum processing product or naturally occurring in
deposits.
Atterberg Limits
Basic measures of the nature of fine-grained soils which identify the boundaries between the solid, semi- solid, plastic
and liquid states.
Basin
A structure at a culvert inlet or outlet to contain turbulence and prevent erosion.
Berm
A low ridge or bund of soil to collect or redirect surface water.
Binder, Bituminous
Any bitumen based material used in road construction to bind together or to seal aggregate or soil particles.
Binder, Modified
Bitumen based material modified by the addition of compounds to enhance performance. Examples of modifiers are
polymers, such as PVC, and natural or synthetic rubbers.
Bitumen
A non-crystalline solid or viscous mixture of complex hydrocarbons that possesses characteristic agglomerating
properties, softens gradually when heated, is substantially soluble in trichlorethylene and is usually obtained from
crude petroleum by refining processes. Referred to as Asphalt in some regions.
Bitumen, Cutback
A liquid bitumen product obtained by blending penetration grade bitumen with a volatile solvent to produce rapid
curing (RC) or medium curing (MC) cutbacks, depending on the volatility of the solvent used. After evaporation of the
solvent, the properties of the original penetration grade bitumen become operative.
Bitumen, Penetration Grade

That fraction of the crude petroleum remaining after the refining processes which is solid or near solid at normal air
temperature and which has been blended or further processed to products of varying hardness or viscosity.
Bitumen emulsion
A mixture of bitumen and water with the addition of an emulsifier or emulsifying agent to ensure stability.
Conventional bitumen emulsion most commonly used in road works has the bitumen dispersed in the water. An
invert bitumen emulsion has the water dispersed in the bitumen. In the former, the bitumen is the dispersed phase
and the water is the continuous phase. In the latter, the water is the dispersed phase and the bitumen is the
continuous phase. The bitumen is sometimes fluxed to lower its viscosity by the addition of a suitable solvent.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar ix

Bitumen Emulsion, Anionic
An emulsion where the emulsifier is an alkaline organic salt. The bitumen globules carry a negative electrostatic
charge.
Bitumen Emulsion, Cationic

An emulsion where the emulsifier is an acidic organic salt. The bitumen globules carry a positive electrostatic charge.
Bitumen Emulsion Grades

Premix grade: An emulsion formulated to be more stable than spray grade emulsion and suitable for mixing
with medium or coarse graded aggregate with the amount smaller than 0.075mm not
exceeding 2%.
Quick setting grade: An emulsion specially formulated for use with fine slurry seal type aggregates, where quick
setting of the mixture is desired.
Spray grade: An emulsion formulated for application by mechanical spray equipment in chip seal
construction where no mixing with aggregate is required.
Stable mix grade: An emulsion formulated for mixing with very fine aggregates, sand and crusher dust. Mainly
used for slow-setting slurry seals and tack coats.
Black Cotton Soil

An expansive clay found widely in the North East of the country that expands and loses most of its strength when
wetted.
Blinding
(a) A layer of lean concrete, usually 5 to 10 cm thick, placed on soil to seal it and provide a clean and level working
surface to build the foundations of a wall, or any other structure.
(b) An application of fine material e.g. sand, to fill voids in the surface of a pavement or earthworks layer.
Brick (fired clay)

A hard durable block of material formed from burning (firing) clay at high temperature.
Bridge
A structure usually with a span of 5 metres or more, providing a means of crossing above water, a railway or another
obstruction, whether natural or artificial. A bridge consists of abutments, deck and sometimes wingwalls and piers, or
maybe an arch.
Camber
The road surface is normally shaped to fall away from the centre line to either side. The camber is necessary to shed
rain water and reduce the risk of passing vehicles colliding. The slope of the camber is called the Crossfall. On sharp
bends the road surface should fall directly from the outside of the bend to the inside (superelevation).
Cape Seal
A multiple bituminous surface treatment that consists of a single application of binder and stone followed by one or
two applications of slurry.
Carriageway
The road pavement or bridge deck surface on which vehicles travel.
Cascade
A drainage channel with a series of steps, sometimes with intermediate silt traps or ponds, to take water down a
steep slope.
Catchpit
A manhole or open structure with a sump to collect silt.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar x

Catchwater Drain
See Cut-off.
Causeway or Vented Drift

Low level structure constructed across streams or rivers with openings to permit water to pass below road level. The
causeway may become submerged in flood conditions.
Cement (for construction)

A dry powder which on the addition of water (and sometimes other additives), hardens and sets independently to
bind aggregates together to produce concrete. Cement can also be used to stabilise certain types of soil. Cement is
also sometimes used as a fine filler in bituminous mixes.
Chippings
Clean, strong, durable pieces of stone made by crushing or napping rock. The chippings are usually screened to obtain
material in a small size range.
Chip Seal, Single

An application of bituminous binder followed by a layer of stone or clean sand. The stone is sometimes covered with a
fog spray.
Chip Seal, Double

An application of bituminous binder and stone followed by a second application of binder and stone or sand. The
second seal usually uses a smaller aggregate size to help key the layers together. A fog spray is sometimes applied on
the second layer of aggregate.
Chute
An inclined pipe, drain or channel constructed in or on a slope.
Cobble Stone (Dressed stone)

Cubic pieces of stone larger than setts, usually shaped by hand and built into a road surface layer or surface
protection.
Coffer Dam
A temporary dam built above the ground to give access to an area which is normally, or has a risk of being, submerged
or waterlogged. Cofferdams may be constructed of soil, sandbags or sheet-piles.
Collapsible soil
Soil that undergoes a significant, sudden and irreversible decrease in volume upon wetting.
Compaction
Reduction in bulk of fill or other material by rolling or tamping.
Complimentary Interventions
Actions or initiatives that are implemented through a roads project which are targeted toward the communities that
lie within the influence corridor of the road and are intended to optimise the benefits brought by the road and to
extend the positive and mitigate the negative impacts of the project.
Concrete
A construction material composed of cement (most commonly Portland cement, but occasionally using other available
cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement), aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel or
crushed stone plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, (and sometimes chemical admixtures to improve
performance or for special applications).
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xi

Concrete Block Paving
A course of interlocking or rectangular concrete blocks placed on a suitable base course and bedded and normally
jointed with sand.
Counterfort Drain
A drain running down a slope and excavated into it. The excavation is partly or completely filled with free draining
material to allow ground water to escape.
Cribwork
Timber or reinforced concrete beams laid in an interlocking grid, and filled with soil to form a retaining wall.
Crossfall
See Camber
Crushed Stone
A form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock
down to the desired size using mechanical crushers, or manually using hammers.
Curing
The process of keeping freshly laid/placed concrete moist to prevent excessive evaporation with attendant risk of loss
of strength or cracking. Similarly with cement or lime stabilised layers, the measures to minimise moisture loss during
the initial period of strength development.
Cut-off/Catchwater Drain
A ditch constructed uphill from a cutting face to intercept surface water flowing towards the road.
Debris Rack or Grill

Grill, grid or post structure located near a culvert entrance to hold back floating debris too large to pass through the
culvert.
Deck
The part of a bridge that spans between abutments or pier supports, and carries the road traffic.
Design speed
The assessed maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of road when conditions are so
favourable that the design features of the road govern the speed.
Dispersive soil
Soil in which the clay particles detach from each other and from the soil structure in the presence of water and go into
suspension.
Distributor
A vehicle or towed apparatus comprising an insulated tank, usually with heating and circulating facilities, and a spray
bar capable of applying a thin, uniform and predetermined layer of binder. The equipment may also be fitted with a
hand lance for manual spraying.
Ditch (Drain)
A long narrow excavation designed or intended to collect and drain off surface water.
Drainage
Interception and removal of ground water and surface water by artificial or natural means.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xii

Drainage Pipe
An underground pipe to carry water.
Dressed Stone
See Cobble Stone
Drift or Ford
A stream or river crossing at bed level over which the stream or river water can flow.
Dry-bound Macadam
A pavement layer constructed where the voids in a large single-sized stone skeleton are filled with a fine sand,
vibrated in with suitable compaction equipment.
Earth Road
See ENS.
Embankment
Constructed earthworks below the pavement raising the road above the surrounding natural ground level.
ENS (Engineered Natural Surface)

An earth road built from the soil in place at the road location, and provided with a camber and drainage system
Expansive soil
Typically clayey soil that undergoes large volume changes in direct response to moisture changes.
Filler
Mineral matter composed of particles smaller than 0.075mm.
Flow Spreader
A structure designed to disperse the flow at the outfall of a ditch or drain to minimise the risk of erosion downstream.
Fog Spray/Seal
A light application of diluted bitumen emulsion to the final layer of stone of a reseal or chip seal, or to an existing
bituminous surfacing as a rejuvenating maintenance treatment.
Ford
See Drift
Formation
The shaped surface of the earthworks, or subgrade, before constructing the pavement layers.
Gabion
Stone-filled wire or steel mesh cage. Gabions are often used as retaining walls or river bank/bed scour protection
structures.
Geocells
Typical cellular confinement systems are made with ultrasonically-welded high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or Novel
Polymeric Alloy strips that are expanded on-site to form a honeycomb-like structure which may be filled with sand,
soil, rock or concrete. Used in construction for erosion control, soil stabilisation on flat ground and steep slopes,
channel protection, and structural reinforcement for load support and earth retention.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xiii

Gravel (Construction Material)
A naturally-occurring, weathered or naturally transported rock within a specific coarse particle size range. Gravel is
typically used as a pavement layer in its natural or modified condition, or as a road surface wearing course. Suitable
gravel may also be used in a graded gravel seal in appropriate circumstances.
Hand Packed Stone

A layer of large, angular broken stones laid by hand with smaller stones or gravel rammed into the spaces between
stones to form a road surface layer.
Incremental paving
Road surface comprising small blocks such as shaped stone (setts) or bricks, jointed with sand or mortar.
Intermediate Equipment
Simple or intermediate equipment, designed for low initial and operating costs, durability and ease of maintenance
and repair in the conditions typical of a limited-resource environment, rather than for high theoretical efficiency. It is
preferable if the equipment can also be manufactured or fabricated locally/regionally.
Invert
The lowest point of the internal cross-section of a ditch, pipe or culvert.
Labour Based Construction

Economically efficient employment of as great a proportion of labour as is technically feasible throughout the
construction process to produce the standard of construction as demanded by the specification and allowed by the
available funding
Labour Intensive Construction

Works using large numbers of labourers with the prime objective of creating temporary or permanent employment,
often with achieving sustainable and durable infrastructure as a secondary concern.
Layby
An area adjacent to the road for the temporary parking of vehicles.
Lime
Lime in a material derived from the burning of limestone or chalk. It is normally obtainable in its ‘hydrated’ form
(slaked) as Calcium Hydroxide. It can be used for the drying, improvement and stabilisation of suitable soils, as an anti-
stripping agent in the production of bituminous mixes and as a binder in masonry or brick work mortars.
Local Resources
These can be human resources, local government, private, NGO, and community institutions, local entrepreneurs such
as contractors, consultants, industrialists and artisans, local skills, locally made or fabricated intermediate equipment,
local materials such as local produced aggregates, bricks, timber and marginal materials, locally raised finance or
provision of materials or services in kind.
Local Resource Based Road Works aim to deliver the maximum benefits to local communities and development.
Low Volume Road

Roads carrying less than 300 motor vehicles per day and up to approximately 1 million equivalent standard axles over
their design life.
Macadam
A mixture of broken or crushed stone of various sizes (usually less than 3cm) laid to form a road surface layer. Bitumen
macadam uses a bituminous binder to hold the material together. Tarmacadam uses tar for the same purposes.
Bound macadams are usually expensive for use on LVR.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xiv

Manhole
Accessible pit with a cover forming part of the drainage system and permitting inspection and maintenance of
underground drainage pipes.
Margins
The right of way or land area maintained or owned by the road authority or owner.
Mitre Drain (Turn Out Drain)

A drain that leads water away from the Side Drains to the adjoining land.
Otta Seal
A carpet of graded (natural gravel or crushed rock) aggregate spread over a freshly sprayed hot bituminous ‘soft’ (low
viscosity) binder and rolled in with heavy roller.
Outfall
Discharge end of a ditch or culvert.
Parapet
The protective edge, barrier, wall or railing at the edge of a bridge deck.
Pavé
See Sett
Paved Road
A paved road is a road with a Stone, Bituminous, Brick or Concrete surfacing.
Pavement
The constructed layers of the road on which vehicles travel.
Penetration Macadam
A pavement layer made from one or more applications of coarse, open-graded aggregate (crushed stone, slag, or
gravel) followed by the spray application of bituminous binder. Usually comprising two or three applications of stone
each of decreasing particle size, each grouted into the previous application before compaction of the completed layer.
Permeable Soils
Soils through which water will drain easily e.g. sandy soils. Clays are generally impermeable except when cracked or
fissured (e.g. ‘Black Cotton’ soil in dry weather).
Prime Coat
A coat of suitable bituminous binder applied to a non-bituminous granular pavement layer as a preliminary treatment
before the application of a bituminous base or surfacing. While adhesion between this layer and the bituminous base
or surfacing may be promoted, the primary function of the prime coat is to assist in sealing the surface voids and bind
the aggregate near the surface of the layer. Not to be confused with Tack Coat.
Reinforced Concrete
A mixture of coarse and fine stone aggregate bound with cement and water and reinforced with steel rods or mesh for
added strength.
Reseal
A surface treatment applied to an existing bituminous surface.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xv

Rejuvenator
A material which may range from a soft bitumen to petroleum which, when applied to reclaimed asphalt or to existing
bituminous surfacing, has the ability to soften aged, hard, brittle binders.
Riprap
Stones, usually between 5 to 50 kg, used to protect the banks or bed of a river or watercourse from scour.
Roadbase and Sub-base

Pavement courses between surfacing and subgrade.
Road Maintenance
Suitable regular and occasional activities to keep pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities and all other
structures and property within the road margins as near as possible to their constructed or renewed condition.
Maintenance includes minor repairs and improvements to eliminate the cause of defects and avoid excessive
repetition of maintenance efforts.
Roadway
The portion within the road margins, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
Scarifying
The systematic disruption and loosening of the top of a road or layer surface by mechanical or other means.
Scour -Defect:
Erosion of a channel bed area by water in motion, producing a deepening or widening of the channel.
Scour Checks
Small checks in a ditch or drain to reduce water velocity and reduce the possibility of erosion.
Scuppers
Drainage pipes or outlets in a bridge deck.
Seal
A term frequently used instead of “reseal” or “surface treatment”. Also used in the context of “double seal”, and
“sand seal” where sand is used instead of stone.
Selected layers
Pavement layers of imported selected gravel or soil materials used to bring the subgrade support properties up to the
required structural standard for placing the sub-base or road base layer.
Sett (Pavé)
A small piece of hard stone trimmed by hand to a size of about 10cm cube used as a paving unit.
Shoulder
Paved or unpaved part of the roadway next to the outer edge of the pavement. The shoulder provides side support for
the pavement and allows vehicles to stop or pass in an emergency.
Site Investigation
Collection of essential information on the soil and rock characteristics, topography, land use, natural environment,
and socio-political environment necessary for the location, design and construction of a road.
Slope
A natural or artificially constructed soil surface at an angle to the horizontal.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xvi

Slurry
A mix of suitably graded fine aggregate, cement or hydrated lime, bitumen emulsion and water, used for filling the
voids in the final layer of stone of a new surface treatment or as a maintenance treatment (also referred to as a slurry
seal).
Slurrybound Macadam
A surfacing or pavement layer constructed where the voids in single-sized stone skeleton are filled using bituminous
slurry.
Sods
Turf but with more soil attached (usually more than 10 cms soil thickness).
Soffit
The highest point in the internal cross-section of a culvert, or the underside of a bridge deck.
Spray Lance
Apparatus permitting hand-application of bituminous binder at a desired rate of spread through a nozzle.
Squeegee
A small wooden or metal board with a handle for spreading bituminous mixtures by hand.
Stringer
Longitudinal beam in a bridge deck or structure.
Sub-base
See Roadbase.
Subgrade
The native material or earthworks formation underneath a constructed road pavement.
Sub-Soil Drainage
See Underdrainage.
Surface Dressing
A sprayed or hand applied film of bitumen followed by the application of a layer of stone chippings, which is then
lightly rolled.
Surface Treatment
A general term incorporating chip seals, slurry seals, micro surfacing, or fog sprays.
Surfacing
The road layer with which traffic tyres make direct contact. Consists of wearing course, and sometimes a base course
or binder course.
Tack Coat
A coat of bituminous binder applied to a primed layer or to an existing bituminous surface as a preliminary treatment
to promote adhesion between the existing surface and a subsequently applied bituminous layer.
Tar Binder
A binder made from processing coal.
Template
A thin board or timber pattern used to check the shape of an excavation.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xvii

Traffic Lane
The portion of the carriageway usually defined by road markings for the movement of a single line of vehicles.
Transverse Joint
Joint normal to, or at an angle to, the road centre line.
Turf
A grass turf is formed by excavating an area of live grass and lifting the grass complete with about 5 cm of topsoil and
roots still attached.
Turn Out Drain

See Mitre Drain.
Underdrainage (Sub-Soil Drainage)

System of pervious pipes or free draining material, designed to collect and carry water in the ground.
Unpaved Road
A road with a soil or gravel surface.
Vented Drift
See Causeway.
Waterbound Macadam
A pavement layer constructed where the voids in a large single-sized stone skeleton are filled with a fine sand, washed
in by the application of water.
Wearing Course
The upper layer of a road pavement on which the traffic runs and is expected to wear under the action of traffic. This
applies to gravel and bituminous surfaces.
Weephole
Opening provided in retaining walls or bridge abutments to permit drainage of water in the filter layer or soil layer
behind the structure. Weepholes prevent water pressure building up behind the structure.
Windrow
A ridge of material formed by the spillage from the end of the machine blade or continuous heap of material formed
by labour.
Wingwall
Retaining wall at a bridge abutment to retain and protect the embankment fills behind the abutment.
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xviii

SECTION A: KEY PRINCIPLES
SECTION A : KEY PRINCIPLES
Contents
SECTION A: KEY PRINCIPLES ......................................................................................................................................... i
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Concept Framework ........................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Manual Aims and Target Audience ..................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 Structure and Layout of Manual ......................................................................................................................... 1-2
2 Policy, Standards and Specifications ................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.2 Classification, Standards and Specifications ....................................................................................................... 2-1
2.3 Myanmar National Policy and Strategy for Rural Roads..................................................................................... 2-3
2.4 Existing LVRR Classification, Standards and Specifications in Myanmar ............................................................ 2-4
2.5 Myanmar Environmental Policy, Regulations and Standards ............................................................................. 2-6
2.6 Complementary Intervention Measures ............................................................................................................ 2-8
3 The Approach to LVRR Design .......................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 A different approach .......................................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.3 Design Approaches within the LVRR Life-Cycle Roadmap .................................................................................. 3-5
4 Myanmar Road Environments.......................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 4-1
4.2 General Myanmar Physical Setting ..................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 Regional Design Issues ........................................................................................................................................ 4-6
Tables
Table 1.1 Manual Structure and Content .................................................................................................................. 1-3
Table 2.1 Typical LVRR Technical Specification Groups ............................................................................................. 2-2
Table 2.2 Summary of Key Aspects of the Current Myanmar LVRR Divisions ........................................................... 2-5
Table 2.3 Summary of Environmental Policy, Regulations and Laws of Myanmar.................................................... 2-7
Table 3.1 Road Engineering Environment Impact Factors......................................................................................... 3-3
Table 3.2 Road Enabling Environment Factors .......................................................................................................... 3-4
Table 3.3 Climate change Impacts ............................................................................................................................. 3-9
Table 3.4 Key Sustainability Issues .......................................................................................................................... 3-10
Table 4.1 Myanmar Physical Setting .......................................................................................................................... 4-1
Table 4.2 General Geology and Sub-grade variability ............................................................................................... 4-6
Table 4.3 Mountain Zone Design Issues .................................................................................................................... 4-7
Table 4.4 Dry Zone Design Issues .............................................................................................................................. 4-8
Table 4.5 Coastal Zone Design Issues ........................................................................................................................ 4-9

Figures
Figure 2.1 The Links to Fit for Purpose LVRRs ............................................................................................................. 2-3
Figure 2.2 Illustration of Broad 3-Fold NSRAA Classification ...................................................................................... 2-5
Figure 3.1 Design Traffic and Environment Impacts on LVRRs ................................................................................... 3-1
Figure 3.2 Factors Governing Sustainable LVRR Design.............................................................................................. 3-2
Figure 3.3 Road Environment and Impact Factors, Cook et al (2013) ........................................................................ 3-4
Figure 3.4 Illustration of the EOD or Spot Improvement Option ................................................................................ 3-5
Figure 3.5 Project Life Cycle ........................................................................................................................................ 3-6
Figure 3.6 Activities in Project Cycle Phases leading to Construction ........................................................................ 3-7
Figure 4.1 Average Monthly Temperature and Rainfall for Myanmar 1901-2016 ..................................................... 4-1
Figure 4.2 Myanmar Rainfall Variations...................................................................................................................... 4-2
Figure 4.3 2016 Regional Climate Variations .............................................................................................................. 4-3
Figure 4.4 Myanmar Rock Types (Myanmar Geoscience Society, 2014) .................................................................... 4-4
Figure 4.5 Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar ................................................................................................................. 4-5
Figure 4.6 Myanmar’s Regions & Zones Myanmar ..................................................................................................... 4-6

1 Introduction
1.1 Concept Framework

This Manual aims to synthesise in clear manner the key elements of current knowledge and experience to
facilitate the application of best practice in improving Myanmar rural transport infrastructure in an
affordable, sustainable and manageable way.
This chapter presents the background and aims of the Manual and outlines its structure. The Manual is
introduced as providing practical guidance on the rational, appropriate and affordable designing of low
volume rural roads in Myanmar that are compatible Rural Development Policy and the differing regional
physical environments. There is an emphasis on the sustainable use of local resources and appropriate
standards in an overall “Fit for Purpose” framework.
Poverty reduction has become the overarching goal for development that is shared by most international
development agencies and their partners and member countries of the United Nations have agreed to work
together to achieve the ‘Sustainable Development Goals’ (SDGs). It is an established maxim that effective
transportation plays a crucial role in rural socio-economic development and in reducing poverty. Analysis
has highlighted evidence that safe, effective rural transport will contribute substantially to more than half
of the currently adopted SDGs (Engineers against Poverty 2016, Hine 2014 and Howe 1998).
SDG 1 to alleviate poverty;

SDG 2 to achieve zero hunger and ensure food security;
SDG 3 to ensure health and wellbeing;
SDG 4 to provide access to education;
SDG 5 to empower women in rural areas;
SDG 6 to facilitate access to clean water and sanitation;
SDG 8 to promote inclusive growth and economic opportunities;
SDG 9 and SDG 11 to contribute to sustainable infrastructure and communities for all;
SDG 13 to increase climate resilience and adaptation in rural areas.
In addition to indirect linkages to SDGs and associated targets, there is a direct linkage to rural access in
SDG indicator 9.1.1 (Proportion of the rural population who live within 2 km of an all-season road)
developed by the Inter-agency Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goals (ReCAP, 2018). The
continued development of rural road networks in an affordable and sustainable way is increasingly
important in order to provide cost-effective transport infrastructure, with the SDG aim to ‘leave no one
behind’ (SuM4All 2017, 2019).
The Government of Myanmar considers improved rural roads to be a key to developing rural areas and
addressing rural poverty and inequalities in the country in line with the SDGs. Although there is no
dedicated SDG target on rural transport, there are numerous linkages between rural access and the SDGs
(Cook et al, 2017).
Hence, the long-term development objective of the Government of Myanmar (GoM) is to provide all-
season access to all villages in Myanmar. In support of this long-term development objective, the National
Strategy for Rural Roads and Access targets the next 15 years (up to 2030), during which the Government
of Myanmar aims to provide all-season road access to at least 80% of the villages in each state/region in
Myanmar (GoM, 2017).
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 1-1

1.2 Manual Aims and Target Audience

This Low Volume Rural Roads Design Manual provides guidance on the rational, appropriate and affordable
design and construction for low volume rural roads. In doing so it aims at making cost effective and
sustainable use of local resources. The concept of local resources encompasses human resources, local
government, and community institutions, local entrepreneurs, local technology and local materials.
The Manual reflects advances in low volume road technology gained in the region and elsewhere allied to
accumulated local knowledge within DRRD and MoC (MC, 2015; Gourley et al, 2003; SEACAP, 2009; AfCAP,
2012; ReCAP 2016, 2018).
The application of appropriate design approaches for low volume roads in Myanmar aims to optimise
whole service life construction and maintenance costs and meet requirements to:
 Improve the economic and social well-being of rural communities and their connectivity and access to
social and other services;
 Develop the rural road network in a cost-effective and sustainable way;
 Lower road user costs and promote socio-economic development, poverty reduction, trade growth and
wealth creation in rural areas;
 Protect and manage non-renewable natural resources and reduce import dependency.
This Manual is intended for use by roads practitioners responsible for the design of low traffic earth, gravel
or paved roads throughout Myanmar. The main volume is appropriate for roads which, over their design
life, are required to carry an average of up to about 300 equivalent ADT, and less than about 1.0 million
equivalent standard axles (Mesa). An Annex to the main volume deals with an extension to 750 ADT and
provides a link to guidance on higher volume rural roads. The Manual complements and links to the latest
versions of other existing Myanmar reference documents relevant to LVRRs.
The Manual has been drafted to be fully adaptable for use by different stakeholders, at national, state,
township and local level administered by authorities, enterprises or communities.
The document can cater for interventions that deal with individual critical areas on a road link (spot
improvements) through to providing total rural road link designs.
1.3 Structure and Layout of Manual

The Manual is considered a Living Document that should be updated periodically as fresh information
comes to light and new lessons are learnt from practical experience and ongoing research. Consequently,
the hard copy has been produced in a format whereby individual chapters or annexes may be updated or
replaced. The up-to date electronic version is held on, and can be downloaded from the DRRD/MoC
website.
The current structure of the Manual comprises 3 principal Sections, 14 Chapters and a number of Annexes,
as is summarised in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Manual Structure and Content
Reference Content
Section A Key Principles
Chapter 1 Provides an overview of the Manual, its application, context, and use.
Chapter 2 Outlines relevant Myanmar Policy, the legal framework and overall strategic standards.
Chapter 3 Introduces the philosophy of low volume road design and presents the overall framework
within which the design and construction process takes place.
Chapter 4 Introduces the concept of the Road Environment and describes the particular challenges of the
Myanmar Road Environments and provides advice on addressing the various issues of climate,
hydrology, materials, traffic, terrain, construction & maintenance regimes, road safety and the
green environment.
Section B Design
Chapter 5 Provides guidance on road alignment and road asset investigation procedures and recovery of
design data from initial planning through to final design and construction amendment.
Procedures include desk studies, site investigation and materials testing.
Chapter 6 Provides guidance on Geometric Design, including influential factors, and aspects of traffic
characteristics, cross section, alignment, and safety.
Chapter 7 Provides guidance on Surfacing and Pavement Design and the range of design options using the
materials available, from Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS), through gravel to various paving
techniques, and issues of internal pavement drainage.
Chapter 8 Addresses Construction Materials issues for each component of the road works and the
desirability to optimise the use of locally available resources and the challenges of scarce
resources in some areas of Myanmar.
Chapter 9 Provides guidance on Cross Drainage and structures, including hydrology, components of road
works drainage, erosion control and challenging terrain.
Chapter 10 Addresses the design and sustainability of road-side slopes including road earthworks and
protection issues together with geotechnical bio-engineering solutions.
Section C
Implementation
Chapter 11 Provides summary guidance on the application of the issues addressed in Section B by means of
clear flow-charts and check lists.
Chapter 12 Addresses issues in the construction LVRRs, including planning, quality control and as-built
reporting.
Chapter 13 Addresses the vital issue of Asset Management and maintenance and outlines the basic aims
and principles.
Chapter 14 Outlines the use of Technical Audits and summarises their objectives and structure and
application.

Annexes
Provides detail on the procedures for undertaking and analysing traffic surveys including
I. Traffic Assessment
worked examples.
II. Laboratory Testing (Soils and Provides reference detail and comment on the most common soil and rock test methods
Rocks) undertaken in support of LVRR design and construction.
Provides a review of the character and uses of natural construction materials that may be
III. Marginal Materials
marginally acceptable in terms of specification.
IV. Ground investigation Provides additional detail on the selection and use of Ground Investigation techniques
Techniques applicable to LVRR design and construction.
Summarises the use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) as a design and construction
V. DCP Options
supervision tool.
Gives guidance on the application of the Spot Improvement concept in LVRR design and
VI. Spot Improvement
construction.
Gives guidance on the design implications of increasing the upper limits of LVRR traffic from
VII. Higher Volume Traffic
300 ADT (1 Mesa) to 750 ADT (3 Mesa).

References
AfCAP, 2012. South Sudan Low Volume Roads Design Manual. DFID for Ministry of Roads and Bridges, S
Sudan
Cook J R, Petts R, Visser C & You A, 2017. The Contribution of Rural Transport to Achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals. Research Community for Access Partnership (ReCAP) Paper, ref. KMN2089A,
for UKAID-DFID
Engineers Against Poverty, 2016. Maximising the Social Development Outcomes of Roads and Transport
Projects. Guidance Note for the Chartered Institution of Highways and Transportation
Gourley C, Greening A, Jones D & Petts R., 2002. Paving the way for rural development and poverty
reduction
Government of the Union of Myanmar (GoM), 2017. National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access
Hine J, 2014. Good Policies and Practices on Rural Transport in Africa; Planning Infrastructure & Services.
SSATP, The World Bank Group, Washington.
Howe, J. 1996. Transport for the Poor or Poor Transport? A general review of rural transport policy with
emphasis on low-income areas, IHE Working Paper IP-2, Delft: International Institute for
Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering
MoC, 2015. Road Design Criteria. Department of Roads, Ministry of Construction, Government of the Union
of Myanmar, Naypyidaw
ReCAP, 2016. Tanzania Low Volume Roads Manual. DFID for President’s Office, Regional Administration and
Local Government (PO-RALG)
ReCAP, 2018. Status Review of the Updated Rural Access Index (RAI), Final Report, GEN2033C by Vincent,
S., Civil Design Solutions (2018). London. ReCAP for DFID
SEACAP, 2009. Rural Road Standards and Specifications Classification, Geometric Standards and Pavement
Options. Final Project Report. DFID for Royal Government of Cambodia
Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All). 2017. Global Mobility Report 2017: Tracking Sector Performance.
World Bank, Washington DC. http://www.sum4all.org
Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All). 2019. Global Roadmap of Action: Universal Rural Access Companion
Paper. World Bank, Washington DC. http://www.sum4all.org

2 Policy, Standards and Specifications
2.1 Introduction
The development of an effective and sustainable rural road network requires it be designed, constructed
and managed within a framework of appropriate classification, standards and technical specification driven
by a clear strategic policy. Without such a framework the challenges of cost-effectively managing the
network and its assets become insurmountable.
This chapter sets the scene for the later Design Section by summarising the key principles applying to
standards and specification and sets them within the current Myanmar policy and strategy, whilst referring
back to recommendations made in the UKAID-funded document “Review of Low Volume Rural Road
Standards and Specifications in Myanmar” (Dingen and Cook, 2018).
2.2 Classification, Standards and Specifications
Aims
An appropriate rural road design approach requires a framework comprising of important technical
elements:
 Classification;
 Standards;
 Specifications;
 Design Manual.
Fundamentally, Standards fit the needs of a working Classification; there are then sets LVRR Technical
Specifications that define how the roads and associated structures and earthworks must be built to comply
with the Standards. Finally, there is usually an overarching document or manual, such as this document
defining the application of the standards and specifications, parts of which will be included in any required
contract information or Terms of Reference.
The aim of the Classification-Standards-Specification framework is to ensure that roads within the
Myanmar rural road network adhere to the following key strategic principles:
 Consistent with the Myanmar Rural Development Strategy;
 Compatible with the various road environments in Myanmar;
 Fit for Purpose;
 Sustainable.
Classification
A Classification system is necessary for effective management and delegation of responsibilities and also
provides important outcomes that relate to the class assigned to each road, including:
 Establishment of road design criteria;
 Development of road management systems;
 Planning of road construction and maintenance;
 Guidance to the general public.
Classification allows for the division of road networks into manageable groups so that broadly similar good-
practice design options can be adopted that are neither under-designed or over conservative and costly. It
is accepted that there is a strong correlation between traffic level/growth rates and the administrative
function of a road and therefore an administrative classification is commonly seen as a suitable option.
However, although traffic levels often increase in line with the administrative classification hierarchy, this is

not always true and, furthermore, the traffic levels are likely to differ considerably between different areas
and different regions of Myanmar. The traffic on a village-to-village road in Ayeyarwady might be
considerably different from that than on a similar road in Magwe or Taunggyi. The design approach should
reflect this. Thus, although an administrative classification may be necessary to enable ownership,
responsibilities, resources and management to be assigned should also cater for differing road tasks or
purpose.
Standards
A network road ‘standard’ defines a minimum level of service and performance that should be achieved at
all times. This translates to a set of agreed norms, uniformly applied in the design. Amongst other things
this ensures consistency across the country. Thus, for roads this means that road-users know exactly what
to expect and road managers know what they must achieve and maintain (SEACAP, 2009).
In terms of safety, drivers should not be ‘caught out’ by unexpected changes in quality and geometry and
will not unexpectedly find that a road is too narrow, or that they must alter their speed drastically to avoid
losing control of their vehicle. Thus, standards are a guarantee of a particular quality level and although
they are not synonymous with specifications they could, and often are, incorporated into specifications and
contract documents.
Experience has shown that simply adopting international standards from developed countries is not an
appropriate way forward for rural road network development, as these normally do not take the specific
road environment and financial constraints into account. There are important differences between high
volume National Road standards and LVRR standards; the two are not generally interchangeable (Cook et al
2013).
Technical Specifications
Technical specifications define and provide guidance on the design and construction criteria for rural roads
to meet their required level of service. They define actions, procedures or materials that should be used to
design, construct and maintain LVRR networks and their constituent roads. As with LVRR standards the use
of locally appropriate documents is imperative. For example, the use of locally available, but frequently
nonstandard, pavement construction materials plays a significant role within this concept. Technical
specifications cover a wide range of issues.
Table 2.1 Typical LVRR Technical Specification Groups
Specifications Description
Design and Construction These provide detailed requirements by which elements of a LVRR should be constructed and include
key issues such as; Pavement, Earthworks, Drainage, Small Structures.
Construction Materials These define the acceptable limits (properties such as strength, durability etc.) for the selection and
use of construction materials, both natural and man-made.
Quality Assurance and Defines the methods to be used in terms of supervising the quality of LVRR elements and the use of
Quality Control. specified equipment and testing procedures.
Maintenance Activities Defines the procedures to be used in undertaking the different types of LVRR maintenance; routine
(mechanical and non-mechanical); periodic and emergency.
Laboratory Testing Defines the laboratory testing procedures to be used. In contrast to other standards and
specification these are usually based on international procedures, such as AASHTO or ASTM.

2.3 Myanmar National Policy and Strategy for Rural Roads
Background
The National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access (NSRAA) is the basis for the improvement of the Myanmar
rural road network. It was jointly prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation (MOALI)
and the Ministry of Border Affairs (MOBA) with technical support from the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
in 2017. It serves to guide investments in the rural road sector and provides a framework within which
appropriate rural road classification and standards should be applied to the development of a Core Rural
Road Network (CRRN).
A point to be emphasised is the need for flexibility in the working standards for LVRR within the CRRN to be
applied to a range of physical environments in Myanmar. The concept of “fitness for purpose” is proposed
as the key foundation for the design philosophy driving the drafting and application of this Manual, Figure
2.1.
Figure 2.1 The Links to Fit for Purpose LVRRs
Climate
Hydrology
Terrain
Fit for Purpose
Materials Properties Appropriate Low Volume
Standards Rural Road
Subgrade Specifications Designs
Traffic
Construction Regime
Maintenance Regime
Policy Aims
The NSRRA states that nearly 15% of registered villages in Myanmar are not connected by road. Of the
villages that are connected by road, more than 40% are linked by dry-season rural roads that quickly
become impassable during the rainy season. Altogether, half of the existing registered villages are
physically isolated during part or all of the year due to a lack of all-season rural road access, affecting over
14 million rural people (GoM, 2017).
Roads in the context of Myanmar sustainable development

The NSRRA defines a core aim of the Government of Myanmar as providing registered villages with all-
season road access. It also provides general guidance on the classification and prioritisation of the Core
Rural Road Network (CRRN) which is defined as the “minimum rural road network in a township required to
connect all villages to each other and to the higher-level road network”. The following connectivity rules
apply:
1. Villages that are not directly connected by higher-level roads will be connected by a single rural road
that will be classified as a CRRN road.
2. Where a village is connected only by one rural road, that road will be selected as part of the CRRN.
3. Where a village is connected by more than one rural road, the best road will be selected to form part
of the CRRN, taking account of the length, surface type, and condition and traffic volumes in the
different existing rural roads.
4. Where a village is not connected by any road, if possible, a tentative alignment will be identified, which
will be selected as part of the CRRN for new construction.

The CRRN will consist of the existing single road access for each connected village, as well as the tentative
alignments for new construction linking unconnected villages. Locations with important economic or
cultural importance may also be connected by the CRRN. In 2017 the total CRRN road length was assessed
as being 111,170 km of which only 30% were classed as being of “all season” standard (GoM, 2017).
2.4 Existing LVRR Classification, Standards and Specifications in Myanmar
General
This Manual should be used within the overarching framework of current documents and associated
definitions. The current (2019) documentation is contained within the in the ‘Book of Standards’, which is
an internal compilation by MoC of national road construction specifications, which originate from 1983 and
stipulate work methods and material specifications for construction, earthwork and pavement.
Although specific rural road standards are under review by MoC, coordinated by the Central Committee,
there are currently no specific LVRR standards and specifications for Myanmar, although the previous
ReCAP report makes appropriate recommendations. The Design section of this Manual therefore, whilst
working within the current general framework includes variations based on Myanmar LVRR environment.
Current LVRR Classification

In parallel with the work undertaken to establish the NSRAA the Central Committee for the Development of
Regional Roads and Bridges has broadly classified rural roads into three administrative classes. The first two
administrative classes (A and B) may include core network roads, while the third class (C) comprises lower
level rural roads. The classes are defined as below and as illustrated in Figure 2.2, and are linked to road
widths and some pavement general options as outlined in Table 2.2.
1. Class A rural roads include all core rural roads that connect village tracts or that connect rural
populations of over 1,000 people with the higher-level road network. This may involve a road
connecting a single large village but may also involve a road (section) connecting multiple villages with
a combined population of more than 1,000 people. Due to the larger populations served by class A
roads and the importance of providing good connectivity for village development committees and for
services and facilities provided in the village tracts, higher standards and specifications will be applied
to class A rural roads. Class A rural roads generally connect directly to the higher-level roads or to
towns and cities
2. Class B rural roads include all other core rural roads connecting villages and serving populations of less
than 1,000 people. These class B rural roads serve smaller villages or fewer villages, and will have
lower standards and specifications than Class A roads, but will be constructed and upgraded to an all-
season standard. Class B rural roads will generally connect to class A rural roads, although it is possible
that they connect smaller villages directly to higher-level roads or towns.
3. Class C rural roads include all other rural roads that are not defined as part of the core rural road
network and that do not serve as the main connection to a village. Although these class C rural roads
provide additional access to agricultural fields and link habitations that are located away from the
main village, they do not contribute to the main objective of this strategy. As such, they do not have
priority for upgrading to an all-season standard.

Figure 2.2 Illustration of Broad 3-Fold NSRAA Classification
C
M
M M
B
C A
A A
A
Agriculture B B
C
River C
Agriculture
Agriculture
C C
River
City Town Market/Village
H: Highway M: Main Road A,B,C: Rural Roads as per NSRAAA classification.

Source: Based on Government of Myanmar, 2017
Table 2.2 Summary of Key Aspects of the Current Myanmar LVRR Divisions
1 Carriageway Shoulder
Class Traffic (esa) Recommended Pavement Option
Width (m) Width (m)
Bitumen seal over crushed stone/gravel base & sub-base;
A 300,000 5.5 3.0 Un-reinforced concrete slab over crushed stone/gravel sub-
base.
Bitumen seal over crushed stone/gravel base & sub-base;
Un-reinforced concrete slab over crushed stone/gravel sub-
B <300,000 3.6 1.2
base.
Gravel wearing course over crushed stone/gravel sub-base.
Gravel wearing course over crushed stone/gravel sub-base;
C Not defined 3.6 0.5-1.0
Earthen road.
1
esa : Equivalent Standard Axles over design life of the road

Standards and Specifications

The ‘Book of Standards’ includes a series of standard drawings for 3 classes of rural roads, 4 types of
bridges and a range of box and pipe culverts as well as a vented causeway. The drawings and the road
construction technical specifications are tabulated and indicated on the standard drawings. The National
Rural Road Standards and Specifications which follows from the NSRRA will in due course further define
minimum specifications of the all-season standard.
Flexibility in Standards and Specifications

LVRR standards and designs need to support the function that the road is providing as well as recognising
the important influences of the deterioration mechanisms linked to the local environment. The LVRR
Classification, Standards and Specifications must be flexible and appropriate to the regions of Myanmar
such that the roads and their assets are:
1. Task based – they suit the road function and its traffic (the people as well as the vehicles) which will
pass along them.
2. Local resource-based and compatible with the road sector in Myanmar: the engineers and technicians
who will design the roads, the contractors and labourers who will construct them, the villagers who
maintain them and the construction materials that are available.
3. Facilitate the construction of roads with whole life asset costs that will not exhaust the provincial and
district budgets or place excessive maintenance burdens on local communities.
2.5 Myanmar Environmental Policy, Regulations and Standards
Environmental Impact Assessment

Roads provide substantial economic benefits to local communities and national economies and provide
access to health services, education and employment. But roads can also generate significant and long
term adverse impacts to the environment and communities (TRL, 2005). Some of the recognized impacts of
roads as enumerated by USAID’s (2018) sectoral guidelines for rural roads are the following:
 Loss of ecosystem services;
 Soil erosion;
 Degradation of water quality;
 Adverse effects on quantities of water;
 Altered hydrology and flooding;
 Deforestation;
 Damage to valuable ecosystems;
 Habitat diversity;
 Damage to scenic quality and tourism;
 Adverse impacts on human health and safety;
 Changes to local culture and society.
Because of the road’s potential environmental impacts, road projects are subjected to the environmental
impact assessment (EIA) process. Globally, governments have adopted and are enforcing environmental
impact assessments for development projects, including roads. Likewise, international funding institutions
(IFIs) require road projects they support to comply with their respective environmental and social
safeguards policy.
The Government of Myanmar specifically, has adopted its environmental policy in 1994. This National
Environmental Policy is proclaimed by Notification No.26/94 dated 5 December 1994 and among its
essential components is environmental management. Subsequently, the Government of Myanmar enacted

environmental laws, regulations and standards to implement the policy. The relevant environmental laws
and regulations include the Environmental Impacts Assessment Procedures Law of 2015, cultural and
heritage protection law, forestry law, wildlife protection and protected areas law.
The Environmental Conservation Law and the Environmental Impacts Assessment Procedures Law of 2015
stipulates that all projects and project expansions undertaken by any ministry, government department,
organisation, corporation, board, development committee, local government or authority, company,
cooperative, institution, enterprise, firm, partnership or individual which may cause impact on
environmental quality are required to comply with the environmental regulations. Annex 1 of the EIA
Procedures Law (2015) lists roads among the projects that should be screened and categorized according to
severity of impacts.
The compliance commences with submission of a project proposal to the Environmental Conservation
Department (ECD) for screening and categorization as per the provisions of the Environmental Impact
Assessment Procedures Law (2015). Based on the outcome of the review of the project proposal, ECD
issues a decision on the scope and TOR for the required environmental report, whether a comprehensive
environmental impact assessment (EIA) or initial environmental examination (IEE, abbreviated impacts
assessment). Environment and conservation laws that are relevant to development projects including
roads are summarized in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Summary of Environmental Policy, Regulations and Laws of Myanmar
Ref Document Description

1 National Environmental It proclaims the government's commitment to the principle of sustainable
Policy (passed 05 December development. It also highlights the integration of environmental considerations into
1994) the development process to enhance the quality of life of all its citizens.
2 The Environmental The provisions of this law encompass waste management and pollution control, the
Conservation Law (passed adoption of environmental quality standards, environmental permitting of projects
March 2012) or activities, management of urban environment and the protection of natural and
cultural resources.
3 Environmental Conservation The environmental impact assessment implementation law of Myanmar, stipulating
Rules (passed June 2014) the requirement for projects and activities to secure environmental permit. It also
stipulates the requirement for firms and individuals that conduct environmental
impact assessment to register with the MOECAF (now MONREC).
4 Environmental Impact Law enacted pursuant to the Environmental Conservation Law of 2012. It
Assessment Procedures Law establishes the environmental impact assessment procedure from project
(passed December 2015) screening, scoping, investigation, reporting, review, approval and monitoring; it
enumerates the general content and coverage of IEE and EIA studies; provides the
transitory conditions for projects in progress at the time of the enactment of the
law; it enumerates the authority of MONREC in the review and approval; It also
provides a categorization of projects / activities for the purpose of environmental
permitting.
5 The Protection and This law governs the protection of the cultural resources of Myanmar which
Preservation of Cultural includes ancient monuments or ancient sites, structures, houses, walls, moat, stone
Heritage Regions Law (The inscriptions, carvings among others. Among its provisions are the prohibited acts
State Peace and and penalties.
Development Council Law
No. 9/98, passed September
1996)
6 Forestry Law Repealed the 1902 Forest Act. Enforces among others the forestry and
(State Law and Order environmental conservation policies of the Government and developing the State's
Restoration Council Law No. economy. Among its provisions relevant to RRRP are (i) all standing teak trees,
8/92 passed 1992). regardless of location, are owned by the State (known as a Reserved Tree); (ii)
permits are required for extracting or moving forest produce and establishing
Wood-based industries; and (iii) any tree which cut within a township (such as the
trees along the project road) cannot be removed from the township unless a permit
is given by MOECAF (now MONREC).
7 National Environmental This contains the environmental guidelines for emissions and effluents from various

Ref Document Description

Quality (Emission) Guidelines specific sources including roads and construction activities.
(issued December 2015)
8 Health and Safety Legislation The new Law on Safety and Health in Workplaces’ drafted by the Ministry of Labour
and Standards (MOL) requires the prevention of air and water pollution and to improve safety at
worksites, including fire prevention, and the requirement for construction workers
to use protective equipment, ensuring the safety of worksite operators and taking
precautions for natural disasters.
9 The Conservation of Water This law is aimed at (a) conservation and protection of the water resources and
Resources and Rivers Law of rivers system for beneficial utilization by the public; (b) safety of navigation in
2006 waterways i.e. rivers and creeks; (c) to contribute to the development of State
economy through improving water resources and river system; (d) to protect
environmental impact.
Environmental Standards
The Government of Myanmar has yet to declare its environmental standards; in the meantime, it issued
National Environmental Quality Emission Guidelines (NEQG) in December 2015. The guidelines cover both
water and atmosphere emissions related to a wide range of projects and industries including construction.
These Guidelines have been primarily excerpted from the International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) Guidelines, which provide technical guidance on good international
industry pollution prevention practice for application in developing countries. Among the environmental
guidelines adopted at the World Health Organisation (WHO) Ambient Air Quality Guidelines (IFC 2007), the
noise guidelines, the quality of run-off from construction sites and effluent. Also, environmental quality
guidelines for effluent from extraction of construction materials (borrow sites, quarry) has been issued as
part of the National Environmental Quality (Emission) Guidelines (2015).
2.6 Complementary Intervention Measures
General
In simple terms, Complementary Interventions take advantage of the presence of a road project to build-in
aspects that will enhance the social, environmental and safety situation of communities affected by the
road. These are additional to the statutory social, environmental and safety obligations of the road
authority (DRRD), designer and contractor. They may enhance, but do not replace existing, safeguards
required either by Myanmar Government regulation or by Donor guidance documents (World Bank 2016,
ADB 2013).
Complementary Interventions can generally be grouped into three categories:
1. Management Interventions – simple actions that enhance the road project itself and are well within
the normal skills required of a LVRR designer or contractor. These aim to improve the wider
impacts of the project itself and build on or extend the normal socio-environmental and safety
obligations of the project
2. Opportunity Interventions – actions that are beyond the scope of traditional LVRR projects but are
within the technical and management skills of the designer or contractor.
3. Enhancement Interventions – actions that utilise the framework of the project but extend beyond
the normal skills and experience required for the design and construction of a LVRR. These actions
would normally be implemented by additional parties with the necessary relevant skills.
Complementary Interventions are demand driven, reflecting the needs expressed by local communities
themselves, and are agreed through interaction and dialogue local groups. Within an outline framework,
agreed at the pre-feasibility or feasibility stage, the task of the design engineer is to materialise these
desires and agreements into the LVRR design and its contract documentation.

Complimentary Intervention Examples

2.6.1.1 Road and Site Safety
Category 1 Management Interventions
 Provide additional markings/warnings at dangerous areas;
 Extend provision of access to specific services and facilities for pedestrians, NMTs and IMTs (e.g.
motorbikes, tiller-tractors);
 Provide road safety education to employees;
 Provide access to first aid training for community representatives and to facilities in emergency;
 Rigorously enforce speed limits of construction equipment and plant.
Category 2 Opportunity Interventions

 Distribution of reflective strips for pedestrian, IMT and NMT road users;
 Provide boards warning community of construction and road hazards;
 Provide refresher/first aid training for local health officials.
Category 3 Enhancement Interventions

 Road safety awareness: Schools/community road safety education campaigns;
 Provide Road Safety equipment, teaching aids or additional equipment.
2.6.1.2 Road Corridor Environment

 Provide temporary and permanent accesses to homes, tracks and paths;
 Provide water and hand sprinkler systems to local communities to control dust on road sections near
their properties as needed during construction;
 Reinstatement of diversion roads – consider transferring ownership for use by IMTs, NMTs (particularly
in busy/dangerous areas);
 Reinstatement of temporary work areas – e.g. provide designs for utilisation of borrow pits to dams or
fish ponds;
 Provide opportunity for community to claim spoiled materials including wood from grubbing, topsoil or
oversize stone;
 Provide additional soil protection and road/structure erosion protection in vulnerable areas.

 Plant agriculturally productive trees and plants along roadside and in borrow areas;
 Establish landfill/waste management sites, utilising borrow and quarry areas where appropriate, or
areas designated by local authorities;
 Repair to areas suffering previous erosion or siltation damage;
 Improve access to the road through access tracks, trail bridges, footpaths;
 Improve access from the road to local community facilities;
 Provide road maintenance or supervision training to local groups and administrations;
 Rehabilitate and repair community/village assets: roads, market areas, meeting areas, sanitation/water
supply facilities and drainage systems.

 Establish nurseries for supply of trees and shrubs for bio-engineering;
 Provide protective tubing for saplings, covers for seedlings and water supply;
 Extend productive planting to other areas identified by local communities;
 Supply fingerlings for borrow areas upgraded to fish ponds;

 Build community/village assets – school rooms, health or veterinary posts, storage facilities
training/meeting rooms;
 Utilise road drainage system to provide water-harvesting facilities.
2.6.1.3 Road Transport Services (RTS)

 Ensure adequate physical access for pedestrians and that normal RTS is maintained during
construction;
 Provide adequate bus-bays and shelters.

 Provide local vehicle maintenance training to local groups;
 Provide technical skills training to local transport service operators
 Make available mechanical workshops for local IMT/RTS repairs.

 Provide gender balanced awareness training on options for RTS;
 Provide seed financing for establishment of rotating funds for supply and maintenance of local RTS.
2.6.1.4 Support Services

 Provide vehicles and temporary emergency first aid services for local communities whose access to
mainline services is hindered by construction works;
 Supply local health centres with drugs relating to communicable disease control.

 Provide HIV/AIDS testing and counselling services along the road corridor for construction workers and
local communities;
 Distribution of fist aid supplies to health posts;
 Assist with the repair or rehabilitation or maintenance of health and education centres.

 Provide classroom furniture and promote use of ICT in schools;
 Provide mosquito nets and mattresses to health centres and nurseries;
 Provide support to community awareness initiatives on health, gender balance, ethnic integration,
safety, livelihoods and income generation;
 Provide water supply/construct sanitation facilities for roadside communities.
2.6.1.5 Community Development

 Category 1 Management Interventions
 Maximise employment opportunities for local groups, including women and ethnic minorities– provide
crèche and other support facilities.

 Provide advisory services to local administration with regards to construction rehabilitation or
maintenance of community infrastructure;

 Provide ground water recharge schemes, water harvesting or small micro-irrigation schemes;
 Provide materials equipment and training to support establishment and development of local SMEs;
 Supply materials, skilled advice and equipment for community projects.

 Provide office furniture, accommodation and sanitation facilities for community facilities;
 Provide gender balance life skills training (e.g. literacy, numeracy, basic accounting, kitchen gardening,
sanitation and hygiene,) to local community groups and SMEs.
 Specific ways of construction need to be considered to take into account the future effects in low lying
areas of Myanmar to increase the safety of population during extreme climatic events through:
 Increased availability of appropriate climate disaster shelters,
 Improved access to shelters,
 Improved facilities of existing climate disaster shelters;
 Awareness-building and motivating stakeholders/beneficiaries on climate change issues, keeping
facilities in order, and evacuation scenarios.
Encouraging participation of marginalised groups

There are population groups that are, for whatever reason, disadvantaged or excluded from participation in
employment. Often these groups can benefit most from temporary employment in road works projects.
Typically excluded groups include:
 Women in general and especially mothers with young children;
 Physically or mentally disadvantaged;
 Ethnic or religious minorities;
 Pastoral communities;
 HIV/AIDS affected or infected people.
It should be recognised that the labour required at road sites usually require physically hard work and
construction sites can be relatively dangerous places. It may not, therefore, be appropriate to require
contractors to exclusively employ the above groups, however, there may be opportunities, for example, at
the work camp, that allow for engagement and employment of marginalised groups.
It is necessary for the design engineer to develop an understanding of any barriers to participation in
employment by women and minority groups, and find ways to help them access employment; without
causing conflict or concern amongst the wider community.
Planning
Complementary Interventions need to be treated as an integral part of the planning process, in much the
same way as environmental and social safeguards. Provision for them should be included in the long and
medium term budgets to prevent them being removed due to inadequate budgeting or funding allocation.
The identification and development of Complementary Interventions should take into account current
Myanmar national, regional and sector policies; legal instruments; international conventions and treaties;
guidelines and procedures relating to public consultation/participation; local development planning and
implementation.
Complementary Interventions need to be considered early in the project cycle and be an integral part of
project planning, from project identification to feasibility study. It is important that the client (DRRD) and
key stakeholders work together to develop an outline plan for inclusion of Complementary Interventions in
the road project/programme to a sufficient level of detail for their further development during the detailed
design. The outline plan and budget for Complementary Interventions, and an assessment of the potential
impacts, should be included in the economic analysis of road projects as they may raise the economic rate
of return of the road investment, despite any initial additional costs.

In developing a detailed design for Complementary Interventions, it is essential that the design engineer
works through DRRD and with the appropriate departments and structures. For detailed design, a high level
of consultation with affected communities will also be needed. The design engineer should work through
DRRD or MoC to ensure that the correct local procedures are adopted and that the appropriate formalities
are followed. Decisions, prioritisation methods and approvals for planned initiatives would be introduced
by DRRD and achieved through their existing local level structures.
The design consultant should refer to participatory approach manuals from other line ministries in
developing their own detailed methodology for identification and selection of complementary activities for
each low volume road project. The design engineer should also become familiar with existing local and
regional development plans (e.g. the NSRAA), potential sources of complementary financing or resources
that may be allocated to the complementary activities, willingness of local communities to make other
contributions, work by local NGOs and other organisations.
Low Volume Road projects can cover relatively long distances, can cross a number of local administrative
boundaries, and affect a number of different communities. Identification of Complementary Interventions
may therefore not be a simple task of consulting one community to identify their development needs and
priorities, but may require consultation and negotiation with different communities; each possibly with
their own internal structures and cultures, needs and priorities.
The key stakeholders will be expected to have a deeper understanding of the beneficiary communities than
the Client and should be able to provide guidance on the most locally acceptable means for engaging with
local communities and appropriate participatory decision-making methods.
Implementation
The key to successful implementation of Complementary Interventions will be ensuring that clearly defined
requirements and adequate provisions are included in project documents and at all programme stages.
During project planning, DRRD will determine the approximate budget and scope of the project, including
the budget and scope for Complementary Interventions. This then needs to be reflected in the Request for
Proposals (RFP) and, in particular, the Terms of Reference, for consulting services for the detailed design.
The RFP should specifically include appropriate inputs of key personnel with the requisite skills to meet the
requirements of the client with regards Complementary Interventions.
DRRD may directly assist with the development of the Complementary Intervention package with regards
to Category III interventions, as it could be far more efficient and appropriate for them to undertake the
identification and preliminary selection using the existing appropriate government structures and plans.
The development of Category I and II intervention packages are relatively straight forward and should be
easily within the skill area of a competent multi-disciplinary design team. However, the RFP still needs to be
well developed and throughout.
The feasibility study should develop the preliminary options and budget/cost estimates for the
Complementary Interventions. The detailed design will require preparation of the finalised list of
Complementary Interventions, detailed designs and engineers cost estimates.
In general, the Complementary Intervention aspects of the contract should be managed monitored and
enforced using the normal provisions of the contract documents.
Complementary Interventions should be included in the contractors detailed work plan and the payment
schedule. Progress and performance should be reported through the monthly site meetings and progress
reports. It may be appropriate to prepare specific reports for local communities and their leaders on the
progress of Complementary Interventions in their area. The frequency of such reports would depend on the
nature and scale of Complementary Interventions being implemented in that area, which should be
determined during the detailed design stage and uses provisions made in the reporting sections of the
works and supervision contracts.

While it is the Contractor’s responsibility to manage and implement the Complementary Interventions
according to the Contract, it is the Engineer’s responsibility to ensure Complementary Interventions are
monitored regularly and that technical and performance standards are met.
Monitoring and enforcement should be closely linked to the contractor’s payments. It is essential that
measurement and payment for Complementary Interventions and any incentives or penalties are clearly
defined in the works contract.

References
ADB, 2013. Social Protection Operational Plan 2014−2020. Asian Development Bank, Manila,
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/42704/files/social-protection-
operational-plan.pdf.
Sudan.
Cook J, Petts R C and J Rolt 2013. Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements: A Guide to Good
Practice. AFCAP Report GEN/099, Crown Agents, UK
Dingen, R & Cook J R. 2018. Review of Low Volume Rural Road Standards and Specifications in Myanmar.
AsCAP Project Report for DRRD.
Government of the Union of Myanmar (GoM), 2017. National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access.
IFC, 2007. Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines, World Bank Group.
https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/sustaina
bility-at-ifc/policies-standards/ehs-guidelines
Local Government (PO-RALG).
Options. Final Project Report. DFID for Royal Government of Cambodia.
TRL, 2005. ORN5 A guide to road project appraisal.
USAID, 2018. Sector Environmental Guidelines; Rural Roads.
World Bank, 2016. Fact Sheet. The World Bank’s New Environmental & Social Framework. World Bank,
http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/748391470327541124/SafeguardsFactSheetenglishAug42016.p
df

3 The Approach to LVRR Design
3.1 Introduction
During the past 20 years there have been significant advances in research and its application on various
aspects of Low Volume Rural Roads (LVRRs specifically with the aim of reducing costs and increasing the
effectiveness of the provision of such roads for rural and peri-urban communities. Much of this work has
been highly successful, resulting in innovative approaches that can provide beneficial and cost-effective
solutions for these roads, particularly, for example, in the use of local materials and alternative road
surfacing (TRL, 2000, Intech-TRL, 2009).
This chapter outlines a general approach to LVRR design that underlies the more detailed guidance given in
the Design Section of this Manual. Emphasis will be put on fitness for purpose; road environment
compatibility; sustainability and the use of local resources.
As noted in Chapter 1 an upper limit of 200 to 300 equivalent motorised vehicles per day is taken as being
appropriate in most situations. This is equivalent to up to about 0.8 to 1 million equivalent standard axles
(Mesa) during the design life of the road pavement. Figure 3.1 places this upper limit in the context of the
relative importance of surface degradation and structural failure as dominant design issues.
Figure 3.1 Design Traffic and Environment Impacts on LVRRs
Relative Impacts of Environment and Traffic

100
90
80
Environment impact
70 inducing surface
degradation
Percentage impact
60
50
40 Traffic impact; surface

degradation and
30
potential structural
20 failure
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Traffic (mesa)
© otb Vietnam Ltd
Although the approach to the design of LVRRs follows the general principles of good-practice road design
(Cook et al 2013), there are a number of important issues to be appreciated by the designer in order to
provide designs appropriate to the variable Myanmar social, economic, physical and climatic environments.
One fundamental issue is that the design process should be in line within the principle that the roads
should be designed to be compatible with the local governing factors as outlined in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 Factors Governing Sustainable LVRR Design
Road Task
Engineering Sustainable Operational

Environment Road Design Environment
Local Resources
Source: Intech-TRL (2006)
3.2 A different approach
Key Issues
There are a number of key, sometimes conflicting, issues that relate specifically to LVRR design and
construction:
1. On low volume, low axle load road environments the principle degradation issue may be physical
erosion and climate induced degradation. In the case of very low volume roads (< 10,000 esa)
conventional designs based on subgrade and traffic may be irrelevant.
2. On many LVRRS in Myanmar there may be an emphasis on motorcycle or tiller tractor traffic (IMT),
Non-Motorised Traffic (NMT) or pedestrian traffic, which should influence the geometric cross-
sections, for example, in terms of wider shoulders.
3. The variety of traffic types throughout Myanmar requires an analysis of appropriate PCU weighting
factors for geometric road design.
4. There are frequently significant constraints in terms of budgets for LVRR programmes, requiring an
emphasis on prioritisation and a focus on Spot Improvement options.
5. There is an emphasis on using local construction materials, although these are scarce or are of
marginal or poor quality in some Myanmar regions.
6. Because of the lower design standards for LVRRs, they are particularly vulnerable to current and future
climate impacts and consequently informed decisions on climate resilience prioritisation have to be
made.
7. LVRRs that connect with mains roads (i.e. Class A rural roads) are at risk from high axle loads and these
needs to be assessed at an early stage in the design process.
The Road Environment

It is recognised that, to a greater extent than higher volume roads, the design-life performance of LVRRs is
influenced by the impacts of what is termed the ‘Road Environment’ and, in particular, by the Engineering
and Operational Factors that are summarised in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 and indicated diagrammatically in
Figure 3.3.

Table 3.1 Road Engineering Environment Impact Factors
Impact Factor Description

Climate Current and future climate will influence the supply and movement of water and impacts upon the
road in terms of direct erosion, flooding and the influences of the groundwater regime. Unpaved
surface performance is particularly influenced by quantity and intensity of rainfall, and runoff
arrangements. Climatic i can have a significant influence on the selection of pavement options.
Major climate “shock” events are high risk to LVRRs.
Surface and sub-surface Current and future hydrology is the major impact factor on the siting and design of cross-drainage
hydrology structures. The interaction of water or its movement within and adjacent to the road structure has
an over-arching impact on the performance of pavements, earthworks and drainage structures.
Changes in near-surface moisture condition are the trigger for significant sub-grade and earthwork
volume changes in pavements underlain by “expansive” clay materials.
Terrain The terrain reflects the geological and geomorphological history. It has an obvious influence on the
horizontal and vertical alignment (geometric design and grade) of the road and earthwork
requirements. It is also a controlling factor on the geometry of river catchments.
Materials Properties The nature, engineering character and location of construction materials are key aspects of the
road environment assessment. For LVRRs, where the use of local materials is a priority, the key
issue should be; ‘what design options are compatible with the available materials?’ rather than
seeking to find material to meet standard specifications, as is the case with higher level roads.
Specifications need to be appropriate to the local environment.
Subgrade The subgrade is essentially the foundation layer for the pavement and the assessment of its in-
service condition and is critical to detailed pavement design.
Traffic Although recent research indicates that the relative influence of traffic on LVRRs is often less than
that from other road environment parameters, great consideration still needs to be given to the
influence of traffic and, in particular, the risk of axle overloading on light road pavements. The
traffic mix should influence the basic road geometry, including the use of wide shoulders for
pedestrian or bicycle use.
Construction Regime The construction regime governs whether or not the road design is applied in an appropriate
manner. Key elements include:
 Appropriate contractual framework;
 Experience of contractors or construction groups;
 Skills and training of labour force and supervisors;
 Availability, use and condition of appropriate construction plant;
 Selection and placement of materials;
 Quality assurance; and compliance with specification;
 Technical supervision.
Maintenance Regime All roads, however designed and constructed, require regular maintenance to ensure that their
basic task is delivered throughout the design life. Achieving this depends on the maintenance
strategies adopted, the timeliness of the interventions, and the local capacity and available funding
to carry out the necessary works. When selecting a road design option it is essential to assess the
actual maintenance regime that will be in place during its design life so that designs may be
appropriately adjusted where necessary, and/or the maintenance regime may be enhanced if
necessary.

Table 3.2 Road Enabling Environment Factors

Policies National or local policies will provide guidelines, requirements and priorities for the decision-
making processes. There will also be legal requirements with which to comply.
Classification Road classifications based on task or function provide road planners and designers with a practical
guidance framework to initially select and cost appropriate road options. Having a clear rural road
classification linked to relevant standards facilitates design and construction within acceptable
performance criteria.
Standards (Geometry and Geometric standards will influence not only the comfort and safety of road users but also the
Safety) impact of water management on and across the road and the effects of earthworks on the local
terrain and environment. LVRRs are likely to be required to accommodate a wide range of users
from pedestrians through to trucks.
Technical Specifications Technical specifications define and provide guidance on the design and construction criteria for
roads to meet their required level of service within the classification-standards framework.
Specifications appropriate to the local engineering environment are an essential element of an
effective enabling environment.
Funding Arrangements Available funding has an over-arching influence on the scale and nature of the roads and their
pavements that are feasible. Funding availability for on-going road management and maintenance
throughout the road design life is also a key issue.
Contracting regime The nature of the general contracting regime can influence a road project through the following
issues:
 Local legislation and contract documentation;
 Governance and level of bureaucracy;
 State-owned or private contractors;
 National or international contractors;
 Arrangements for facilitating local SMEs,
 Local resources and low-capital approaches
The “Green” Environment Road construction and on-going road use and maintenance have an impact on the natural
environment, including flora, fauna, hydrology, slope stability, health and safety. These impacts
have to be assessed and adverse effects mitigated as much as possible by appropriate design and
construction procedures.
Figure 3.3 Road Environment and Impact Factors, Cook et al (2013)

ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENT OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
Climate Policies
Hydrology Classification
Terrain Standards
Materials Properties SUSTAINABLE
ROAD DESIGN Specifications
Subgrade
Funding Arrangements
Traffic
Construction Regime Contracting Regime
Maintenance Regime "Green" Environment
LOCAL RESOURCE ENVIRONMENT

Available materials, labour, skills,
enterprises, manufacture, etc.

LVRR Strategic Design Options

For more cost-effectively improving LVRR networks the concept of an appropriate, or Environmentally
Optimised Design (EOD), approach provides a pragmatic way forward in constrained resource situations.
EOD covers a spectrum of solutions for improving or creating low volume rural access; from dealing with
individual critical areas on a road link (Spot Improvements) to providing a total link design (Whole Length
Improvement). EOD provides a framework for the common situation where the aspirations of local
communities have to be balanced with very limited budgets.
Under an EOD approach, the road is designed to suit the variety of tasks and environmental factors such as
rainfall, available materials, construction capacity, gradient, flood risk, maintenance regime and so on.
Some of these factors vary from road to road and from location to location along a road. Therefore a road
design may vary along its length with, for example, a sealed surface up a hill or gravel along a level section,
Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Illustration of the EOD or Spot Improvement Option
Source: Roughton International (2006)
3.3 Design Approaches within the LVRR Life-Cycle Roadmap
The LVRR Life-Cycle Roadmap

The road project Life Cycle (Figure 3.5) can act as a route map and guide to the acquisition of relevant
knowledge and the appropriate levels of data required for making knowledge-based design decisions. This
information and its related decision requirement are summarised in Figure 3.6, which is used as the driver
for investigation planning in Chapter 5 of the Design Section of this Manual.

Figure 3.5 Project Life Cycle
1 Problem or Need
Identification
2. Pre-feasibility/Feasibility 6. Rehabilitation/Upgrade
Study Assessment
3. Final Engineering Design 5. Maintenance

(FED)
4. Construction

Figure 3.6 Activities in Project Cycle Phases leading to Construction
Planning/Prefeasibility Stage
Location defined with possible alternative alignments
Road task defined along with classification and general standards
Project aim defined; Upgrade/rehabilitation/spot improvement
Initial Economic Assessment
Identify potential large scale natural hazards or geotechnical/materials issues
Initial desk study for key documents and road history
Climate: general character and probable level of resilience
Probable pavement styles- unsealed/sealed/spot improvement
Identify major bridge sites
Establish liaison with local communities
Outline Complementary Intervention policy
Feasibility Stage
Initial site Investigations on the selected alignment with some variations - initial subgrade assessment
Traffic; determine AADT and VEFs by initial counts and axle surveys
Walkover survey for geotechnical and climate vulnerabilities
Engage local communities in data gathering for climate and other issues
Outline earthwork (cut and fill) designs
Identify current and future climate impacts; climate data collection and analysis
Short list of climate and geotechnical hazard adaptation options
Hydrological surveys and analysis- outline cross drainage requirements
Define bridge sites
Materials: Identify and test potential quarries and borrow sites
Identify pavement options with whole-life costs - probable Spot Improvement options
Preliminary Engineering Design, BoQ and cost
Confirm Economic Assessment
Select Complimentary Interventions
Final Design
Detailed Ground Investigation of key areas including bridge sites, final sub-grade assessments
Additional confirmation traffic counts as required
Detailed side and cross drainage design (culverts)
Final investigation and design of bridges
Definition of materials sources for pavement, earthworks, structure
Final pavement designs
Spot improvements defined
Final bridge designs
Detailed design of earthworks and their drainage
Detailed climate and geotechnical adaptation design
Final design drawings, BoQ and costs including Complementary Interventions
Construction
Establish quality management plan
Design changes on basis of re-assessment of changed ground, hydrological condition during
construction.
Construction supervision
Testing of as delivered materials
Technical audit
As delivered drawings
Lessons to be learnt

Whole-Life Costs
In assessing the design options for a LVRR project it is recommended that consideration must be given to
Whole-Life Costs (WLCs), rather than simply immediate constructions costs. For example, the option of
unsealed roads may appear attractive in immediate cost terms however in WLC terms the options for
sealing can, in some environments be cheaper in WLC terms (SEACAP, 2006).
Whole Life Costing is a process of assessing all costs associated with a road over its intended or design
lifetime. The aim is to reduce the sum of these values to obtain the minimum overall expenditure on the
road asset whilst achieving an acceptable level of service from the asset. Usually an assessment of the
residual value of the asset at the end of the assessment period is included. There are two basic approaches
to the assessment of whole life costs for rural roads that can each reflect discrete objectives and may result
in different conclusions depending on the local circumstances. These can be characterised as:
 Whole Life Costs for the Road Asset (Whole Life Asset Costs)
 Whole Life Transport Costs
Whole Life Asset Cost (WLAC) assessment aims to define the costs of Construction and Maintenance of a
particular road and pavement over a selected assessment period. The principal cost components are the
initial investment or construction cost and the future costs of maintaining (or rehabilitating) the road over
the assessment period selected (for example, 12 years from construction).
Since the purpose of the road is to cost-effectively transport the local road users, Whole Life Transport
Costs assessment will, in addition, include a component for the savings in Vehicle Operating Costs for the
road users under the various investment and maintenance strategies. This component can be substantial
on higher traffic rural roads. Other socio-economic factors may also be included in the assessment. The aim
is to minimise the overall transport costs (infrastructure and means of transport) over the assessment or
design lifetime and will usually incorporate cost savings or other benefits to the road users and community.
Any assessment will only be as good as the data and knowledge used in the relationships incorporated in
the evaluation. For many rural road evaluations, the confidence in the cost data is generally good for
construction components but often less so for maintenance costs and road performance. The knowledge
and confidence may be poor for local Vehicle Operating Costs (VOCs) under the range of possible road
conditions and for the range of transport vehicle types, hence, practitioners tend to use Whole Life Asset
Costs (WLAC), initially at least.
Climate Resilience
The Myanmar National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access requires that use will be made of climate
resilient designs that take account of the differences in climate vulnerability (flood risk, erosion risk,
rainfall, drought, etc.) in the various parts of the country. Appropriate designs should be applied that find a
balance between the risks of climate impacts and related repair and maintenance costs compared to initial
climate resilience construction costs. This will result in different areas applying different designs in line with
the expected climate impacts in those areas, reducing total lifecycle costs and increasing the sustainability
of improved access.
Climate resilient aspects in designs will primarily be evident in the level of the carriageway, the
construction materials used (to withstand flooding and erosion), the types and dimensions of drainage
structures (to deal with increased rain volumes and intensities and related peak runoff flows), and the slope
and embankment protection measures (to avoid collapse due to flooding, erosion or landslides)2.
Future climate predictions for Myanmar projections indicate that by 2100 the following are considered
probable (UNHABITAT 2017):
2
In the preparation of the new National Rural Road Standards and Specifications, suitable design standards for the different areas
of the country are expected be identified and trialled.

 Mean annual temperature increase of 0.5°C (low emission scenario) to 5.5°C (high emission scenario),
with highest projected increases in the centre and north.
 A weakened monsoon climate and decreased cloud coverage, leading to increased drought periods.
 An increase in rainfall variability - during the wettest months (May–October) rainfall ranges from a
decrease of 45 mm/month to an increase of 200 mm/month.
 Increase in frequency and severity of extreme weather events, including cyclones/strong winds,
flood/storm surge, intense rains.
 Sea level rise of 0.2–0.6 m or more.
These predictions have obvious implications in terms of threats (Table 3.3) to vulnerable sections of the
rural road network that need to be addressed in specific design approaches (ADB, 2011). In terms of the
project life-cycle, identification of the specific climate design threats needs to be undertaken early in the
design process in order for budgetary and strategic adaptation decisions to be made.
Table 3.3 Climate change Impacts

Increase of temperature Faster evaporation will cause the soil moisture to be reduced. Material expansion will cause
fragility of concrete roads, bridges, culverts. May require change in selection of bitumen types for
sealed roads
Increase of rainfall and Floods, erosion of embankments and road infrastructure. Erosion of embankments and increased
intensity risk of roadside slope failures (landslides).
Sea level rise Area flooding of coastal and deltaic areas. The road assets also affected by saline intrusion.
High winds associated with Potential damage to structures as well as secondary damage from trees and other debris. Impact by
typhoons wind driven wave action on embankments, bridge abutments, road pavements.
Increase of the frequency Flood levels above design assumptions. Erosion and damage to earthworks, pavements and
of strong major storm bridges. Reports suggest roads are partially damaged when surge height/ depth of inundation is
events less than 1m, and more fully damaged when the depth of inundation exceeds 1m
Sustainability
The concept of overall sustainability is a crucial issue in the context of road network development. In
addition to ensuring that the design developed is technically appropriate and is within the financial
envelope, the design engineer needs to bear in mind other factors that could influence the success of the
LVR design approach, its implementation and its long term sustainability, Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Key Sustainability Issues
Component Requirement
1. Politically supported The road programme is compatible with an identified national policy and is supported in all its
aspects at central and local levels.
2. Environmentally The road construction as well as its subsequent use and maintenance should not cause significant
sustainable environmental damage and be compatible with current environment legislation.
3. Financially sound There must be adequate funding in place for construction, management and long-term
maintenance of the road and its assets over its proposed design life.
4.Technically appropriate The road design is compatible with clearly identified national rural transport requirements and
related socio-economic policies, and is in line with clearly identified socio-economic and transport
needs.
5. Socially acceptable. The project is capable of being embraced by and fostering existing social safeguards on issues such
as: community acceptance and participation, gender equality, and protection of vulnerable groups.
6.Instititionaly possible The road project is within the technical capacity of the available road designers and contractors
with the necessary resources, knowledge and experience to carry it forward.
7. Economically viable The benefits accruing from the programme in terms of social and economic developments must be
greater than its initial and on-going costs.
It is useful at an early stage to rate each component as an aid to identifying and mitigating problems
through the design process, for example:
1. Not sustainable.
2. Significant sustainability concerns.
3. Moderate sustainability concerns.
4. Minor concerns.
5. No sustainability concerns.

References
ADB, 2011. Guidelines for climate proofing investment in the transport sector: Road infrastructure projects.
Asian Development Bank, Manila.
Cook J, Petts R C & Rolt J. 2013. Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements: A Guide to Good
Practice. AFCAP Report GEN/099, Crown Agents, UK.
Roughton International, 2008. Local resource solutions to problematic rural roads access in Lao PDR;
SEACAP access roads in Route 3. Module 2 - Completion Report. SEACAP 17, DFID report for
MPWT, Lao PDR.
Intech-TRL, 2006. Rural Road Surfacing Research, SEACAP 1 Final Report. DFID for MoT Vietnam.
UNHABITAT, 2017. Assessing Climate Risk in Myanmar; Summary for Policymakers and Planners SEACAP,
2006.

4 Myanmar Road Environments
4.1 Introduction
Myanmar has wide range of physical, climatic and development environments that need to be taken
account of in the design, construction and management of the rural road network and the previous Chapter
3 has indicted the range and importance of the Road Environment impacts in this regard.
This chapter focuses on the key impact / factors with regard to individual regions. Key design issues are
highlighted for each Myanmar region and sources of information and key data sources are listed for use by
LVRR practitioners.
4.2 General Myanmar Physical Setting
Physical Units
Myanmar, a country of 676, 575 sq. km can be divided into 3 major physiographic units, the mountain
ranges, the central lowlands and the coastal and deltaic plains. The distribution of these units in the
country is outlined in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Myanmar Physical Setting
Physiographic Units The Physiographic Regions

Mountain Ranges Northern range
The western mountain range (Rakhine Yoma)
The eastern mountain range (Shan Hills)
The central mountain range (Pegu mountains)
Central Lowlands Sagaing-Mandalay-Magway
Coastal and deltaic Plains Rakhine, Thanintharyi and Ayeyarwady coastal and deltaic plains
Climate
In general terms, Myanmar experiences a tropical-monsoon climate with three dominant seasons, summer,
rainy and winter season. As described by Htwe (2015) the summer season prevails from end of February to
beginning of May with highest temperatures during March and April. From November to end February is
the winter season with temperatures in hilly areas of over 1000m dropping to below 32F (0°C) with average
temperature across the country of 10 to 18°C. The rainy season prevails from mid-May to October which
coincides with the southwest monsoon which brings in majority of the precipitation of Myanmar, Figure
4.1.
Figure 4.1 Average Monthly Temperature and Rainfall for Myanmar 1901-2016

The Southwest Monsoon (rainy season) has four (4) stages, the pre monsoon (Mid-April onset), early
monsoon (June), mid or peak monsoon (July, August), late monsoon (September withdrawal) and post
monsoon (October, November). The Southwest monsoon sets in initially in lower Myanmar about the third
week of May, extending
gradually northwards and is
usually established over the Figure 4.2 Myanmar Rainfall Variations
whole country by about the
first week of June. The highest
annual precipitation is
observed in the Rakhine
Coastal Region, followed by
the Ayeyarwady Delta.
The Central Dry Zone,
because of the geographic
setting, has a distinct climate
of dry season from Mid-
November to mid-May and a
wet season for the rest of the
year. Just like the rest of the
Ayeyarwady basin, most of
the annual rainfall occurs
during the monsoon season
that prevails from May to
October. According to Drury
(2017), the rainfall is generally
bimodal with July being drier
than the other monsoonal
months. The north-south
alignment of ranges and
valleys creates a pattern of
alternate zones of heavy and
light precipitation during both
the northeast and southwest
monsoons. Most of the
precipitation, however,
comes from the southwest
monsoon. The west coast is
subject to tropical cyclones. 
Currently the coastal regions
Source: DMH
and the western and south-
eastern ranges receive more than 5,000 mm of precipitation annually, while the delta regions receive about
2,500 mm. The central region is not only positioned away from the sea but also on the drier rain shadow
side of the Rakhine Mountains. Precipitation gradually decreases northward until in the so-called Dry Zone
it amounts to only 500 to 1,000 mm per year. The Shan Plateau, because of its elevation, usually receives
between 1,900 and 2,000 mm annually. Figure 4.3 presents summaries of the climate for four
representative climatic regions within Myanmar.

Figure 4.3 2016 Regional Climate Variations

Shan State (Tauynggi) Chin State
Regional Historical Annual Rainfall: +/- 2000mm Regional Historical Annual Rainfall: +/-3100mm
Weinert N Value <4 Weinert N Value <4
Dry Zone (Mandalay Coastal Zone (Pathien)
Regional Historical Annual Rainfall +/- 1000mm Regional Historical Annual Rainfall +/-3100mm
Weinert N Value <4 Weinert N Value <4
All these zones have Weinert Climate Index of < 4 (Weinert, 1974) which defines them as “wet” in terms of
pavement thickness design (Chapter 7). This index is calculated as follows:
N = 12.Ej/Pa Equation B.1.1 where:
Ej = evaporation for the warmest month; Pa = total annual precipitation; N-values less than 4 apply to a
climate that is seasonally tropical and wet whereas N-values greater than 4 apply to a climate that is arid,
semiarid or dry.
Geology
Geologically, Myanmar can be subdivided into three provinces; namely, the Western Fold Belt (WFB), the
Central Lowland Province (CLP) in the middle, and the Eastern Highland Province (EHP) in the east (Hadden,
2008; Pramumijoyo, 2010). The WFB consists mostly of sequences of interbedded sedimentary rocks and a
mix of basic igneous rocks. Further east, the EHP, is composed mainly of older rock groups within a complex
of limestone, dolomite and metamorphic rocks. The CLP is primarily composed of alluvial materials and
weak sedimentary sequences. The large active Sagaing Fault passes through the eastern margin of this
province, Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Myanmar Rock Types (Myanmar Geoscience Society, 2014)
Hard Rocks
1. Limestone and dolomite
2. Gneiss, schist, granite
Hard and Soft Rocks

3. Basalt, rhyolite, ash
4. Sandstone, shale, conglomerate
Soft Rocks
5. Sandstone, shale, conglomerate
>6m soil
A large part of Myanmar lies in the tectonically active southern part of the Himalaya and the eastern
margin of the Indian Ocean, exposing parts of it to earthquake and earthquake related hazards, Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar
Source: Revised by Dr. Maun Thein, U Tint Lwin Swe and Dr. Sone Han (December 2005)

The majority of the earthquakes in Myanmar are mainly confined

to three zones (Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe, 2006): Figure 4.6 Myanmar’s Regions & Zones
Myanmar
1. The zone along the western fold belt of Myanmar with mostly
intermediate focus earthquakes; where the earthquake
frequency is much higher in the northern part.
2. The zone along the Sagaing Fault, including the offshore part in
the Andaman Sea with shallow-focus earthquakes; the
earthquake frequency is higher in three segments, namely
(from south to north), Bago-Taungoo, Sagaing-Tagaung,and
Myitkyina- Putao Segments.
3. The zone in the north-eastern part of Myanmar, which is
continuous with the earthquakes in southern Yunnan, China
4.3 Regional Design Issues
General
Based on physical, geological and climatic criteria Myanmar is
divided into eight physiographic regions or three broader zones,
Figure 4.6 and Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 General Geology and Sub-grade variability
Predominant Predominant Sub-

Zone Region Topography
Geology’s Grades
Hill-Mountain Zone North East Mountains Mountainous Gneiss, granite Weathered rock
Shan Plateau High rolling plateau Crystalline limestone, Weathered rock
dolomite
Chin-Rakhine Mountainous Basic igneous, strong Weathered rock
sedimentary
Dry Zone Bago-Magwe- Flat-Rolling hills Weak sandstones, Sandy to weak rock
Mandalay shales
Coastal Zone Rakhine Flat Coastal sediments Sand- silt
Ayerawaddy Low-lying flat Soft alluvial sediments Silt-clay
S. Myanmar Coast Low lying to flat Coastal sediments over Sand silt
sedimentary rock
Hill- Mountainous Zone

This zone lies to the east and west of the central dry zone and is characterized by a combination of hill
ranges, steep river valleys and a few elevated plains. A significant proportion of the Shan hills are located
within the catchment of Thanlwin River. This river with its deep gorge transects the Shan State along the
north-south direction. The geology is made up by the older Cambrian to Silurian sedimentary and
metasedimentary rock formations. Intruding these older rocks are granitoid rocks comprising granite,
granodiorite, and diorite. Limestones and dolomites are predominant in the Shan Plateau. These rocks are
inherently strong to very strong but may be weakened by weathering, faulting and fracturing.

Due to its regional structural geological setting is this region is also to subject earthquakes risk; particularly
in the north-west, north east and adjacent to major Sagaing Fault. Key issues with respect to sustainable
LVRR design are summarised in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Mountain Zone Design Issues
Issue Impact Design and Construction Requirements

Steep terrain Narrow alignments and steep gradients. Road safety issue focus in geometric designs.
High cost of widening to standard designs. Specific geometric standards for mountain regions.
Roadside instability Specific road designs and paving options.
Possible requirement for concrete sections.
Specific investigations for high cuts and
embankments.
High rainfall and flash floods Roadside instability. Erosion of Flexibility in standard hydrological investigations
embankments and bridge abutments and design approaches.
Specific earthwork designs for cuts/fills.
Relax geometric standards to avoid cut-to-fill cross
sections as much as possible.
Effective pavement, earthwork and cross drainage
is essential for sustainable LVRRs in this zone.
Earthquake risk Damage to bridge structures and high Include seismic risk factors into bridge and
embankments. Trigger for natural embankment designs.
landslides. Assess risk of natural landslides in key areas.
Hard rock geology Available rock for aggregates. Increase use of stone-based design options.
Possible lack of natural sands and gravels Less use of natural gravel wearing course options.
in some areas.
Dry Zone
The Central Lowlands (Dry Zone) is bordered by the Rakhine Yoma to the west and to the east by the Shan
Plateau which rises to elevation of 600 m. The topography is undulating to rolling with some slightly rugged
areas. The elevation ranges from about 20 masl at Ayeyarwady River to 120 masl towards the eastern hills.
The geology of the central lowlands is mostly made up of sedimentary formations consisting of massive,
loosely cemented sand and erodible sandstone beds overlain by recent (Holocene) alluvial sandy loam and
loamy sand. The rivers in the region are experience very high rate of sedimentation.
The Dry Zone covers more than 54,000 km2, from lower Sagaing region, to the western and central parts of
Mandalay region and most of Magway region. Situated in the shadow of the Rakhine mountain range, the
Dry Zone receives limited rains compared to country averages. However, the climate is not homogenous
across the area, with conditions ranging from semi-arid (and even arid) in certain areas to semi-humid in
others. Dry spells during the rainy season are frequent, but their intensities vary geographically and over
time. Insufficient rain is not the only potential threat, however, as decreasing forest cover and soil erosion
place with a greater risk of localized flash floods during times of heavy rain.
Key issues with respect to sustainable LVRR design are summarised in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Dry Zone Design Issues

Drought periods Lack of water for construction activities. Less use of water-bound macadam option in
pavement layers – use of dry-bound or crushed
stone option.
Construction planning to avoid severest drought
period.
Rolling terrain Current alignments may be outside Localised horizontal and vertical adjustments
geometric requirements. alignment required.
Earthquake risk Damage to bridge structures Include seismic risk factors into bridge designs.
Heavier traffic and Risk of high levels of commercial traffic Ensure projected traffic remains within LVRR
connectivity with national axle overloading design envelope.
roads Option to design for higher axle loads.
Ensure surfacing options suitable for heavier
traffic.
Weak rock geology Potential shortages of good local Designs to make best use of limited local materials.
aggregate Design costs to include for long materials hauls.
Erodible rock soils Use of modification techniques for local weak rock
materials.
Ensure erosion protection for bridge abutments
and bank protection.
Coastal Zone
The Ayeyarwady Delta is the southern extension of the central low lands, formed at the coastal reaches of
the Ayeyarwady River covering an area of approximately 69,600 km2. Much of the delta is low lying merely
3 m above sea level. Confining the delta to the west is the Rakhine Yoma and to the east by the Bago Yoma.
Several distributaries of Ayeyarwady River divide the delta into islands and peninsulas.
Although the topography of the delta is seemingly flat, the topography is punctuated by subtle topographic
features. These features include levees, ponds and berms associated with abandoned meanders. The
abandoned meanders are easily identifiable from aerial and satellite imageries because of the arcuate
form. These arcuate forms are accentuated by ponds, arcuate vegetation patterns and in some areas by
roads and settlements built on the elevated levees and berms.
Subgrades are generally clay soils, often highly plastic with low strength. Although the hilly zone along the
west coast of the region has gravel and stones, these are mostly sandstone with low strength. Suitable
materials are found outside the delta region but require long hauling distances. Cost efficiency and
maintainability would increase substantially if solutions are found to improve subgrade strength without
the need for import of ‘foreign’ materials. Key issues with regard to LVRR design are summarised in Table
4.5.

Table 4.5 Coastal Zone Design Issues

Sea Level Rise General flooding Raise vertical alignment; Increased bridge deck
levels Modify standard drawings.
Wet tropical climate with Flooding; overtopping/erosion of Soaked pavement designs
increasing storm surges embankments and bridge abutments Raise vertical alignment, erosion protection, use of
bioengineering. Concrete pavements in key areas.
Modify hydrology assessment in structure design
standards
Modify standard bridge standards
Lack of construction Long hauls for aggregate and stone Modify local material as much as possible; by
materials mechanical or chemical modification.
Modify standard road designs to suit materials.
Narrow embankments with Restriction on widening existing tracks or Modification to standard cross-sections. Possible
canal on one side (delta area) class C roads use of non-standard passing-place options
Soft ground on one side of upgraded Design “one-side” widening options.
alignment Problems with construction diversions.
Soft Foundations (Subgrade) Settlement of enlarged embankments Requires site investigations.
Design and construction detail to avoid differential
settlement between old and new embankments..
Some local freight traffic by Lighter traffic in some locations Possible to allow relaxation of design and material
canal or river criteria (lower CBR for base).

References
ADB, 2016. Myanmar Transport Sector Policy Note: Rural Roads and Access. Asian Development Bank.
Manila
ADPC, 2012. Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction [MAPDRR]. Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief
and Resettlement
Cartier van Dissel S, Starkey P & Véron-Okamoto A, 2015. Republic of the Union of Myanmar: Rural Access
and Road Management. ADB Transport Sector Policy Note
Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH); within the Ministry of Transport and Communications
Drury LW, 2017. Hydrogeology of the Central Dry Zone, Myanmar. The Australian Water Partnership
Government of Myanmar, 2017. National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access
Government of Myanmar, 2017. Myanmar Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (MCCSAP) 2016–2030
Hadden R L, 2008. The Geology of Burma (Myanmar): An Annotated Bibliography of Burma’s Geology,
Geography and Earth Science
Htwe, M.W. 2015. Country report on the status of National Soil Resources in Myanmar,
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GSP/docs/asia_2015/Myanmar_WinMinHtwe_MYAN
MAR.pdf
Maung Thein & Tint Lwin Swe, 2006. Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar, Explanatory Account. Myanmar
Earthquake Committee
Myanmar Geosciences Society, 2014. Geological Map of Myanmar,s cale 1:2,250,000
Myanmar Information Management Unit (MIMU), 2019.Myanmar Physical Map
Pramumijoyo S, 2010. Report on Regional Geology of Myanmar. Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia
UNHABITAT, 2010, Manual on Earthquake Causes, Effects and Preparedness, Myanmar
UNHABITAT, 2015. Myanmar Climate Profile Climate Variabilities, Extremes and Trends in Central Dry,
Coastal and Hilly Zones
UNHABITAT, 2017. Assessing Climate Risk in Myanmar; Summary for Policymakers and Planners.
Wienert H, 1974. A Climatic Index of Weathering and its Application in Road Construction. Geotechnique
24, 475-488

SECTION B: DESIGN
SECTION B: DESIGN
Contents
SECTION B: DESIGN .....................................................................................................................................................i
5 Ground Investigations .....................................................................................................................................5-1
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 5-1
5.2 Engineering Related Investigations .................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.3 Investigation Activities ....................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.4 Investigation Implementation within the Project Cycle ................................................................................... 5-12
6 Geometric Design ..........................................................................................................................................6-19
6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 6-19
6.2 Principal factors affecting geometric design standards ................................................................................... 6-19
6.3 Cross-section Geometric Design ....................................................................................................................... 6-23
6.4 Design Speed and Geometric Design................................................................................................................ 6-29
6.5 Alignment curvature ......................................................................................................................................... 6-32
6.6 Geometric Design Guidance for Myanmar LVRRs ............................................................................................ 6-35
6.7 Traffic Safety..................................................................................................................................................... 6-38
7 Surfacing and Pavement Design ....................................................................................................................7-49
7.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 7-49
7.2 Unsealed-Unpaved Options.............................................................................................................................. 7-50
7.3 Non-Bituminous Paved Options ....................................................................................................................... 7-51
7.4 Bituminous Surfacing........................................................................................................................................ 7-52
7.5 Concrete Surfacing Options .............................................................................................................................. 7-55
7.6 Selection of Pavement Layer Options .............................................................................................................. 7-55
7.7 Unsealed LVRR Design ...................................................................................................................................... 7-63
7.8 Design of Bituminous Surfacing ........................................................................................................................ 7-68
7.9 Structural Design of Paved Roads..................................................................................................................... 7-74
7.10 Non bituminous surfaced roads ....................................................................................................................... 7-75
7.11 Design Chart Amendments with Constrained Traffic and Axle-loads ............................................................... 7-80
7.12 Pavement Drainage .......................................................................................................................................... 7-81
8 Construction Materials ..................................................................................................................................8-88
8.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 8-88
8.2 LVRR Natural Material Requirements .............................................................................................................. 8-88
8.3 Material Types in Myanmar ........................................................................................................................... 8-100
8.4 Materials Management .................................................................................................................................. 8-102
8.5 Using Locally Available Materials ................................................................................................................... 8-107
8.6 Material Improvement ................................................................................................................................... 8-108
9 Cross Drainage and Small Structures ........................................................................................................... 9-112
9.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 9-112
9.2 Typical crossing and drain types ..................................................................................................................... 9-113
9.3 Selecting the Best Structure for the Crossing Site .......................................................................................... 9-127
9.4 Climate change impacts ................................................................................................................................. 9-130
9.5 Environmental Considerations for Choosing a Crossing Location in the Catchment ..................................... 9-132
9.6 Hydrological design for crossings and drains ................................................................................................. 9-135
9.7 Hydrological data sets .................................................................................................................................... 9-140
10 Earthworks ........................................................................................................................................... 10-142
10.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 10-142
10.2 General Principles of Earthwork Design and Construction........................................................................... 10-142

SECTION B: DESIGN
10.3 Cut-Slope Design .......................................................................................................................................... 10-146

10.4 Embankment Design..................................................................................................................................... 10-147
10.5 Cut to Fill ...................................................................................................................................................... 10-150
10.6 Slope Protection and Stabilisation................................................................................................................ 10-150
10.7 Bio-engineering ............................................................................................................................................ 10-158
11 Design Process ..................................................................................................................................... 11-164
11.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 11-164
11.2 The Project Cycle for LVRRs .......................................................................................................................... 11-164
11.3 The Pre-feasibility or Planning Stage ............................................................................................................ 11-164
11.4 The Feasibility Stage ..................................................................................................................................... 11-167
11.5 The Final Engineering Design (FED) Stage .................................................................................................... 11-170
Tables
Table 5.1 Engineering Data Sets ................................................................................................................................ 5-2
Table 5.2 Existing Data Sources Relevant to LVRR Design in Myanmar .................................................................... 5-4
Table 5.3 Road Design Walk-Over Surveys ................................................................................................................ 5-5
Table 5.4 Standard LVRR Ground Investigation Techniques ..................................................................................... 5-7
Table 5.5 Small Structures Design Data Requirement ............................................................................................... 5-9
Table 5.6 Special Investigations in the Myanmar Road Environments.................................................................... 5-12
Table 5.7 Relative importance of investigation activities during the project life-cycle........................................... 5-13
Table 5.8 Investigation Requirements and Locations.............................................................................................. 5-17
Table 6.1 PCU values (DoLI, Nepal 2012)................................................................................................................. 6-21
Table 6.2 Terrain Classification................................................................................................................................ 6-21
Table 6.3 Climbing Lane Options ............................................................................................................................. 6-27
Table 6.4 Design Speeds (Extracted from MoC, 2015) ............................................................................................ 6-29
Table 6.5 Stopping Distance Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 6-30
Table 6.6 Recommended Stopping Distances (m) ................................................................................................... 6-30
Table 6.7 Adverse Cross-fall to be removed if Radii are less than Shown ............................................................... 6-31
Table 6.8 Superelevation Development Lengths..................................................................................................... 6-32
Table 6.9 Range of Minimum Values of Horizontal Radii of Curvature for Paved roads ......................................... 6-33
Table 6.10 Range of Minimum Values of Horizontal Radii of Curvature for Unpaved roads .................................... 6-33
Table 6.11 Widening recommendations ................................................................................................................... 6-33
Table 6.12 Minimum values of L/G for crest curves .................................................................................................. 6-33
Table 6.13 Minimum values of L/G for sag curves .................................................................................................... 6-34
Table 6.14 Road Classification (NSRAA) and Carriageway Width .............................................................................. 6-35
Table 6.15 Variation on Basic Classification .............................................................................................................. 6-36
Table 6.16 Rural Roads Class A .................................................................................................................................. 6-37
Table 6.17 Rural Roads Class B .................................................................................................................................. 6-37
Table 6.18 Rural Roads Class C .................................................................................................................................. 6-38
Table 7.1 LVRR Pavement Design Options .............................................................................................................. 7-50

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.2 Appropriate Surfacing Selection .............................................................................................................. 7-58

Table 7.3 Preliminary Engineering Filter – Paving Materials ................................................................................... 7-59
Table 7.4 Preliminary Engineering Filter - Pavement Layers / Shoulders ................................................................ 7-60
Table 7.5 Engineering Environment Filters Surfacing .............................................................................................. 7-61
Table 7.6 Secondary Engineering Filters - Pavement Layers / Shoulders ................................................................ 7-62
Table 7.7 Definition of Indicative Traffic Regime .................................................................................................... 7-63
Table 7.8 Definition of Erosion Potential................................................................................................................. 7-63
Table 7.9 Typical Prime Application Rates in Relation to Pavement Surface Type ................................................. 7-68
Table 7.10 Aggregate Requirements for Bituminous Chip Seals ............................................................................... 7-69
Table 7.11 Binder and Application Rates for Chip Seals ............................................................................................ 7-70
Table 7.12 Grading of Sand for Sand Seal.................................................................................................................. 7-70
Table 7.13 Binder and Aggregate Application Rates for Sand Seals .......................................................................... 7-71
Table 7.14 Choice of Otta Seal Binder in Relation to Traffic and Grading ................................................................. 7-71
Table 7.15 Nominal Binder Application Rates for Otta Seals (l/m2) .......................................................................... 7-71
Table 7.16 Nominal Otta Seal Aggregate Application Rates...................................................................................... 7-72
Table 7.17 Nominal Slurry Seal Mix Components ..................................................................................................... 7-72
Table 7.18 Nominal Bituminous Chip Seal Application Rates .................................................................................... 7-73
Table 7.19 Thin Bituminous Pavement Design Chart for Structural Layers (mm) .................................................... 7-75
Table 7.20 Non-Bituminous Pavement Surfacing Options ........................................................................................ 7-75
Table 7.21 Thickness Designs for WBM and DBM Pavements (mm)......................................................................... 7-76
Table 7.22 Thicknesses Designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) Pavement (mm) ....................................................... 7-77
Table 7.23 Thicknesses Designs for Various Discrete Stone, Brick or Block Surfacings (mm) .................................. 7-78
Table 7.24 Thicknesses Designs (mm) - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement (NRC) ................................................ 7-80
Table 7.25 Revised Design Table for Thin Sealed LVRRs with axles < 8 tonnes ......................................................... 7-81
Table 7.26 Revised Design Table for Roads with Very Low Traffic and Axles < 4.5 Tonnes ...................................... 7-81
Table 7.27 Typical causes of water ingress to, and egress from a road pavement ................................................... 7-82
Table 7.28 Typical Material Permeability .................................................................................................................. 7-82
Table 8.1 Key Material Characteristics .................................................................................................................... 8-89
Table 8.2 Material Types and Abbreviated Nominal Specifications ........................................................................ 8-90
Table 8.3 Subgrade Classes ..................................................................................................................................... 8-91
Table 8.4 Particle Size Distribution for Natural Gravel Base ................................................................................... 8-92
Table 8.5 Plasticity Requirements for Natural Gravel Base/Sub-base Materials .................................................... 8-92
Table 8.6 Guidelines for the Selection of Lateritic Gravel Base/Sub-base Materials .............................................. 8-93
Table 8.7 Typical Particle Size Distribution for Sub-bases ....................................................................................... 8-94
Table 8.8 Plasticity Characteristics for Granular Sub-bases .................................................................................... 8-94
Table 8.9 Material Specifications for Unsealed Rural Roads ................................................................................... 8-95
Table 8.10 Typical Requirements for Bitumen Chip Seal Aggregate ......................................................................... 8-96
Table 8.11 Typical Grading for Bituminous Pre-mix .................................................................................................. 8-97
Table 8.12 Typical Concrete Aggregate Grading Requirements ................................................................................ 8-98
Table 8.13 Basic Requirements for Filter/Drainage Materials .................................................................................. 8-99
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar iv

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.14 Miscellaneous Rock Use .......................................................................................................................... 8-99

Table 8.15 Broad Material Types............................................................................................................................. 8-100
Table 8.16 Uses of Hard Rocks Found in Myanmar ................................................................................................. 8-101
Table 8.17 Possible use of Weak Rocks in Road Construction ................................................................................ 8-102
Table 8.18 Broad Soil Types in Road Construction .................................................................................................. 8-102
Table 8.19 Key Data Sets in Materials Management ............................................................................................... 8-103
Table 8.20 Crushing Options and Limitations (Smith & Collis, 2020; McNally. 1998) ............................................. 8-105
Table 8.21 Guide to Selecting a Method of Stabilisation (after Austroads 1998) ................................................... 8-109
Table 9.1 Cut-off Wall Locations ........................................................................................................................... 9-119
Table 9.2 Cut-off Wall Depths ............................................................................................................................... 9-119
Table 9.3 Design discharge capacity of Culverts use for road cross-drainage ....................................................... 9-121
Table 9.4 Typical Design Capacities for Culverts ................................................................................................... 9-124
Table 9.5 Standard Drains ..................................................................................................................................... 9-125
Table 9.6 Some Criteria for selection of suitable crossing type ............................................................................ 9-127
Table 9.7 Criteria for selection of a low-water crossing ........................................................................................ 9-127
Table 9.8 Choosing the Type of Low Water Crossing ............................................................................................ 9-128
Table 9.9 Criteria for selection of a culvert ........................................................................................................... 9-129
Table 9.10 Criteria for selection of a small bridge ................................................................................................... 9-129
Table 9.11 Considerations for Choosing a Crossing Location .................................................................................. 9-133
Table 9.12 Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) table at Magway (Central Dry Zone) ............................................. 9-136
Table 9.13 Rational Method typical values of runoff coefficient "C" ...................................................................... 9-137
Table 9.14 Design flow analysis methods for various catchment sizes ................................................................... 9-138
Table 9.15 Data Sets and Sources Required to Develop Design Storms.................................................................. 9-140
Table 10.1 Typical Compactor Options.................................................................................................................. 10-144
Table 10.2 General Guidance on Cut-Slope Angles (V:H) ...................................................................................... 10-146
Table 10.3 Suggested Fill Slope Gradients ............................................................................................................. 10-148
Table 10.4 Low Cost Options for Embankment on Soft Ground ........................................................................... 10-149
Table 10.5 Common Types of Erosion and Slope Failure ...................................................................................... 10-151
Table 10.6 Stabilisation Options for Above the Road Problems ........................................................................... 10-154
Table 10.7 Stabilisation Options for Below the Road Problems ............................................................................ 10-155
Table 10.8 Primary Bioengineering References .................................................................................................... 10-159
Table 10.9 Recommended general bio-engineering procedures .......................................................................... 10-162
Table 11.1 Key References in Manual ................................................................................................................... 11-167
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar v

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figures
Figure 5.1 Typical Engineering and Non-Engineering Data Sets ................................................................................. 5-1
Figure 5.2 Generic Investigation Framework Adapted For Each Phase ...................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5.3 Typical Geotechnical map for part of a proposed road alignment in Nepal (TRL, 1997) ........................... 5-6
Figure 5.4 Risk Assessment Sequence (after PIARC, 2017) ......................................................................................... 5-8
Figure 5.5 Information Flowchart for Climate Resilience ........................................................................................... 5-8
Figure 5.6 Investigation Stages ................................................................................................................................. 5-13
Figure 6.1 Geometric Elements of a Rural Road Cross Section ................................................................................ 6-23
Figure 6.2 A general Relationship between Traffic and Road Width (CW+Shoulder) .............................................. 6-24
Figure 6.3 CRRN Class A Road with Animal Cart Verge ............................................................................................. 6-25
Figure 6.4 Passing Place Geometry Options ............................................................................................................. 6-26
Figure 6.5 Climbing Lane Configurations .................................................................................................................. 6-28
Figure 6.6 Options Sequence of Removal of Adverse Camber ................................................................................. 6-31
Figure 6.7 Superelevation Design Curves ................................................................................................................. 6-32
Figure 6.8 Sag curves ................................................................................................................................................ 6-35
Figure 6.9 Safety and the Road System .................................................................................................................... 6-39
Figure 6.10 Interrelationship between Road Elements and Operational Conditions............................................. 6-39
Figure 6.11 Good and Bad Junction Designs .......................................................................................................... 6-41
Figure 6.12 Examples of improving roadside access to reduce crashes ................................................................. 6-42
Figure 6.13 Procedure for dealing with roadside hazards...................................................................................... 6-43
Figure 6.14 Road humps......................................................................................................................................... 6-44
Figure 6.15 Signing of Low Water Stream Crossing (LWSC) ................................................................................... 6-46
Figure 7.1 Two-Phase Pavement Design Process ..................................................................................................... 7-49
Figure 7.2 Examples of Typical Thin Bituminous Surface Treatments ...................................................................... 7-53
Figure 7.3 Typical Pavement Layers.......................................................................................................................... 7-56
Figure 7.4 Differing Mechanisms of Performance of Bituminous Surfacings ........................................................... 7-56
Figure 7.5 Typical Engineered Natural Surface Road Cross Section in Flat Terrain .................................................. 7-63
Figure 7.6 Typical Engineered Natural Surface Road Cross Section in Hill Terrain ................................................... 7-64
Figure 7.7 Typical Gravel Road Cross Section in Flat Terrain .................................................................................... 7-65
Figure 7.8 Typical Gravel Road Cross Section in Hill Terrain..................................................................................... 7-65
Figure 7.9 Minimum Thickness LVRR Gravel Roads .................................................................................................. 7-66
Figure 7.10 Recommended pavement drainage arrangements............................................................................. 7-84
Figure 8.1 Natural Materials in a Typical Sealed Pavement ..................................................................................... 8-88
Figure 8.2 Nodular Laterite ....................................................................................................................................... 8-93
Figure 8.3 Gravel Wearing Coarse Material Quality Zones ....................................................................................... 8-95
Figure 8.4 Material Extraction ................................................................................................................................ 8-104
Figure 8.5 Material Extraction Methods ................................................................................................................. 8-106
Figure 8.6 Lateritic soil mechanically stabilised with crushed stone aggregate as base material. ......................... 8-108
Figure 9.1 A typical LWC ......................................................................................................................................... 9-113
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar vi

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 9.2 Typical crossing suitable for LWC construction ..................................................................................... 9-113
Figure 9.3 Low Water Crossing Types ..................................................................................................................... 9-114
Figure 9.4 Improved Ford ....................................................................................................................................... 9-115
Figure 9.5 VAR-ratio definition sketch (Keller G & Sherar J, 2003) ......................................................................... 9-116
Figure 9.6 Typical output from culvert design package .......................................................................................... 9-121
Figure 9.7 Typical Single Cell Box Culvert ............................................................................................................... 9-122
Figure 9.8 Box Culvert with Two Cells .................................................................................................................... 9-123
Figure 9.9 Typical Single Barrel Pipe Culvert .......................................................................................................... 9-123
Figure 9.10 Pipe Culvert with Two Barrels ........................................................................................................... 9-123
Figure 9.11 Drain Cross Sections ......................................................................................................................... 9-125
Figure 9.12 Typical Side Drain Arrangement (Keller G & Sherar J, 2003) ............................................................. 9-126
Figure 9.13 Typical Mitre Drain Schematic (Keller G & Sherar J, 2003)................................................................ 9-126
Figure 9.14 Predicted rainfall trends for the seven physiographic regions in Myanmar ..................................... 9-130
Figure 9.15 Catchment area analysis using a DEM and GIS.................................................................................. 9-135
Figure 9.16 Intensity-Duration-Frequency-Curve at Magway .............................................................................. 9-137
Figure 9.17 Comparison of regional mean annual floods .................................................................................... 9-139
Figure 10.1 Assessment of Excavatability........................................................................................................... 10-143
Figure 10.2 Typical LVRR Compacting Machines ................................................................................................ 10-145
Figure 10.3 Schematic Cut Profile ...................................................................................................................... 10-147
Figure 10.4 The Cut-Fill Situation ....................................................................................................................... 10-150
Figure 10.5 Typical Roadside Slope Failure Scenarios (After SEACAP, 2008) ..................................................... 10-152
Figure 10.6 General Stabilisation Options (Dept of Roads Nepal, 2007) ............................................................ 10-153
Figure 10.7 Typical LVRR Retaining Structures (DoR, Nepal, 207)...................................................................... 10-157
Figure 10.8 Typical LVRR Revetment Structures (2) (DoR, Nepal, 207) .............................................................. 10-157
Figure 10.9 Typical Combinations of Geotechnical and Bio-engineering Options (ADB, 2017) ......................... 10-161
Figure 11.1 General Pre-Feasibility Flow Chart (Cook et al, 2013) ..................................................................... 11-165
Figure 11.2 Check List of Pre-Feasibility Actions and Outputs ........................................................................... 11-166
Figure 11.3 General Feasibility Flow Chart (Cooke et al, 2013).......................................................................... 11-168
Figure 11.4 Check List of Feasibility Actions and Outputs .................................................................................. 11-169
Figure 11.5 Pavement FED General Flow Chart ................................................................................................. 11-171
Figure 11.6 Check List of FED Actions and Outputs ............................................................................................ 11-172
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar vii

SECTION B: DESIGN
5 Ground Investigations
5.1 Introduction
Cost effective and sustainable LVRR design depends on the assimilation of relevant information into the
design procedures. Consequently, investigation is an essential part of the design process. Commonly, advice
on LVRR investigation has largely been focussed on ground investigation ‘engineering’ or ‘geotechnical
engineering’ issues. However, given the cross-sectorial nature of LVRR design requirements, other types of
data investigation are required including hydrology, traffic and climatic issues. Due importance has also to
be given to related factors such as environmental impact and socio-economic issues. In the broad context of
a LVRR project, information gathering through investigation should cover both engineering and non-
engineering issues (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Typical Engineering and Non-Engineering Data Sets
Geology (soils and rock)
Geotechnical Engineering
Engineering
Investigations Road Engineering
Traffic
Hydrology and climate

LVRR design
investigations
Environmental impact
Social and factors

Non-Engineering
Investigations
Economic issues
Policy and strategy
The aim of this chapter is to provide guidance on the appropriate types and levels of investigation (data
collection) required for best practice design of LVRRs from planning through to construction. The chapter and
its associated Annexes also provide users with the necessary guidance on planning, implementation and
interpretation of appropriate investigations.
5.2 Engineering Related Investigations
5.2.1 Aims
Engineering design related investigations need to recover a range of data sets as summarised in Table 5.1.
Site investigation techniques used to acquire this data encompass a wide range of methods; the amount and
type of exploration that is needed for a specific road project will depend on the nature of the proposed
project and the environment in which it is to be built.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 5.1 Engineering Data Sets
Data Set Description Principal Application

Geological Identification of the geological setting in Definition of a simple geological model
terms of bedrock, weathering condition including sources of construction
and soil types and their relationships. materials, natural hazards and foundation
conditions.
Geotechnical & Road Engineering Soil and rock characteristics and Input to key elements of pavement,
geotechnical parameters together with earthwork and bridge design.
relative locations and geometry.
Identification of existing road conditions.
Traffic The amounts and types of traffic likely to Governs road geometry and key input to
use the road or roads throughout the detailed pavement design.
design life.
Hydrology Definition of water courses, watersheds Essential design input to road drainage,
and general hydrological conditions. bridge, low water crossing and culverts
design
Climate Definition of current and future climate Modification of drainage design to meet
characteristics including major storm climate resilience requirements.
events.
5.2.2 Investigation Stages

Overall site investigations are linked to the principal stages within the project cycle.
§ Planning;
§ Pre-feasibility (PFS);
§ Feasibility Study or Preliminary Engineering Design; (FS/PED)
§ Final Engineering Design (FED);
§ Construction;
§ Maintenance.
In the case of single LVRR projects the PFS may be omitted in some cases. In contrast, larger projects, for
example, donor supported programmes involving a number of LVRRs within a single rural road programme,
there is likely to be a full suite of stages. Additional special investigations may be required for specific
purposes during the Project Cycle; for example, for additional construction materials or to investigate slope
stability issues during the construction phase.
Each phase of a project will have specific objectives and the site investigation requirements for each phase
should be focussed on these objectives, Figure 5.2. Investigation budgets are likely to be very constrained for
most LVRR projects and hence the procedures and techniques employed must be carefully selected and
planned to obtain maximum information for the least cost.
5.2.3 The Myanmar Context

It is unlikely within the Myanmar rural road strategy that many, if any, investigations will be required for
completely new alignments, although sections of existing alignment may be modified. Investigations are
likely to be focussed on:
§ Upgrade or rehabilitation of existing individual roads;
§ Upgrade or rehabilitation of groups of roads;
§ Modifications to existing alignments;
§ Specific road assets (pavement, structures, earthworks).

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 5.2 Generic Investigation Framework Adapted For Each Phase
Each of these options will require a different focus. In addition, the Myanmar rural road network provides
access and mobility within a range of very different physical and climatic environments, each of which may
require different approaches to investigation as well as design.
5.3 Investigation Activities
5.3.1 Desk Studies

Before any on-site investigations are carried out, or even planned and designed, it is vital to study all the
relevant information that is available about the project area. This is done through a systematic desk study
which entails the collection review and analysis of available detailed information (Weltman & Head, 1983;
Cook et al, 2001, TRL, 2005).
Studying existing documents, including site investigations from earlier project phases, and examining maps
and remote sensing images often eliminates an unfavourable option from further consideration, thus saving
a considerable amount of time and money, see Table 5.2.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 5.2 Existing Data Sources Relevant to LVRR Design in Myanmar
Information Functional Use Application

Existing Myanmar guidelines and Main road and highway standards and Additional design data and
manuals. guidelines from MoC and supporting donors in information on aspects of geometry,
Myanmar. drainage, pavement and materials
and structural design of bridges.
Road Design Research Recent data on geometry, drainage, pavement Evidence for more cost-effective
and materials and structural design of roads LVRR designs.
and bridges. Note, for example, the DRRD
pavement trials in Taunggyi.
Road and other Engineering Reports Previous road investigations in Myanmar will Reports may provide geological,
provide a range of data and information such hydrological, and geotechnical
as: soil and rock type, strength parameters, information for the general area in
hydrogeological issues, construction question that may reduce the scope
materials, information on local road or better target the nature of the site
performance and sustainability. investigation.
Remote Sensing Identifies man-made structures, potential Evaluating photographs or satellite

hazards, potential borrow source areas. images may save time during
Provides geologic and hydrological construction material or geo-hazard
information which can be used as a basis for surveys. Google Earth can provide
site reconnaissance and tracking site changes valuable data on terrain, water
over time. Use Google Earth as a low cost courses, land-use, alignment
approach. geometry and even road condition,
Topographic Maps Provide a good index or base map. Allows Identification of access areas and
estimation of site topography. Identifies restrictions, and can estimate
physical features. potential earthworks requirements
possible flood areas before visiting
the site.
Geologic Reports and Maps Provide information on soil and rock types and A report on regional geology can
characteristics. Hydro-geological issues. identify rock types, fracture,
orientation and groundwater
patterns.
Soil maps Local soil types. Permeability of local soils. The local soil survey provides
information on near-surface soils to
facilitate preliminary borrow pit
exploration. Indications of problem
soils.
Meteorological and Climatic data Mean Annual/Monthly; Rainfall and Indications of current and future
distribution Max and min temperatures; climatic risks within a road
evaporation. Specific reports on climate environment.
change in Myanmar.
Land use /land cover Distributional and type of soils; drainage and Identify the physical and biological
water courses; agriculture and forest cover. cover over the land, including water,
vegetation, bare soil, and artificial
structures. Land use changes a key
warning indicator of earthwork
stability issues.
Local Knowledge Traffic classification, traffic variation, road Identification of specific problems
user demand, hazards and ground instability, and possible hazards along proposed
local road performance and maintenance alignment;
history, accident black spots, water sources,
local weather conditions, flood vulnerability
and drainage characteristics.
Statistics and Future Plans Population data and demographics; Socio- Future activities within vicinity of
Economic and household survey information; planned road corridor, including
Development Plans. changes in land use and use..

SECTION B: DESIGN
5.3.2 Walkover surveys

The initial walkover survey should focus on visually covering the entire length of the proposed alignment
before concentrating on detailed locations. Key walkover objectives are summarised in Table 5.3. The walk-
over surveys should, in conjunction with the Desk Study, establish the key physical, geotechnical,
hydrological, climate impacts, and engineering aspects of the proposed alignment as well as identifying
potential problem areas for detailed investigation.
Table 5.3 Road Design Walk-Over Surveys
Survey Description
1.Initial Site Visit A broadly-based walkover or “drive and stop” survey to identify
general road environment, key features and potential hazards
or engineering challenges.
2.Alignment inventory Walkover survey to systematically log on a strip map all the key
features of the alignment or existing road.
3.Road condition Systematic visual survey of existing road condition. An essential
step if a Spot Improvement strategy is being considered.
4.Climate impact Required to identify areas vulnerable to current and future
climate impact. Gathering of local knowledge is key part of this
survey. May be combined with surveys 2 and/or 3.
5.Hazard Detailed additional walkover of hazards identified a part of
surveys 2, or 4. May include some simple geotechnical mapping.
6.Hydrological Walkover survey to log all stream/river crossing and their size,
and other potential locations of water crossing. Note issues
such as gradients, soil types, existing structure condition, and
evidence of flood levels.
Two or more of the above surveys can be combined into a principal Walk-Over survey. Standard forms and
procedures are available for use on these surveys (see Annex IV). On some projects, particularly for example
those in the mountainous areas of Chin and Shan states, basic engineering geological mapping may be a
necessary element of walkover surveys, Figure 5.3 (Geological Society, 1972). Simple walkover geological
mapping can be a key element in material investigations (Cook et al 2001, Roughton International 2000).
5.3.3 Traffic Survey

Traffic surveys are an essential requirement for estimating the types and amounts of vehicles (motorised and
non- motorised) and pedestrians likely to use the road. Details on the methodology of these surveys are
included in Chapter 6 and Annex I.
Data from these surveys will be principally analysed in terms of:
§ Passenger Carrier Units (PCU); mainly for geometric design and transport service issues;
§ Average daily traffic (ADT) adjusted for vehicle type and AADT, mainly for pavement surface and
structural design;
§ Equivalent Standard Axles (esa); for pavement structural design;
§ Axle loads; for pavement and bridge design.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 5.3 Typical Geotechnical map for part of a proposed road alignment in Nepal (TRL, 1997)

SECTION B: DESIGN
5.3.4 Sub-Surface Ground Investigations

Ground investigations should be designed to provide a characterisation of ground conditions or materials
relevant to the proposed works (Sabatini at al, 2002). They should establish a basis for the assessment of the
geotechnical and road engineering parameters relevant for all stages of the Project Cycle. Investigations may
also be required to provide relevant information on groundwater for geotechnical design and construction.
Specialist investigations may be required to collect information about identified geohazards and geotechnical
engineering problem areas.
Ground investigations may be undertaken using a variety of sampling and testing techniques available in
Myanmar, as outlined in Table 5.4. This table presents a list of techniques that may be required for LVRRs in
general. Further details of ground investigation procedures likely to be used in Myanmar for LVRR ground
investigations are included in Annex IV to this document.
Table 5.4 Standard LVRR Ground Investigation Techniques
Technique Purpose Application
DCP survey In-situ test for strength Light and portable, gives information on state of near surface
characteristics. Depth 0.8m or up ground or existing pavement layers. Testing is quick and simple.
to 1.5m with extension rods. Used for pavement design, quality control and light foundation
investigations. (See Annex V for further details)
Vane shear test In-situ shear strength in soft clays. Especially good for assessing soft clays for embankment
foundations. Equipment is easily portable. Can be used in
conjunction with boreholes.
Cone Penetration Test or In situ strength and Light portable machines as well as heavier machines are
Piezocone compressibility of soils. available. Good reliable information in soft to stiff clays and
loose to dense sands. Used in areas under moderate to high
embankment and for structure foundation investigations.
Test Pits and Trenches Visual examination of in situ soil Provides a ground profile and allows good undisturbed
profiles; normally 1-2m deep sampling as well large bulk samples for testing subgrade and
although up to 5m possible with potential fill material. DCP profiles can be undertaken from pit
adequate support and safety bottoms.
precautions.
Auguring Provides in situ information on Can extend to 15-20m depth if machine driven. Hand-held very
material present. Wide range of useful for during walkover surveys. Used for establishing soil
options from hand-held to profiles and depth to bedrock. Highly disturbed samples. In situ
machine driven. testing possible.
Boring and Drilling A number of options available Boring and drilling in most LVRR projects limited to structure
from soil wash boring to high sites, deep earthworks and special purposes (e.g. landslide or
quality rock coring to recover deep weak soil investigations). Frequently used in conjunction
samples for examination and with in situ testing.
testing.
Standard Penetration In conjunction with boreholes can Used in conjunction with auguring or boring holes. Used for
Testing (SPT) provide in situ test strength gauging ground strength for structure foundation investigation
results in most materials and can and high earthworks.
be used in weak rocks.
Geophysics (Seismic Can differentiate between loose Light and portable. A sledge hammer and geophones provide a
hammer) unconsolidated sediments and low-cost option. Can use for key areas where rock head is
intact bedrock rock. uncertain and critical for design. May require correlation with
boreholes.

SECTION B: DESIGN
The use of any technique or combination of techniques for a specific road will be a function of the scale,
nature and geotechnical environment of that road. Ground investigations need to be carefully planned and
must consider the nature of the ground; the nature and phase of the project; and the project design
requirements. Results from the Desk Study and Walk-Over surveys should be used in the planning of cost-
effective ground investigations.
5.3.5 Climate Resilience Investigations

Climate resilience studies should be undertaken with a view to assessing the climate risk and defining the
appropriate risk reduction options; as outlined in Figure 5.4. A check list for data collection for climate
resilience assessment is summarised below (ReCAP 2019, PIARC, 2015):
1. Identify the general climatic environment of the project and its principal characteristics.
2. Define the location of all project roads within the environment
3. Identify specific climate threats
4. Assess the overall condition of the road
5. Identify vulnerabilities of the roads or road assets to the climate threats
6. Identify and prioritise climate impact risks
7. Collect data on climate impact reduction options from similar projects or roads
8. Collect and assess cost data on likely options
The final assessments should be fully integrated with the main phases of LVRR investigations for inclusion in
the main project documentation, Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.4 Risk Assessment Sequence (after PIARC, 2017)
Risk Risk Risk

Assess Risk Assessment Risk
Identification Reduction Risk M & E
Context Analysis Treatment
(Priorities) Options
Feedback Loops from M & E
Figure 5.5 Information Flowchart for Climate Resilience
Climate Engineering Final Asset

Impact Detail Data detail
Selected Engineering
Engineering Adaptation Contract
Options Design drawings,
specifications,
ToR and Bills of
Selected Non- Non- Quantity
Engineering Engineering
Options Interventions
Operational Local Policy and

Environment Resources Strategy

SECTION B: DESIGN
5.3.6 Hydrology and Small Structures

The objective of a structures site investigation is to provide a clear picture of the ground conditions to enable
a suitable design to be carried out, as detailed in Chapter 9. The ground underneath a proposed structure
should have an adequate bearing capacity to support the load of the structure itself and the vehicles, which
pass over it. By identifying and sampling the material excavated from different depths of the trial pits the
bearing capacity of the soil can be determined. Bearing capacities are particularly important in the design of
structures where large localised loads are expected, (e.g. bridge abutments and piers) and the foundation
must be suitable to support these loads as well being able to resist erosion.
The initial assessment should comprise an inventory of all structures (or required structures) on the road
network. It is essential that detailed assessments be undertaken at each structure site as these form a large
percentage of the overall cost of the road infrastructure (TRL, 1988). Assessments undertaken at sites of
proposed structure locations should be sufficiently detailed to ensure:
§ Enough time is spent identifying the best location for any new structure;
§ The appropriate type of structure is chosen;
§ The structure is adequate for the purpose (traffic, water flows and size);
§ The design should not need to be significantly changed during construction.
The main issues to be decided during the assessment of new structures are:
§ Type of structure;
§ Location of the structure;
§ Size of structure.
The assessment may be undertaken for either a new structure or the upgrading of an existing structure. In
either case the design work will be similar. Table 5.5 summarises key data requirements for small structures
design (as detailed in Chapter 9).
Table 5.5 Small Structures Design Data Requirement
Category Item Information required

- Is there an availability of trade skills in the locality e.g. carpentry, stonemasons?
- What is the standard of workmanship available?
- Options of:
Labour - Specialist skills vs. training local labour
- Time/cost vs. skills transfer and ongoing maintenance potential
- Labour wage rates
- What is the availability of local materials (eg masonry stone [rough/dressed], timber, locally manufactured
brick and blockwork)?
Local - What is the strength, quality, durability and quantity of local materials?
Resources - Steel: what are the imported and delivery costs to site, delays, welding, bending and fixing skills available?
Materials
- Cement: what are the strengths achievable, delivery/ import delays, types of concrete and experience,
quality control and possible testing arrangements?
- What are the unit costs of materials?
- What basic specialist equipment is available / would be required for construction AND maintenance
(transport, production, loading unloading, mixing, placing, craneage etc.?)
Equipment
- What are the costs of equipment (including transport and servicing costs)?
- What is the reliability of the collected data?

Design - Is a separate structure needed to allow work to commence further along the road?
General
Criteria - What will be the cost for construction AND maintenance?
- Do pedestrians, animals or IMTs frequently travel along the road?

SECTION B: DESIGN
Category Item Information required

- What is the class of road?
- Are local standards established for structures on this category of road?
- What is the largest type of vehicle that uses the road?
- Does vehicle and axle load data exist?
- If funds are severely constrained, is a one lane, alternate traffic flow option feasible?
Traffic - What is the traffic density, does it vary e.g. seasonally or on market days in the local area?
- Review standards used elsewhere and recommend appropriate ones. Will the vehicle size or loading increase
if the road or structure is improved (new or re-routed traffic)?
- Are any exceptional loads transported? - Check for logging, quarries, mining or other industries in the area.
What are the possible traffic, economic and safety implications?
- Which types of structure would be acceptable?

New
Structure
- What is the general condition of the structure?
- What was the original design life?
- Do as-built records exist?
Type of - Are there indications of maximum flood levels on structure?
Structure
Existing - Are there any signs of post construction settlement?
Structure - What are the main problems with the existing structure?
- Are there failures in any of the structural elements?
- What is the current level of scour around structure?
- Indications of excessive loading or abuse?
- Dimensions and any possibility of refurbishment or adaptation?
- Is the depth to firm strata or rock known?
- What type of material is available to build on for foundations?
- What is the level of the water table?
Site - What is the compressibility or strength of subsoil?
General
Selection - What is the best location of trial pits - to provide the most valuable information?
- Is the water / soil chemistry aggressive to building materials? (specialist advice may be required)
- Is the stream perennial or seasonal?

- What is the type of watercourse? (Meandering, straight, bends, presence of weeds)
- Is the watercourse and bed stable, e.g. in rock?
- What is the low water level?
- What are the minimum or normal flow levels?
- What are the maximum flood levels (MFL)? (frequency of occurrence and duration)
- What are the watercourse cross sections at potential site?
Water-course
- What is the gradient of watercourse upstream and downstream of the crossing point?
Details - Is there evidence of course/bank or level changes, erosion/deposition at the site, upstream or downstream?
Consult with old maps and the community
- Is there sometimes floating debris in the water?
Water - What is the water velocity during floods?
Parameters - What is the longitudinal section or profile along the watercourse? Is the watercourse used for private or
commercial traffic with headroom requirements?
- Size and amount of sediment supplied from catchment area.
- Area of catchment?
- Are sudden floods encountered?
- Shape of catchment?
Catchment - Gradient of terrain?
Details - Permeability of soil?
- Vegetation coverage and type?
- Rainfall intensity?
- Is the vegetation coverage changing rapidly e.g. Deforestation?

SECTION B: DESIGN
5.3.7 Laboratory Testing

Within the budget constraints of LVRR investigations geotechnical laboratory testing should not be
commissioned on an arbitrary or ad hoc basis but should be part of a rationally designed programme. No
single test procedure is likely to satisfy design information requirements and a package of test procedures
will be needed. An appropriate test programme will include a logical selection and sequence of tests that is
function of the geotechnical environment, the nature of the investigation and the road design requirements.
Clear objectives should be identified and test procedures and test programmes should be designed with
these in mind (Cook et al, 2001, Head 1992). The relationships between in situ conditions and the disturbance
or remoulding experienced by the sampled and tested material need to be clearly borne in mind when
designing and developing the test regime.
With some specific exceptions, all testing in Myanmar should be performed in accordance with appropriate
specification for laboratory procedures in AASHTO and ASTM. Standards such as AASHTO-ASTM lay down
procedures of good practice that are in the main based on "normal" experience with temperate zone
sedimentary soils. When dealing with tropical residually weathered materials special procedures are often
necessary to obtain reliable, relevant and consistent results. This applies particularly to the handling and
treatment of samples before testing (Head 1992, Geological Society, 1997).
Annex II outlines the key issues in the design and undertaking of laboratory test programmes. Particular
emphasis is placed on the selection of appropriate tests and the need for effective quality management
throughout the whole testing and reporting process.
Within an overall aim of assuring that selected materials and designs are fit for their identified purpose,
testing is undertaken for a number of reasons.
§ Characterisation of soil rock masses and materials along the route;

§ Assessment of geotechnical properties influencing earthwork cuts and fills;
§ Assessment of geotechnical properties related to natural hazards;
§ Identification of potential material resources;
§ Construction quality assurance;
§ In service post-construction monitoring;
It is useful to divide materials test procedures into a number of general categories that reflect the nature of
the test. These are:
§ Physical: Tests associated with defining inherent physical properties or conditions;

§ Simulation: Tests associated with portraying some form of geotechnical or engineering character either
directly or by implication;
§ Chemical: Tests aimed at identifying the occurrence of key chemical compounds;
§ Petrographic: Those tests or assessments associated with analysing or describing fabric or mineralogy,
although this group of tests are unlikely to feature in most LVRR investigations.
An understanding of the properties being measured by the individual tests is important in the selection of
appropriate procedures. Simulation testing, in particular, may be based largely on empirical testing
procedures rather than modelling expected service behaviours. This issue is particularly important in tropical
and sub-tropical environments where assumptions and empirical correlations are derived from testing
temperate region soils (Geological Society, 1997).
Tropically weathered material behaviour can be noticeably different from temperate sedimentary soils. The
approach to the laboratory investigation of tropical materials in terms of the range of tests employed, their
detailed procedures and their interpretation should derive principally from the following:
§ Chemically bonded materials (e.g. affects assessment of strength);

§ Mineralogical complexity (e.g. influences volume change);
§ Fragile relict fabric and texture (e.g. leads to particle break-down);
§ Moisture susceptibility.

SECTION B: DESIGN
5.3.8 Special Investigations

There may be a need to include special investigations for specific hazards or geotechnical problems.
Table 5.6 Special Investigations in the Myanmar Road Environments

Issue Description Investigation focus
Road side instability Actual or potential slope failure or Geometry of failure and soil rock profiles. Walkover
erosion impacting on the road geotechnical surveys and test pitting useful for small
alignment. failures. Geophysics for bedrock depth. Data required for
stabilisation and protection works – see Chapter 10
Soft or organic soils These soils can cause problems of Depths of soft materials by auguring, boreholes or possible
settlement or failure underneath geophysics. In situ testing by shear vane or CPT for design of
embankments. options outlined in Chapter 10.
Marginal construction The requirement to use local materials Sampling and testing to define material properties and
materials may require the investigation and use possibly the use lime, cement of mechanical modification
of marginal quality resources. techniques. (See Chapter 8)
Sensitive soils Soils that have a fabric vulnerable to Extent and nature of problem soils by pitting and careful
sudden collapse or are highly erodible. sampling. Specialist testing – see Chapter 8 and Annex II
Swell/shrink soils Soils subject to excessive volume Extent and nature of problem soils by pitting and careful
change on wetting drying. sampling. Specialist testing – see Chapter 8 and Annex IV
5.4 Investigation Implementation within the Project Cycle
5.4.1 General
The range of investigation procedures will be applicable throughout the project cycle, although the emphasis
may change. Figure 5.6 outlines the stages of investigations linked to a normal project cycle and Table 5.7
indicates the relative importance of investigation procedures with differing stages in the project cycle.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 5.6 Investigation Stages
Project Idenification
Project Identifed
Pre-feasPre-feasability
Initial desk study and Site
visit(s)
Assess possible alternative project

Pre-feasability not
ammendments
required
Outline project model.

Design next stages
Feasability
Asessmnet and preliminary costs
Feasability not Main desk study, and
and design. Feasibel to
required surveys
continue?
Design detailed
Yes No
investigation
Design
Main investigations Main interpretative

incluidng lab tests Report
Final design, costs, BoQ
Construction
Construction: Assess design Additional investigations

assumptions by obseravtion and during consruction as
ammend designs as required reuired
Table 5.7 Relative importance of investigation activities during the project life-cycle
Investigation Activity
Project Phase Walkover - Ground Laboratory
Desk Study
Mapping Investigation Testing
Planning A B C C
Feasibility Study A A B B
Final Engineering Design B B A A
Construction C B B A
Maintenance C B C C
Rehabilitation B A B B
Note: A: Primary activity; B: Support Activity C: Supplementary Activity

SECTION B: DESIGN
5.4.2 Pre-feasibility Stage (PFS)

The following is a check list for data acquisition and investigation procedures at the PFS stage of a project:
1. Confirmation the road falls within the “LVRR” category for design purposes.
2. A general summary of the likely road environments to be encountered.
3. Whether there are likely to be any major technical challenges.
4. A general assessment of whether or not there are likely to be any major construction materials issues in
terms of quality or quantity.
5. General climate and climate change pattern and identification of data sources.
6. Indications of any major problems in terms of flood impact or, alternatively, potential water shortages.
7. Broad classification of project terrain and identification of mapping sources.
8. Sub-grade: identification of reported issues with previous projects.
9. General levels of traffic: for example, within any existing road classification system.
10. Identify the classification levels for the proposed project. If none exists than it may be necessary to
outline temporary guidelines.
11. Confirm the relevant standards and specifications that are legally in place and review whether or not
they are appropriate.
12. Identification of general legal requirements and any likely major constraints and issues as regards
environmental impact.
13. Identification and assessment of the implications of any governing safety policies.
14. Preliminary social impact data.
15. Information on likely Complementary Interventions.
16. General outline costs.
5.4.3 Feasibility
In general terms the Feasibility Stage assesses potential design options and identifies those most likely to
provide a sustainable solution within the governing road environment and within the expected budgets. This
is generally seen as a critical stage by road authorities and external funders and donors such as the World
Bank, ADB or JICA. Relevant Ministry planners and DRRD, Local authorities and Consultants are normally
closely involved at this stage.
The following is a check list for data acquisition and investigation procedures at the FS stage of a project:
1. Identify likely sources of construction material in terms of location, quality and quantity and note any
particular shortfalls or material sources that have caused problems in the past.
2. Establish current and likely future annual climatic patterns from ongoing desk study. Undertake an
assessment of the likely climatic impacts and hence the likely level of Climate Resilience required.
3. Surface and sub-surface hydrology; identify the general hydrological conditions, and variability,
prevailing over the proposed alignments by walkover survey, examination of available records and
discussion with local groups.
4. Define the overall relative percentage of terrain groups along the alignment. Identify any high risk critical
areas.
5. Establish likely minimum strength values for subgrade along alignments. Identify problem areas likely to
impact significantly on pavement design.

SECTION B: DESIGN
6. Establish likely requirement for earthworks and outline design.

7. Investigate drainage requirements
8. Investigate of bridge locations and other river crossing sites
9. Investigate the general traffic regime including likely traffic volumes in terms both of PCUs and esa.
Identify potential “design vehicles”. Define equivalent axle loads for prevailing vehicles either from
continuing desk study or preliminary axle load surveys.
10. Identify the level of experience of the potential contractors in terms of the likely pavement and surfacing
options. Identify potential training needs for local contractors.
11. Assess the environmental impacts of the proposed pavement and surfacing options within the
framework of governing regulations and prepare draft environmental management plans.
12. Identify or draft road safety standards relevant to the geometric design of the proposed pavement
options. Link these standards to the identified non-motorised traffic elements that will use the proposed
roads.
13. Relevant social impact and safeguards data.
14. Complementary Intervention information.
15. Cost estimation data.
5.4.4 Final Engineering Design (FED)

The FED stage requires sufficient data for preparation of the contract documents including design, technical
specifications and Bills of Quantities. Final detailed cost estimation is also likely to be required. The FED stage
requires more investigation and considerably more detail than has been required hitherto. The entire process
of project design should now be completed with sufficient accuracy to minimise the risk of changes being
required after the works contract has been awarded.
The following is a check list for data acquisition and investigation procedures at the FED stage of a project:
1. Sources of material should be defined in terms of location, quality and quantity such that it is clearly
established that the road or roads can be built to the required specification with the available materials.
Source location, haulage, processing and placement costs need to be investigated and any inflation
factors considered.
2. Climatic patterns and the nature of future climate and potential severe climatic events should be
confirmed. The levels of Climate Resilience should be defined and adaptation measures selected and
designed.
3. Detailed geotechnical data for earthwork design.
4. Detailed geotechnical data on any identified potential hazard areas.
5. Seismic impact data for large earthworks and bridges.
6. Ground water levels should be established and areas and depths of flooding defined.
7. Alignment gradients should be established based on the topographic survey. These may be critical in
terms of Spot Improvement strategy.
8. Design sub-grade strengths should be selected based on updated or more detailed site work building on
the feasibility data.
9. Detailed bridge abutment and pier foundation conditions should have been defined.

SECTION B: DESIGN
10. Feasibility assumptions on traffic patterns should be cross-checked and, if required, additional surveys
undertaken aimed specifically at obtaining data for each vehicle category and axle loading for the
pavement layer design.
11. The “Green” Environment. Undertake any further required environmental impacts studies.
12. Social impact and Complementary Intervention data should be collected, finalised and be incorporated
into the contract documents.
5.4.5 Construction
Data acquisition and investigation procedures at this stage of a project will largely be centred on the following
activities:
1. Quality control through a combination of visual inspection, in situ testing and laboratory check testing
(See Chapter 12 for further detail)
2. Investigations into design changes or alterations. This may be due to occurrence of unforeseen ground
conditions or a change of plan by the road authority. The standard investigation techniques described
above and in Annex IV would still apply.
3. Undertaking a Technical Audit – see Chapter 14 for further details.
5.4.6 Level of Investigations

The size and costs investigations vary depending on the type of road and the complexity of the geotechnical
and other environments, but the following figures are based on Institution of Civil Engineers (2012) as a
percentage of capital cost expenditure
§ Bridges 0.2 to 0.5%
§ Road 0.2 to 2.0%
§ Embankments 0.1 to 0.2%
LVRR investigations in some regions of Myanmar, for example mountain roads in Chin or Shan states or roads
on soft clays in the delta area will be at the higher end of the range, or in some cases even higher.
Ideally, sufficient budget should be allocated for a thorough investigation to facilitate cost-effective road
design and construction and to reduce the possibility of unexpected conditions being encountered during
construction of the works. These can frequently lead to costly delays amounting to much more than would
have funded a properly programmed and conducted investigation.
Table 5.8 summarises some guidance on the extent of typical investigations in anticipated normal ground
conditions. Additional or deeper investigation would be required in areas of special ground conditions.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 5.8 Investigation Requirements and Locations1
Asset Location and Extent
Feasibility studies; combination of pits and DCP at 0.5km to 1km spacing and change of soil types. Detailed
studies at 200m spacing with DCP, closer in difficult ground conditions. Sampling for soil index tests and
Pavement
CBR/MDD – number depending on soil, type and what DCP design approach is adopted.
Boreholes/auger holes in areas of suspect ground.
At least 1 borehole per 200m to Depth (D)= 2m (or D=0.4 maximum cut height) below foundation level.
Deep cut
Test pits at 200m. DCP at 50m spacing can be used for interpolation of soil depths.
At least 1 borehole per 200m to D= 6m (or D=0.8-1.2 times maximum cut height) below foundation level.
Embankment Test pits at 200m. DCP at 50m spacing can be used for interpolation of soil depths. Undisturbed sampling
for settlement characteristics. Additional Boreholes/auger holes in areas of suspect ground.
Low Water
No sub surface ground investigation normally required unless poor ground identified during walkover.
Crossing
Culvert 1 trial pit at outlet. 1.5 m. Possible DCP in weak ground.
2 pit (only 1 required if ford is shorter than 15 meters). At each end of the vented section, preferably one
Vented ford
on the upstream and one on the downstream side D=1.5m. Possible DCP in weak ground
Pits at each abutment and each pier. 2.5 m (deeper in poor ground conditions). Possible DCP in weak
Large bore culvert
ground.
1 borehole (or pit if bedrock close to surface) at each abutment and each pier. To firm strata (minimum
Bridge
of 3m into foundation strata). Geophysics may be used to interpolate bedrock if required.
An exploration phase of 2-3 pits through depth of usable material to identify possible sources. A more
detailed proving phase with pits at 50m spacing is commonly recommended. Large bulk sampling will be
Borrow pit
required for the whole suite of properties required for earthworks or pavement usage and the
development of haulage diagrams (Chapter 8).
Existing quarries can be sampled for quality. Quantity estimate by walkover and terrain mapping.
Feasibility or exploration for new resources may require 1 to 2 boreholes to prove depth and quality.
Hard rock quarry
Geophysics may be used to determine extent of good rock once it is identified. Suitably representative
material for rock and aggregate testing.
1
Information in this table based on a number of sources (SANRAL, 2013; SAICE,2010; Cook et al 2001; BSI,1997)

SECTION B: DESIGN
References
BSI, 1997. Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design. BS EN1997-1:2004.

Cook J R, Gourley C S & Elsworth N E , 2001. Guidelines on the Selection and Use of Road construction
Materials in Developing Countries. TRL research Report R6898 for DFID, UK. Geological Society,
1990.
Geological Society, 1972. The Preparation of Maps and Plans in Terms of Engineering Geology. Quarterly
Journel of Engineering Geology, 5, 293-381, London UK.
Geological Society, (1997). Tropical Residual Soils. A Geological Society Engineering Group. Working Party
RevisedReport. Geological Society Professional Handbooks.
Head K H,1992. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol 1 Soil Classification and Compaction Tests (2nd
Edition). Pentech Press 387
Institution of Civil Engineers, 2012. Manual of Geotechnical Engineering Vol 1: Geotechnical Engineering
Principles. UK.
PIARC, 2015. International Climate Change Adaptation Framework for Road Infrastructure.
ReCAP, 2019, Climate Adaptation: Risk Management and Resilience Optimisation for Vulnerable Road Access
in Africa: Climate Threats and Vulnerability Assessment. CSIR AfCAP Project GEN2014C for DFID.
Roughton International Ltd 2000. Guidelines on Materials and Borrow Pit Management for Low Cost Roads.
DFID KaR Report R6852
Sabatini P.J, Bachus R.C. Mayne P.W,. Schneider J.A, Zettler T.E.2002. Geotechnical Engineering Circular NO.
5. Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties. Report No.FHWA-IF-02-034. U.S. Department of
Transportation. Federal Highway Administration.
SANRAL, 2013. South African Pavement Engineering Manual: Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and
Design Considerations. South African National Roads Agency Ltd.
The South African Institution of Civil Engineering (SAICE), 2010. Site Investigation Code of Practice.
TRL, 1988. Overseas Road Note 7; Volume 1. A Guide to Bridge Inspection and Data Systems for District
Engineers. TRL Ltd for DFID.
TRL, 1997. Overseas Road Note 17. Principles of Low Cost Road Engineering in Mountainous Regions. TRL Ltd
for DFID.
TRL, 2005. Overseas Road Note 5; A guide to Project Appraisal. TRL Ltd for DFID.
Weltman, A J & Head J M, 1983. Site Investigation Manual. CIRIA Spec. Pub. 25.

SECTION B: DESIGN
6 Geometric Design
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Background
The geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to meet
the needs of all the road users. The geometric standards are intended to balance two important objectives
namely to provide appropriate levels of safety and comfort for road users and to minimize earthworks to
reduce construction costs.
Geometric design covers road width; cross-fall; horizontal and vertical alignments and sightlines; and the
transverse profile or cross-section. The cross-sectional profile includes the geometry of the carriageway,
shoulders, verges and side drainage ditches. Although embankment heights and side slopes are a vital part
of cross-section design they are dealt with in a separate process (Chapter 10).
The cross-section essentially adapts the pavement or carriageway to the road environment and is closely
tied-in with drainage. For paved roads, wide, sealed shoulders and high camber or cross-fall can significantly
improve the operating environment for the pavement layers by minimizing the ingress of surface water. Most
drainage aspects are dealt with in the Pavement (Chapter 7), Drainage and Structures (Chapter 9) and
Earthworks (Chapter 10).
6.1.2 Myanmar Rural Roads Classification

As outlined in Chapter 2, the Central Committee for the Development of Regional Roads and Bridges has
broadly grouped Myanmar rural roads into three administrative classes for the establishment of the CRRN
(Core Rural Road Network) in line with the National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access (NSRAA). Section
2.4.2 and Table 2.2 outline this broad three tier classification which forms the basic framework for guiding
the Myanmar geometric design standards.
6.1.3 Chapter Scope

This chapter introduces and presents the rationale, considerations and selection procedure for appropriate
geometric designs for a particular route and sets out the various Geometric Standards to be used for LVRR in
the contrasting road environments of Myanmar.
6.2 Principal factors affecting geometric design standards

The principal factors that affect the appropriate geometric design of a road are:
§ Cost and level of service;

§ Traffic volume and composition;
§ Terrain and topography;
§ Safety;
§ Pavement type;
§ Roadside population (open country or populated areas);
§ Administrative or functional classification.
Since these factors differ for every road, the geometric design of every road could, in principle, be different.
This is impractical and it is, therefore, normal practice to design a fixed number of geometric standards to
cope with the range of key factors in the relevant network.

SECTION B: DESIGN
6.2.1 Cost
Designs have to be justified economically, and the optimum choice will vary with construction, maintenance
and road user costs. As road standards increase, agency costs (road construction and maintenance costs)
increase but road user costs decrease. From an economic point of view the standards adopted should be
those applicable to the minimum total costs. The position of this minimum is strongly dependant on the
traffic level, as would be expected, hence, from an economic point of view; standards should increase as
traffic increases.
6.2.2 Traffic Volume and Composition

Whilst economic appraisals leading to the adoption of road geometry are a standard procedure for roads
carrying high volumes of traffic, the issue becomes more complex for LVRRs where the traffic mix may include
significant numbers of bicycles, motorcycles, motorcycle taxis, trailers drawn by agricultural engines, animal
and drawn carts. LVRRs serve social functions that are vital but which are difficult to fit into standard
transport economic theory and the connection between traffic and justifiable standard is much more difficult
to establish.
The safe and comfortable accommodation of road users is closely related to the width of the roadway and
the traveling speed of motorized traffic. For low volume rural roads congestion is seldom an issue and, when
it is, it generally arises not specifically from traffic volume but rather from the disparity in speed between the
types of traffic which the road serves. In other words the traffic composition is the key factor rather than
traffic volume. However, the size of the largest vehicles that use the road dictates many aspects of geometric
design. Such vehicles must be able to pass each other safely and to negotiate all aspects of the horizontal
and vertical alignment.
In order to quantify traffic for normal capacity design the concept of equivalent passenger car units (PCUs) is
often used. PCU assessment is related to, but different from the ADT values often used in assessing pavement
options. PCUs are concerned with the combined space and time that different vehicles occupy Thus a typical
10-tonne truck requires about three times as much road space as a typical car hence it is equivalent to 3
PCUs. A motorcycle requires less than half the space of a car and is therefore equivalent to 0.5 PCUs. Vehicles,
that are slow-moving, cause congestion problems because of their speed rather than because of their size.
In effect, they can be considered to occupy more road space than would be expected from their size alone.
Hence, for example, a slow moving animal drawn cart although physically smaller than a 10 tonne truck is
very slow moving and its total impact in terms of size and road space occupation time is high.
Differing countries have different PCU factors; Table 6.1 is based on the current Nepal standard and is
recommended for use in Myanmar.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 6.1 PCU values (DoLI, Nepal 2012)

Ref. Vehicle Type PCU
1 Car, Light Van, jeeps and Pick Up 1.0

2 Light Truck up to 2.5 tonnes gross 1.5
3 > 2 axle Truck up to 10 tonnes gross 3.0
4 Truck up to 15 tonnes gross 4.0
5 2 axle tractor towed trailers -standard 3.0
6 Single axle tractor towed trailers -standard 1.5
7 Bus up to 40 passengers 3.0
8 Bus over 40 passengers 4.0
9 Motorcycle or scooter 0.5
10 Bicycle 0.5
11 Rickshaw and Tricycle carrying goods 1.0
12 Auto Rickshaw 0.75
13 Hand Cart 2.0
14 Bullock Cart with Tyre 6.0
15 Bullock Cart with Wooden Wheel 8.0
16 Horse-drawn carts 6.0
17 Pedestrian 0.2
Roads should be designed to provide good service throughout their design life and therefore the traffic level
to be used in the design process must consider traffic growth. Although traffic levels often increase in line
with the functional classification, this is not always true and, furthermore, the traffic levels and growth rates
are likely to differ considerably between different areas and different regions of the country. For example,
the traffic on a ‘collector’ road in one area of Myanmar might be increase considerably more than on a ‘main
access’ road in another area.
6.2.3 Terrain and topography

The terrain has a major influence on geometric standards both because of the much higher costs that would
be incurred if the same standards were used in hilly and mountainous terrain and because of the additional
safety aspects required for roads in such terrain. The purpose of taking terrain into account is to minimize
costs by adjusting the geometric standards to avoid, for example, large earthworks in hill or mountain
regions. Table 6.2 outlines a simple terrain classification to be used for assessing the geometric design. The
terrain class should reflect the conditions actually along that alignment not the surrounding area. Even in
mountainous terrain a road in a wide river valley may not require expensive earthworks and should be
designed based on a flat or rolling terrain class.
Table 6.2 Terrain Classification

Classification Definition
0 to 10 five-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to the ground contours are
Flat
generally below 3%.
Rolling
generally between 3 and 25%.
Mountainous
generally above 25%.
Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric standards because of the engineering
Escarpment risks involved. Typical gradients may have to be greater than those typically encountered in mountainous
terrain.

SECTION B: DESIGN
An important aspect of geometric design concerns the ability of vehicles to safely ascend or descend steep
terrain. Roads that need to be designed for very heavy vehicles or for animal drawn carts require specific
standards to address this, for example, special climbing lanes. Hand or animal drawn vehicles are unable to
ascend or descend relatively low gradients safely, and catering for them in hilly and mountainous terrain is
rarely possible. In hilly and mountainous terrain geometric standards for LVRRs must take into account of
the constraints imposed by the difficulty of the terrain and geometric designs may need to be reduced below
standard locally, in order to cope with terrain conditions.
Every effort should be made to design the road so that the maximum gradient does not exceed the standards.
Climbing lanes are costly and are, in general, rarely used for LVRRs, but in exceptional cases a climbing lane
may be required (Section 6.3.5).
6.2.4 Safety
Experience has shown that simply adopting ‘international’ design standards from developed countries will
not necessarily result in acceptable levels of safety on rural roads. The main reasons include the completely
different mix of traffic, including relatively old, slow-moving and usually overloaded vehicles, large numbers
of motorcycles and bicycles, poor driver training and poor enforcement of regulations. In such an
environment, traffic safety assumes paramount importance. The following factors related to road geometry
are known to be important:
§ Vehicle speed;
§ Horizontal curvature;
§ Vertical curvature;
§ Width of shoulders.
These factors are all inter-related together with:

§ Mixed traffic composition (including NMT and pedestrians);
§ Inappropriate public transport pick-up/set-down areas;
§ Poor road surface condition (potholes, ruts);
§ Dust (poor visibility);
§ Slippery unsealed road surfaces.
Traffic safety issues are discussed in detail in Section 6.7.
6.2.5 Pavement Type

For a similar quality of travel there is a difference between the geometric design standards required for an
unsealed road (gravel or earth) and for a paved road. This is because of the very different traction and friction
properties of types of surface. Although not directly considered there is also an issue regarding poor visibility
for drivers on unsealed dry dusty roads. Higher geometric standards are generally required for unsealed
roads compared to an equivalent sealed road.
A road that is to be paved at later date should still be designed to the different, usually higher, unsealed
geometric road standards.
6.2.6 Population
More populated areas in village or peri-urban areas where markets and other business activities take place
the geometric design of roads needs to be modified to enhance safety. This may be by using wider shoulders,
including specifically designed lay-byes for passenger vehicles to pick up or deposit passengers.

SECTION B: DESIGN
6.3 Cross-section Geometric Design
6.3.1 General Considerations

Geometric cross-sections have to be compatible with the requirements of not only vehicular traffic but also
with the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles. In Myanmar, as in many developing country
situations, it is necessary at the earliest stage in the design process.to consider cost effective ways of
segregating non-motorized traffic (TRL, 1988).
Figure 6.1 Geometric Elements of a Rural Road Cross Section
6.3.2 Road Width

Road width (carriageway, shoulders and verges) is a key geometric consideration since it can be directly
related to cost. A worldwide survey of rural road widths undertaken in Cambodia (SEACAP, 2009) identified
a pragmatic relationship between traffic and road width, Figure 6.2.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.2 A general Relationship between Traffic and Road Width (CW+Shoulder)
Road width (CW + Shoulders) versus traffic

10
7
Road width (m)
Mid
6 Upper
Lower
5
2
10 100 1000
Traffic (AADT of 4-wheeled plus vehicles)
Table 6.2 shows how road width can be assigned to traffic ranges. The central data line is the average and
the outer lines are plus and minus one standard deviation. In reality the lines are not straight but comprise a
number of steps as shown in the lower line in the figure. For example, for traffic in the range 50-100 PCU a
roadway width of 6-8m might be expected, whilst for 300PCU a figure of 7-9m is indicated. The widths of
shoulders are key aspect in considering this figure, with wider shoulders being required for higher numbers
of NMT. Hence for the same PCU of 50-100 the roadway could be 4m carriageway and 1m shoulders
(4m+2x1m=6m) or with high proportion of NMT shoulder widths of 1.5m might be more appropriate
(4m+2x1.5m=7m).)Most rural road standards have based the carriageway width on a ‘design vehicle’ in
combination with traffic volume, and adapt the shoulder width to accommodate differences in traffic mix
(for road safety reasons).. A truck or a bus of 2.5 or 2.6m width with a length of between 9 and 12m is
commonly used as a design vehicle but this may vary with the region and smaller vehicles, such as pickups
may be more appropriate design vehicles for very low volume access roads in Myanmar.
6.3.3 Shoulders and Verges

The shoulders of a road fulfil the following functions:
§ Provide safe room for temporarily stopped or broken-down vehicles (clear zone);
§ Provide additional manoeuvring space on roads of lower classification and traffic flows;
§ Enable non-motorized traffic to travel safely with minimum encroachment on the carriageway;
§ Allow water to drain from within the pavement layers;
§ Reduce the extent to which water flowing off the surface can penetrate into the pavement, often by
extending the seal over the shoulder.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Geometric design for Myanmar rural roads should recognize that much of the rural traffic may be non-
motorized and wide shoulders will be required. In addition, there is a requirement within the overall CRRN
classification to include a wide verge for animal drawn traffic, where appropriate and physically possible,
Figure 6.3. Such a wide overall construction width would pose virtually insurmountable problems in terms of
land-take in the physically constrained mountainous environments and even in most low-lying delta regions.
Figure 6.3 CRRN Class A Road with Animal Cart Verge
30.0m
11.5m
4.5m 5.5m
4.5m
Carriageway and Shoulders
Animal Cart Animal Cart

Verge Verge
6.3.4 Passing places

Single lane roads may not allow the larger vehicles to pass easily in opposite directions or to overtake slow
moving vehicles hence passing places may have to be provided. The use of passing places is a design option
for cases where an increase in width over the whole length of an alignment may be unjustified in cost terms
or pose significant engineering challenges such over soft soils in delta areas or in steep mountainous terrain.
The increased width at passing places should allow two vehicles to pass at slow speed and hence depends on
the design vehicle. For trucks or buses of 2.5m width, the safe minimum is 6.0m. Passing places should
normally be provided every 300m to 500m depending on the terrain and geometric conditions. Care is
required to ensure good sight distances and the ease of reversing to the nearest passing place, if required.
Passing places should be built at the most practical places rather than at precise intervals provided that the
distance between them does not exceed the recommended maximum.
The length of passing places is dictated by the maximum length of vehicles expected to use the road, again
indicating the need to define a design vehicle. In most cases a length of 25m will be sufficient for rural roads.
The passing lanes could be configured during the inspection and design stage to select the suitable layout,
i.e. the following shapes. Therefore, a total trafficable minimum width of 6.3m is required (providing a
minimum of 1.1m between passing vehicles) allowing for vehicle overhang when entering the passing bay, a
total road width of 7.0m is suitable.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.4 Passing Place Geometry Options
6.3.5 Climbing lane

A climbing lane is an “extra” lane that is used for short distances in certain parts of the road to improve safety,
ease congestion and prevent delays especially in mountainous areas. Climbing lanes help reduce collisions
and backups by providing slower moving trucks and vehicles an additional safe lane to travel in. This reduces
conflicts between slower moving trucks and passing vehicles.
Climbing lanes are generally applied as a spot improvement, most often on steep sustained grades that cause
heavy vehicles, particularly heavy trucks, to travel at slow speeds. Additionally, safety problems may arise
when the reduction in speed of heavy trucks exceeds 10-15 mph along the grade). The volume and
percentage of heavy trucks are factors in justifying the added cost of the climbing lane.
The economic justification of a climbing lane must be established using a Benefit-Cost analysis.. The benefits
of providing climbing lanes may be greater if:
1. There is a high percentage of loaded trucks in the upgrade traffic stream
2. If the geometry of the road, prior to the grade, is very restrictive for passing, thus resulting in high demand
for passing.
Table 6.3 may be used as a quick reference to determine if the speed reduction warrant is met on a particular
grade. The truck performance curves should be used together with other considerations to determine the
exact start and endpoint of the climbing lane.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 6.3 Climbing Lane Options

Grade in Percentage
Design Vehicle Mass/Power Rating Metric Imperial
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
60 g/W2 (100 lb/hp) N/A N/A 740 410 240 190 180
120 g/W (200 lb/hp) N/A N/A 440 280 240 200 160
150 g/W (250 lb/hp) 730 360 280 220 170 140
180 g/W (300 lb/hp)* 550 340 260 210 160 120
200 g/W (325 lb/hp) 520 320 260 210 160 120
(Critical Length of Grade in Metres for a Speed Reduction of 15 km/h)

Notes:
1- A heavy truck is one with a 180g/W ratio
2- Length of specified grade at which the designated design vehicle speed is reduced by 15 km/h from its entry speed (entry
speed assumed to be 95 km/h)
3- Conversion factor: 1 g/W = 1.645 lb/hp
4- Values shown above have been rounded.
5- *180 g/W are normally used for 2 lane roads.
Once the need for a climbing lane has been established by satisfying the speed reduction and traffic volume
warrants, the exact start and endpoints and length are determined using the truck performance curves. The
following example illustrates the use of truck performance curves.
2
g/W= gram/Watt (ratio mass/power)

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.5 Climbing Lane Configurations
The vertical alignment and truck performance curves are shown on the figure above. The design truck is
assumed to have a mass/power ratio of 180 g/W, as this is the standard truck. The dashed lines superimposed
on the performance curves of the figure show the plot of the design truck speed throughout the alignment
section as follows.
1. Entry speed = 95 km/h (assumed) at PI #1 (point of intersection)
2. Truck decelerates to 52 km/h at PI #2 due to 800m upgrade at four percent
3. Truck decelerates to crawl speed (26 km/h) due to 600m upgrade at six percent
The design truck now experiences a grade change whose algebraic difference exceeds four percent; that is,
+6% - (-2%) = +8%.
When the algebraic difference exceeds four percent, the vertical curve connecting the grades is
approximated through the average grades connecting the quarter points on the semi-tangents of the vertical
curve. These quarter points act as new PI's for the purpose of estimating the design vehicle speed. In this

SECTION B: DESIGN
example, the length of the vertical curve is 800m. Therefore, the quarter points occur at 200m on either side
of the real PI and the grade connecting the quarter points has been estimated at two percent. This
approximated grade, 400m in length, reduces the length of the preceding and following grades by 200m
each. (The dashed line now enters the acceleration portion of the chart, as the design truck accelerates on
the two percent upgrade).
1. Truck accelerates from crawl speed (26 km/h) to 47 km/h on the 400m, two percent upgrade
2. Truck accelerates from 47 km/h to 75 km/h at PI #4 on the 400m, two percent downgrade
3. Truck accelerates from 75 km/h to 80 km/h (the merge speed) on a 300m, zero percent grades.
As per the plot shown on the figure, the climbing lane should begin when the design truck speed reaches 80
km/h (this occurs at 1+260). The 60:1 taper should be introduced before this point. The endpoint of the
climbing lane can be placed anywhere after the merge speed has been achieved, that is, after 3+500,
provided that the decision sight distance is available. The merge taper is placed after the end of the climbing
lane.
6.4 Design Speed and Geometric Design
6.4.1 Principles
Design Speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the road. It
should be logically compatible with respect to the alignment topography, the adjacent land use, and the
functional classification of the road.
The concept of design speed is useful as it allows the key elements of geometric design to be selected in a
consistent and logical way. Design speed is relatively low in mountainous terrain to reflect the necessary
reductions in standards required to keep road costs to manageable proportions. It is higher in rolling terrain
and, probably, highest of all in flat terrain. The question that must be answered by the designer is simply the
selection of design speed for each environment.
The existing design speed guidance in Myanmar is supplied by the MoC, as shown in Table 6.4. Whilst in this
table it may be assumed that LVRRs would fit into the “Local Road” category there will be LVRRs where lower
designs speeds are necessary and the MoC guidance states that a reduction of 20km/hr can be used if
appropriate (MoC, 2015).
Table 6.4 Design Speeds (Extracted from MoC, 2015)

Design Speed km/hr
Terrain
Local Road Collector Road Sub-Arterial Road
Flat 60 70 80
Rolling 50 60 70
Mountainous 40 50 50
6.4.2 Stopping sight distance

In order to ensure that the design speed is safe, the geometric properties of the road must meet the certain
minimum or maximum values to ensure that drivers can see far enough ahead to carry out normal
manoeuvres such as overtaking another vehicle or stopping if there is an object in the road. The distance a
vehicle requires to stop safely is called the stopping sight distance. It mainly affects the shape of the road on
the brow of a hill (vertical alignment) but if there are objects near the edge of the road that restricts a driver’s
vision on approaching a bend, then it also affects the horizontal curvature.

SECTION B: DESIGN
The driver must be able to see any obstacle in the road, hence the stopping sight distance depends on the
size of the object and the height of the driver’s eye above the road surface. The driver needs time to react
and the brakes need time to slow the vehicle down hence stopping sight distance is extremely dependant on
the speed of the vehicle. Finally, the surface characteristics of the road influence the braking time so the
values for unpaved roads differ from those of paved roads, although the differences are small for design
speeds below 60km/h.
In order to calculate the stopping sight distance, assumptions have to be made about all of the above factors.
Table 6.5 shows the range of values that have been proposed in number of guidelines (ARRB, 2001, TRL,
1988, SEACAP, 2009).
Table 6.5 Stopping Distance Criteria

Parameter Values used
Drivers reaction time 2.0 – 2.5 seconds
Drivers eye height 1.0 – 1.15m
Object height for stopping 0.1 – 0.2m
Object height for passing 1.0 – 1.3m
Longitudinal friction factor* 0.43 – 0.60
*Depends on speed
As a result of these assumptions, the ranges of stopping sight distances can be derived as shown in Table 6.6.
It can be seen that, for each speed, the range is significant. Values towards the higher and the lower end of
distance ranges are recommended for unsealed and sealed roads respectively as shown in the Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Recommended Stopping Distances (m)

Design speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Stopping distance (m) 25-35 35 -55 50 -75 65-100 85-130 115-160
Recommendations: unsealed (m) 35 50 70 93 120 150
Recommendations: sealed (m) 30 40 55 72 95 120
6.4.3 Camber and Cross-fall

Camber, or cross-fall, is essential to promote the removal of water from the road surface. Ponding of water
on a road surface quickly leads to deterioration. There is general agreement that camber or cross-fall varies
with the road surfacing type from around 2% for concrete roads through 3-4% for sealed roads to 5-6% for
unpaved gravel and earth roads.
Drainage is less efficient on rough surfaces and therefore the camber or cross-fall needs to be higher on earth
and gravel roads. However, if the soil or gravel is susceptible to erosion, high values of camber or cross-fall
can cause erosion problems. Values that are too high can also cause driving problems, but on the lower
standards of rural roads where traffic is low and the road is single carriageway, vehicles will generally travel
in the middle of the road thus high levels of camber are not such a problem as high levels of cross-fall. The
design of unsealed rural roads should make use of this fact so that higher camber is used where appropriate.
Shoulders having the same surface as the running surface should have the same slope. Unpaved shoulders
on a sealed road should have shoulders that are 2% steeper, in other words 5% if the running surface is 3%.
6.4.4 Adverse cross-fall

Adverse cross-fall arises on curves when the cross-fall or camber causes vehicles to lean outwards when
negotiating a curve. This affects the cornering stability of vehicles and is uncomfortable for drivers, thereby
affecting safety. The severity of its effect depends on vehicle speed, the horizontal radius of curvature of the

SECTION B: DESIGN
road and the side friction between tires and road surface. For reasons of safety it is recommended that
adverse cross-fall is removed where necessary (on all roads regardless of traffic).
Table 6.7 Adverse Cross-fall to be removed if Radii are less than Shown
Minimum radii (m)
Design speed (km/h)
Paved Unpaved
<50 500 700
60 700 1000
70 1000 1300
85 1400 *
100 2000 *
*Design speeds not applicable for unpaved roads
Some cross-fall is necessary for drainage as flat sections are not acceptable. Instead, a single value of cross-
fall is designed in the proper direction (i.e. all camber is removed) such that the cross-sectional shape of the
road is straight with the cross slope being the same as that of the inner side of the cambered two-lane road,
usually 3 or 4% for sealed roads. For unpaved roads the recommended cross-fall should also be the same as
the normal camber or cross-fall values of 5-6%.
To remove adverse cross-fall the basic cambered shape of the road is gradually changed as the road enters
the curve until it becomes simply cross-fall in one direction at the centre section of the curve.
Figure 6.6 Options Sequence of Removal of Adverse Camber
6.4.5 Superelevation
For small radius curves and at the higher speeds of paved sections of road, the removal of adverse cross-fall
alone will be insufficient to reduce sideways frictional needs to an acceptable level and cross-fall should be
increased by the application of superelevation. A minimum radius is reached when the maximum acceptable
frictional and superelevation derived forces have been developed. These minimum radii values are identified
in Figure 6.7 for levels of superelevation of up to 10 percent. Although this maximum percentage is rather
arbitrary, it is widely considered to be a value above which drivers may find it difficult to remain centred in
lane as they negotiate a bend. On paved roads with unsealed shoulders, the outer shoulder should drain
away from the paved area to avoid loose material being washed across the road. On unpaved roads, the
cross-fall is designed to remove rainwater quickly and effectively, and will be dependent on local conditions
and materials. Values of superelevation lower than the minimum value of the cross-fall (4%) would fail to
drain the surface, whilst higher values than 6% will be likely to result in lateral erosion. On unpaved roads,
the maximum superelevation will therefore be the elimination of adverse cross-fall to 6%. On superelevated
sections the whole of the carriageway is drained to the inner shoulder and side drain. This increases the risk
of erosion and therefore consideration should be given to paving.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.7 Superelevation Design Curves
The change from normal cross-section on straight sections of road to a super-elevated section should be
made gradually. The length over which super-elevation is developed is known as the super-elevation
development length. Two-thirds of the development length should be provided before the curve begins. The
development depends on design speed as shown in Table 6.8. Between 50% and 75% of the super-elevation
should be achieved by the tangent point; a value of 66% is usually used.
Table 6.8 Superelevation Development Lengths

Design speed Development length
(km/h) (m)
30 25
40 30
50 40
60 55
70 65
80 80
6.5 Alignment curvature
6.5.1 Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves are determined by two main considerations, namely the design speed and the cross-fall or
super-elevation. The friction between the road surface and the vehicle wheels also has an effect hence the
minimum values of curvature are higher for unpaved roads than for paved.
Horizontal radii values in the following tables are derived from the average values in international practice.
As indicated in the Tables below, the use of a higher value of super-elevation makes it possible to introduce
a smaller horizontal curve based on the same design speed. This can be used for paved roads but not for
unpaved roads.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 6.9 Range of Minimum Values of Horizontal Radii of Curvature for Paved roads
Design speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Minimum horizontal radius for SE = 4% (m) 32 60 97 150 210 280
Table 6.10 Range of Minimum Values of Horizontal Radii of Curvature for Unpaved roads
Design speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70
Minimum horizontal radius for SE = 4% (m) 35 67 110 165 235
Minimum horizontal radius for SE = 7% (m) 30 60 100 150 215
Note: SE = Super-elevation
6.5.2 Curve widening

Widening of the carriageway where the horizontal curve is tight may be adopted in some cases to ensure
that the rear wheels of the largest vehicles remain on the road when negotiating the curve and, on two lane
roads, to ensure that the front overhang of the vehicle does not encroach on the opposite lane.
Table 6.11 Widening recommendations

Single lane roads
Curve radius (m)
20 30 40 60
Increase in width (m) 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5
6.5.3 Vertical alignment

The gradient is a major aspect of vertical alignment and is related to vehicle performance and level of service.
For the low levels of traffic flow, with only a few four-wheel drive vehicles, the maximum traversable gradient
is reported as 20% and two-wheel drive trucks are similarly recorded as successfully tackling gradients of
15%, except when heavily laden (TRL, 1988). Bearing in mind the likelihood of heavily laden small trucks and
animal-drawn carts, the rural road standards have a proposed general recommended limit of 10%, but with
an increase to 15% for short sections in areas of difficult terrain.
6.5.4 Crest curves

The minimum length of the curve L (m) over the crest of the hill between the points of maximum gradient on
either side is related to G (see Figure 6.8) and to the stopping sight distance and therefore to the design
speed. The minimum value of the L/G ratio can be tabulated against the stopping sight distance, and
therefore the design speed, to provide the designer with a value of L for any specific value of G. The
international comparisons give the values shown in Table 6.12.
Table 6.12 Minimum values of L/G for crest curves

Design speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Sealed roads 2 4 7 12 21 34
Unsealed roads 3 6 11 20 34 53

SECTION B: DESIGN
6.5.5 Sag curves

In daylight the sight distance is normally adequate for safety and the design criterion is based on minimising
the discomforting forces that act upon the driver and passengers when the direction of travel changes from
downhill to uphill. On rural roads such considerations are somewhat less important than road safety issues.
However, at night-time the problem on sag curves is the illumination provided by headlights to see far
enough ahead. To provide road curvature that allows the driver to see sufficiently far ahead using headlights
while driving at the design speed at night is usually too expensive for rural roads. In any case, the driving
speed should be much lower at night on such roads. As a result of these considerations it is recommended
that the minimum length of curve is determined by the driver discomfort criterion. The results are shown in
Table 6.13.
Table 6.13 Minimum values of L/G for sag curves

Design speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Minimum L/G 0.7 1.3 2.2 3.5 4.8 7.5
In practice a minimum length of curve of 75m will cope with almost all situations; for example, on a steep
down-hill of 10% followed by an up-hill of the same slope, the required minimum curve length is 2.2 x (10 +
10) = 44m at 50km/h and 3.5 x (10+10) = 70m at 60km/h.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.8 Sag curves
6.6 Geometric Design Guidance for Myanmar LVRRs
6.6.1 Policy Basis for Recommendations

The guidance in this section is based on a flexible approach to the NSRAA classification of roads for the CRR
(Table 6.14) as discussed in Chapter 2.
Table 6.14 Road Classification (NSRAA) and Carriageway Width

Class Carriageway
A 12 ft (3.66m)
B 12 ft (3.66m)
C 6-12 ft (1.83-3,66m)

SECTION B: DESIGN
6.6.2 General Approach

Based on the design criteria as illustrated above, the following summarized recommendations would be
considered for the LVRRs in Myanmar;
1. Use the proposed core CRRN classification system and associated variations as the basis for
considering rural road standards.
2. Follow “Desirable” or maximum design standards, and “Acceptable” or minimum design standards
as warranted by specific needs and conditions.
3. The decision to use Desirable and Acceptable Rural Road Standards will be dictated by the category
of road involved, its operating conditions (traffic volume and type), physical conditions (i.e. terrain),
adjacent land use and access needs, and available financial resources.
4. Inclusion of special features such as paving, passing/ climbing lanes, adjacent multi-user paths should
be assessed during preliminary design stages and other planning processes and will take into account
adjacent development, potential user needs, on-going maintenance requirements and potential
drainage issues.
5. Consider the need for facilities to accommodate pedestrians, persons using mobility aids and cyclists
on all rural roads, and attempt to provide paved shoulders on rural roads where cycling is prevalent
and sidewalks where the roadway leads to a school or community facility.
6. Adoption of the recommendations in the use of local material and labour resources. This will help to
relieve constraints due to a shortage of funding and may allow a foreign exchange saving as fewer
materials may have to be imported.
6.6.3 Revised Geometric Classification

Based on the “fit for purpose” approach to road design this Manual presents a simple but flexible approach
to geometric design based on the particular needs of the Myanmar road environments. Table 6.15
summarises this basic geometric classification.
Table 6.15 Variation on Basic Classification

Basic Variations on
Shoulder
Class Carriageway Carriageway Default Surfacing Comment
Width (m)
Width (m) width (m)
Narrower options for constrained or
A1 5.50 mountainous locations, with possible
Bitumen sealing or passing places Wider shoulders for large
A 5.5 A2 4.50 1.00-3.00
concrete slab % NMT.
A3 3.60
Possible climbing lanes.
B1 4.50 Narrower options for constrained or

Bitumen sealing/ mountainous locations. Wider shoulders
B 3.60 B2 3.60 1.00 – 2.00 concrete slab or
for large % NMT.
B3 3.00 unpaved.
Possible passing places
C1 3.60
Narrow options for small vehicle or 2-3
C 3.60 C2 3.00 0.5 - 1.50 Earth or gravel
wheel motorised transport.
C3 2.50

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 6.16, Table 6.17 and Table 6.18 provide the supplementary detail for specific classification options.
Table 6.16 Rural Roads Class A

Design Parameter Comments Definition
Terrain Flat Rolling Mountainous
Shoulder width Depends on traffic mix 1.00-3.00m 1.00m
Carriageway Traffic and terrain 5.50m 5.50-4.50m 4.50-3.60
Design speed Defined by terrain 60 km/h 50 km/h 30 km/h
Maximum gradient Sealed/concrete 6% 10% 12%(1)
Stopping sight distance (m) Sealed/concrete 55 40 30
Minimum horizontal curve
Sealed/concrete 150 97 32
radius (m) SE=4%
Minimum horizontal curve
radius (m) SE=7%
Minimum value of L/G for
vertical curves
S Minimum value of L/G for sag Sealed/concrete 3.5 2.2 0.7
Concrete 2%
Cross-fall
Sealed 4%
1 Gradients up to 15% permitted in cases where lower gradients would incur excessive earthworks and construction cost and where lengths of
alignment >10% are kept to <300m. Gradients>12% may require concrete paving.
Table 6.17 Rural Roads Class B

Carriageway Traffic, terrain 4.50-3.60m(1) 4.50-3.60m 3.00-2.50m
Maximum gradient A limit of 6% for gravel 6% 8% 10%(2)
Gravel 70 50 35
Stopping sight distance (m)
Minimum horizontal curve radius Gravel(2 110 67 35
(m) SE=4% Sealed/concrete 97 60 32
Minimum horizontal curve radius Gravel(3) 100 60 30
(m) SE=7% Sealed/concrete 63 35 18
Minimum value of L/G for vertical Gravel 11 6 3
curves Sealed/concrete 7 4 2
Minimum value of L/G for Sag Gravel or sealed 2.2 1.3 0.7
Gravel 6%(3)
Cross-fall Sealed 4%
Concrete 2%
1 Narrower carriageway in delta areas where river/canal may constrain widths
alignment >10% are kept to <300m.
3 Gravel cross-fall must be maintained at between 4 and 6%.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 6.18 Rural Roads Class C

Carriageway Traffic, terrain 3.60-2.50(1) 3.60-3.00m 3.00-2.50m
Maximum gradient A limit of 6% for gravel 6% 8% 10%(2)
Earth/gravel 70 50 35
Stopping sight distance (m)
Concrete3 55 40 30
Minimum horizontal curve radius Earth/gravel 110 67 35
(m) SE=4% Concrete 97 60 32
Minimum horizontal curve radius Earth/gravel 100 60 30
(m) SE=7% Concrete 63 35 18
Minimum value of L/G for vertical Earth/gravel 11 6 3
curves Concrete 7 4 2
Minimum value of L/G for Sag Gravel or concrete 2.2 1.3 0.7
Gravel 6%3
Cross-fall
Concrete 2%
1 Narrower carriageway in delta areas where river/canal may constrain widths
alignment >10% are kept to <300m.
3 Concrete option retained for high flood risk zones in delta/coastal areas.
4 Gravel cross-fall must be maintained at between 4 and 6%.
6.6.4 Relaxation of standards

The standards summarised in Tables 6.16 to 6.18 are intended to provide guidance for designers rather than
to be considered as rigid requirements. The justification for construction of a particular road usually based,
at least in part, on a detailed economic appraisal, and relaxations of standards may be essential in order to
achieve an acceptable economic compromise. In other circumstances, an economic evaluation may be
improved substantially by the inclusion of a short section with a relaxed standard road where achievement
of the normal design standard would be expensive, although the safety implications of this would need
serious consideration (TRL 1988).
6.7 Traffic Safety
6.7.1 Importance of Road Safety

Because of its multi-dimensional nature, road safety cannot be discussed in isolation from a number of
related factors. Road safety is linked to and influenced by, various elements of the road system, including
road design, environmental conditions, road maintenance and related pavement condition.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.9 Safety and the Road System
Many of the road elements and operational conditions are also interrelated. For example, overloading has
an important influence on pavement condition and is influenced by police surveillance, while speeding is also
influenced by the road geometry and police surveillance. Both overloading and speeding, in turn, have an
influence on safety whilst the environment, coupled with the maintenance standard applied, affects
pavement condition and, in turn, road safety.
Figure 6.10 Interrelationship between Road Elements and Operational Conditions
Thus, although the importance of designing for safety on LVRRs is now widely recognized, the actual process
of identifying key design features and resolving the conflict of safety and other considerations is complex
(interrelated) and requires tackling in a holistic manner.

SECTION B: DESIGN
6.7.2 Typical Causes of Road Crashes

The following are typical causes of crashes that occur on LVRRs where many vulnerable road users are put in
a high risk situation:
1. Inadequate planning and designing for road safety due in part to the non- inclusion of pedestrian and
non-motorised traffic (NMTs) in traffic surveys, and consequent failure to take proper account of the
operational environment.
2. The provision of relatively steep cambers, typically 5-7% on gravel roads, in order to shed water off
the road. This camber may provide little difficulty to motorized vehicles which tend to travel along
the centre of the road. However, it can be very dangerous for cyclists and motorcyclists who often
carry very large/heavy loads and, as a result, are unable to easily manoeuvre out of the way of fast-
approaching traffic. This often results in them falling off their bicycles, damaging both themselves
and their goods.
3. The road alignment outside the longitudinal drainage ditch is seldom cleared by more than a few
metres, and, in addition, people often tend to build houses quite close to the road. In these
situations, there is potentially a considerably increased risk to pedestrians, particularly young
children, as there is little warning to motorized traffic when pedestrians or animals decide to cross
the road.
4. A combination of poor motorcycle driver behaviour, such as use of inappropriate speed, and poor
road condition, such as a potholed or slippery surface, causing the motorcyclist to lose control.
5. Relatively fast-moving motorized traffic competing for limited road space with much slower-moving
non-motorized modes of traffic and pedestrians.
6.7.3 Planning for Road Safety

It is often possible to improve road safety characteristics at markedly little or no extra cost, provided the road
safety implications of design are considered at the planning stage. This requires adherence to a number of
key principles that include:
§ Catering for all road users

- Includes non-motorized vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, disabled persons, etc.
- Have implications for almost all aspects of road design, including carriageway width, shoulder design,
side slopes and side drains.
§ Providing a clear and consistent message to the driver
- Roads should be easily “read” and understood by drivers and should not present them with any
sudden surprises which should be addressed by appropriate signage or other measures.
§ Encouraging appropriate speeds and behaviour
- Traffic speed can be influenced by altering the “look” of the road, for example by providing clear
visual clues such as changing the shoulder treatment or installing prominent signing.
§ Reducing conflicts
- It cannot be avoided entirely but can be reduced by design, including staggering junctions or using
guard rails to channel pedestrians to safer crossing points.
§ Creating a forgiving road environment
- Forgives a driver’s mistakes or vehicle failure to the extent that this is possible without significantly
increasing costs.
§ Ensures that demands are not placed upon the driver, which is beyond his or her ability to manage.

SECTION B: DESIGN
§ Undertaking appropriate traffic counts

- Ensuring that traffic counts also include pedestrians, bicycles, motorcycles, such information will be
influential in planning aspects of the geometric layout of the road, such as shoulder widths.
§ Undertaking road safety audits
Because of the paramount importance of road safety on LVRRs, a road safety audit should be undertaken at
the planning stage of a new project or before upgrading an existing project. Such an audit should
systematically identify hazardous features, including crash “black spots” and the crash potential related to
the improvement/upgrading of the road, and should propose treatments that will reduce crash risk to road
users. Site specific remedial treatments should be identified and prioritized for early implementation, based
on the risks identified at the audit stage.
6.7.4 Designing for Road Safety

Appropriate design implies designing for all road users and has implications for almost all aspects of LVRR
design, including carriageway width, shoulder design, side slopes and side drains. Specific measures or
combinations of measures include:
Junctions
Conflicts may be reduced by staggering junctions or using guard rails to channel pedestrians to safer crossing
points. The following figures illustrate some good and poor practices.
Figure 6.11 Good and Bad Junction Designs
Roadside access
§ Road safety in areas that provide roadside access to a variety of facilities may be improved by;
§ Prohibiting direct frontal access to major routes and instead use of service roads;
§ Using lay-bys or widened shoulders to allow villagers to sell produce;
§ Using lay-bys for buses or taxis to avoid restriction and improve visibility.
Examples of the above measures are illustrated in the following Figure 6.12.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.12 Examples of improving roadside access to reduce crashes
Clear Zone
Many crashes are made more severe because of obstacles that an out-of-control vehicle may collide with.
The concept of clear zones identifies these obstacles and attempts to eliminate such hazards. The aim is to
provide a roadside that is forgiving so that. It enables the driver to avoid colliding with anything, and recover
control. This means that there must be an obstacle-free strip – the Clear Zone (Safety Zone or Recovery Zone)
– on both sides of the road because vehicles run off the road to both the left and to the right. Shoulders are
usually classed as part of the Clear Zone. Features that are regarded as obstacles are:
§ Embankment side slopes steeper than 1V:4H. Slopes as steep as 1V:3H may be acceptable provided that
there is a clear run-out area at the bottom of the embankment);
§ Back slopes steeper than 1V:2H;
§ Non-deformable rigid obstacles such as concrete guard posts, bridge piers and abutments, retaining
walls, rock cuttings, walls, culvert headwalls, and rigid supports for sign gantries and large signs.
Obstacles such as trees, lighting posts, and supports for signs;
§ Ditches and open drains (unless designed to be traversable);
§ Fences.
Where obstacles in the Clear Zone cannot be avoided, it will be necessary to consider whether they should
be shielded by a safety barrier or marked with guard posts.
The following figure provides guidance on dealing with roadside hazards in order to provide a “forgiving
roadside”.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 6.13 Procedure for dealing with roadside hazards
6.7.5 Traffic Calming

There is a number of relatively low-cost traffic calming measures that can be introduced, particularly within
villages, to reduce vehicle speed and thus improve the safety of road users.
Specific measures include:
§ Encouraging police to enforce local speed limits;

§ Providing regulatory traffic signs of local speed limits;.
§ Calming traffic with speed humps, rumble strips, road narrowing, pedestrian crossings and specially
demarcated low speed zones. Traffic calming measures in villages require special attention, for example,
in terms of a comprehensive “village treatment” which will induce a driver to reduce speed significantly
as he or she passes through a village.
Village treatment – paved roads
The objective of the “village treatment” approach to traffic calming is to develop a perception that the village
is a low-speed environment and to encourage the driver to reduce speed as a result of this perception. To
this end, the road through the village is divided in three zones, namely:
§ The approach zone;

§ The transition zone;
§ The core zone.
Approach zone: This is the section of road prior to entry into the village, where the driver needs to be made
aware that the open road speed is no longer appropriate. This is the section of road where speed should be
reduced to about 40 km/h, before entering the village. The village entry should be marked.

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Transition zone: This is the section of road between the village entrance, and the core zone of the village.
The target speed, and posted speed limit in this zone would be typically 40 km/h. The first road hump or
humps in a series of humps will be sited in this zone. In this context, with adequate advance warning provided
by the approach zone, road humps are quite safe.
Core zone: This is the section identified as being in the centre of the village, where most of vehicle/ pedestrian
conflicts would be expected to take place. This would normally be where the majority of shops, bus-bays or
other pedestrian generating activities are located. This is the section where pedestrian crossing facilities are
most likely to be established and where the target speed, and posted speed limit, should typically be reduced
further to 30 km/h. Road humps would normally be provided within this zone
Road humps
These are the main self-enforcing means of producing a speed reduction. There are two types of humps as
follows:
Circular profile hump which has been designed to provide the required reduction in speed while at the same
time providing a reasonably comfortable ride for passengers and the least damaging effect on vehicles when
traveling at the advisory speed. The specific purpose of the Circular profile hump is to lower traffic speeds so
that drivers have little option but to slow down before reaching the core zone. For this reason, the first hump
in a series of humps should always be a Circular profile hump, and should always be sited in the transition
zone.
Flat-top hump: of which the top portion of this hump is flat with a ramp on either side. The flat-top hump
will generally be used at locations within the core zone of the village where there is a need for zebra crossings
on popular pedestrian routes (usually near schools, bus stops and markets). In this situation, the hump may
be combined with a pedestrian crossing, which would be sited on the flat part of the hump.
Figure 6.14 Road humps
Circular profile hump Appropriate signage for pedestrian

crossing on flat top hump
Unpaved roads
Although traffic levels on unpaved roads in villages generally tend to be lower than on paved roads, traffic
speeding, combined with dust emissions, is a major problem for which appropriate traffic calming measures
are also required. Such measures are, in principle, similar to those for paved roads in terms of signage.
However, special measures need to be taken to embed road humps in the gravel substrate so as to anchor
them and minimize their horizontal movement under the action of traffic. Various materials may be used for
constructing gravel road humps including cement-mortared brick or stone masonry and stabilized gravel. In

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addition, where required for cross drainage purposes, the use of raised culverts and drifts, by virtue of their
natural profile, can also act as traffic calming devices. In all cases, their location should be well signed which
is very important to avoid serious accidents. It should also be noted that speed humps very often lead to
accumulation of water and measures need to be in place to avoid this.
6.7.6 Traffic Control and Safety for LWCs

Traffic safety is a principal concern on low-water crossings (LWCs). These crossings present particular safety
issues, especially when driving through water and where there are dips in the carriageway vertical alignment.
Because LWCs involve water periodically flowing over the road, they are inherently dangerous during those
periods of inundation. Water depth of 0.25m to 0.7m feet has enough lateral force to push a vehicle off the
crossing.
To provide for safety where LWCs are used, traffic engineers and resource managers must use prudent design
and safety measures (such as traffic warning devices) along with aggressive driver education programs. When
common sense indicates that a crossing may be especially hazardous—such as where the road platform is
high above water, alignment is poor, speeds are relatively high, and flows are swift and deep. The design
should be carefully evaluated and a risk assessment made for the site.
Conventional guardrails and borders, typically 0.75 to 1.0m high, cannot be placed along most low-water-
crossing structures because they will act as trash racks during overtopping, and are likely to be damaged
during high flows. This Manual recommends low curbs, borders, or delineators for defining the carriageway,
identifying the edge of the structure, and keeping traffic on the structure, particularly where the structure is
raised. For safety and to minimize flow and debris obstruction timber curbs may be used,. Use object markers
to define each corner of the structure, but place them out of the active flow channel to avoid snagging debris.
The need for safety measures increases with the height of the structure, particularly on vented fords and
low-water bridges where the roadway platform is elevated more than a couple of feet. When conventional
bridge railings are not used, the site needs to be evaluated for safety based upon traffic speed, traffic volume,
alignment, structure dimensions, other local hazards, and curb design. If the ford cannot be made safe, then
a conventional bridge with safety railings or another type of structure should be built.
Ideally, LWCs should be located where the road is straight and sight distance is good. Adequate warning signs
are critical for identifying the approaching LWC and warning drivers that the crossing may be flooded and
have periodic traffic delays. The safe but conservative design criterion for vented fords that limits water
depth over the structure to 0.2m is during the high-design flow. This limit greatly reduces the likelihood of a
vehicle being swept away if it enters the water. This criterion, however, may require large vents and is
impractical or costly to implement on many unvented fords on rural or forest roads. Therefore, warning
devices are a more practical solution in most applications.
Use traffic warning signs along the road, notifying traffic that it is approaching a low-water crossing and that
there is the possibility of flooding. Suggested warning signs can include “FLOOD AREA AHEAD,” “IMPOSSIBLE
DURING HIGH WATER,” and “DO NOT ENTER WHEN FLOODED”.
Where practical, use depth markers to indicate the depth of flow over the structure. Depth markers may be
impractical or require periodic maintenance in channels carrying a lot of debris. Alternatively, a system of
coloured posts could be used where flow level green suggests safe passage, flow level yellow suggests
marginally safe conditions, and flow level in the red zone indicates an unsafe condition.

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Figure 6.15 Signing of Low Water Stream Crossing (LWSC)
6.7.7 Regular Maintenance

It is necessary to ensure that safety hazards are minimized by carrying out regular maintenance of road safety
infrastructure. Such measures include:
§ Vegetation growth which can obscure visibility, for example, at sharp curves;
§ Potholes in the road surface;
§ Flooding resulting from blocked culverts;
§ Dirty, damaged or missing traffic signs;
§ Faint road markings;
§ Damaged bridges and guardrails;
§ Scoured road shoulders.
Failure to carry out adequate road maintenance can impact adversely on road safety in that it prevents
motorcycles and non-motorized users from using the shoulders when required to move off the carriageways
due to on-coming motorized traffic.

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6.7.8 Road Safety Education

Road safety education is an important tool to raise awareness of problems and behaviour related to traffic
and road safety. It involves teaching children, who are often the most vulnerable group of affected road
users, and adults to be safer road users. It does so by developing:
§ Knowledge and understanding of road traffic;

§ Behavioural skills necessary to survive in the presence of road traffic;
§ An understanding of their own responsibilities for keeping themselves safe;
§ Knowledge of the causes and consequences of road crashes;
§ A responsible attitude to their own safety and to the safety of others.
6.7.9 Law enforcement

Traffic law enforcement is meant to achieve the safe and efficient movement of all road users including non-
motorized traffic and pedestrians. In this regard, enforcement of traffic rules (such as speed limits, stop signs
and rules at pedestrian crossing facilities) can be used to significantly improve road user behaviour and
safety. This situation highlights the need to promote traffic law enforcement more vigorously, including the
use of well-mounted campaigns which, ideally, should be accompanied by education and publicity.

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References
Ackers, P. (1992) Gerald Lacey Memorial Lecture, Canal and river regime in theory and practice: 1929–92.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Water Maritime and Energy
AfCAP, 2012. South Sudan low volume roads design manual. DfID for Ministry of Roads and Bridges, S
Sudan.
Bradley, J.N. (1978) Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways, 2nd edn, US Department of Transportation/Federal
Highways Administration, Washington DC.
Cartier van Dissel S, Starkey P and Véron-Okamoto A, 2015. Republic of the Union of Myanmar: Rural Access
and Road Management. ADB Transport Sector Policy Note
Chadwick, A. and Morfett, J. (1993) Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2nd edn, E & FN Spon,
London.
DoLIDAR, 2012. Rural Road Standards, Dept of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Roads,
Nepal.
iRAP, 2010. The Road Safety Toolkit. http://toolkit.irap.org/
MoC, 2015. Road design criteria in Myanmar. Ministry of Construction, Department of Highways, Naypyitaw,
Myanmar.
Local Government (PO-RALG)
ReCAP. 2018. Review of Low Volume Rural Road Standards and Specifications in Myanmar. AsCAP Project
Report for DRRD.
Options. Final Project Report. DFID for Royal Government of Cambodia.
SEACAP, 2009. Rural Road Standards and Specifications: Classification, Geometric Standards and Pavement
Options. SEACAP 19.03. Ministry of Rural Development, Cambodia.
TRL, 1988. Overseas Road Note 6. A guide to geometric design. Overseas Unit. Transport Research
Laboratory. UK.
TRL, 2005. ORN5 A guide to road project appraisal.

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7 Surfacing and Pavement Design
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Chapter Aims

The emphasis in this chapter is on the logical phased selection and design of appropriate pavements. It
provides information on the constituents and performance characteristics of the pavement options, an
overview of the various types of paving and surfacing available and appropriate for use in Myanmar. The
subsequent sections of the Chapter then provide guidance on the design process for the various options.
The Chapter is based on the good practice recommendations and valuable lessons learnt from DRRD projects
(DRRD, 2019) and from other Asian countries with similar environments (World Bank, 2012, SEACAP, 2006,).
Lessons may also be learnt from other LVRR Manuals, such as those for Laos (SEACAP 2009) Tanzania (AfCAP,
2016), South Sudan (AfCAP, 2012) and Malaysia (MPW, 2012). However, particularly in the case of experience
outside South or South East Asia, care has to be taken in modifying recommendations to suit specific road
environments of Myanmar.
7.1.2 Design Strategy

The overall pavement design strategy is in line with the LVRR principles laid out in Chapter 3 (Figure 3.6) and,
in particular, employs a staged approach within the general project cycle. Figure 7.1 summarises the two
phase design process; option selection and option detailed design.
Figure 7.1 Two-Phase Pavement Design Process
Road Task List of Available Road

Definition Rural Road Options Environment
Data
Road Environment
Assessment
Phase I
Design
Socio-economic
Whole-life Cost
Assessments
Short List of Sustainable

Options
Economic-Financial Engineering
assessment of short list assessment of
options alternative options
Phase II
Design
Final detailed
engineering designs
7.1.3 Pavement Options

There are currently a limited number of pavement options in common use for LVRRs in Myanmar: these are:

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§ Earth or Natural Surface;

§ Gravel wearing course;
§ Unsealed macadam;
§ Penetration Macadam;
§ Concrete (reinforced and unreinforced)
There are, however, now a large number of appropriate unsealed, bituminous and non-bituminous paving
and surfacing options available for use on LVRRs (Henning et al, 2005, Intech-TRL, 2006a; Cook, 2012). A
wider selection of LVRR design options can, therefore, now be considered suitable for application in the
various road environment of Myanmar (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1 LVRR Pavement Design Options

Bituminous Surfacings Structural Bases and Sub-Bases
Chip Seal, (Single or double) Water-Bound Macadam (WBM)
Sand Seal, (Single or Double) Dry-Bound Macadam (DBM)
Otta seal, (Single or Double) Graded Crushed Stone
Slurry Seal Natural Sands/Gravel
Cape Seal Laterite (Ferricrete)
Penetration Macadam Chemically Stabilised Natural Soil
Pre-Mix Emulsion Stabilised Sand
Unsealed Unpaved Mechanically Stabilised Natural Soil
Engineered Natural Surface Armoured Gravel
Gravel Wearing Course
Non-Bituminous Paved Concrete
Hand-Packed Stone Steel Reinforced slabs
Water-Bound Macadam (WBM) Non-Reinforced slabs
Stone Setts/Cobble Stones Cast in Situ Blocks (Hysen Cells)
Fired Clay Brick
Concrete Brick
7.2 Unsealed-Unpaved Options
7.2.1 Engineered Natural Surface (ENS)

An Engineered Natural Surface uses the compacted in situ soil at the road location to form a basic surface for
traffic. Essential provisions are a compacted camber (4-6%), side drains and an effective drainage system.
Typically soils with an in service CBR of a minimum of about 15% can provide a year-round running surface
for light motor traffic (Rolt, 2007). Route sections with steep gradients or weak or problematic soils can be
improved in situ by upgrading to higher standard surface under a spot improvement or Environmentally
Optimised Design (EOD) strategy to improve their traffic carrying capacity (see Annex VI).
7.2.2 Natural Gravel

One or more layers of natural gravel placed directly on the existing shaped earth formation and compacted
with an appropriate (5-6%) surface camber (ARRB, 2000; Intech-TRL, 2006b). The layers could be
mechanically stabilised or blended with other material to improve the material properties. Alignment with

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steep gradients may need to be improved in situ by upgrading to higher standard surface under a Spot
Improvement or EOD strategy.
A Natural Gravel, or Gravel Wearing Course (GWC) surface is often considered as the usual upgrade option
for ENS roads where improvement is justified. However, particular care should be taken in considering this
option. Local environment factors may restrict the satisfactory use of natural gravel surface for sections of
route that are affected by:
• Longitudinal gradient >6-10% (depending on rainfall intensity);

• Annual rainfall >2,000mm;
• Excessive haul distances for initial and maintenance (re-)gravelling;
• Available gravel material does not meet specifications;
• Dust emissions in settlements or adjacent to high value crops;
• Seasonal flooding.
As annual gravel loss rates or costs may be excessive in these cases, other surface options should be
considered. (Cook and Petts, 2005)
7.3 Non-Bituminous Paved Options
7.3.1 Waterbound/Drybound Macadam

A Macadam layer consists of a stone skeleton of single sized coarse aggregate in which the voids are filled
with finer material. The stone skeleton, because of its single size large material will contain considerable
voids but will have the potential for high shear strength if confined properly. The stone skeleton forms the
“backbone” of the macadam and is largely responsible for the strength of the constructed layer. The material
used to fill the voids provides lateral stability to the stone skeleton but adds little bearing capacity. (Intech-
TRL, 2006b)
In Water-bound Macadam (WBM) the aggregate fines are washed or slushed into the coarse skeleton with
water. Dry-bound macadam is a similar technique; however instead of water and deadweight compaction
being used a vibrating roller is used. The development of small vibrating rollers has made the use of this
technique attractive for labour based rural road works in some locations.
WBM or DBM are commonly used as layers within a sealed flexible pavement, but in the appropriate
circumstances may be used as an unsealed option with a suitably cohesive material being used as the fines
component. The WBM or DBM may be constructed as a low cost, initial surface to be later sealed and
upgraded in a ‘stage construction’ strategy. WBM may be overlain by a Gravel Wearing Course as an unsealed
option, as used on the Shan Plateau region.
7.3.2 Hand-packed stone

Hand Packed Stone is a proven labour-based technique (IFG, 2008a). The surfacing consists of a layer
(typically 150 – 300 mm thick) of large broken stones pieces, laid by hand and tightly packed together and
wedged in place with smaller stone chips rammed by hand into the joints using hammers and steel rods The
remaining voids are filled with sand. The Hand Packed Stone is normally bedded on a thin layer of sand or
gravel. For use by heavy traffic, the layer should be compacted with a vibrating or heavy non-vibrating roller.
An edge restraint or kerb constructed of large or mortar jointed stones improves durability and lateral
stability.
7.3.3 Stone setts or cobble stones

Stone sett and cobble stone surfacing are historically well-established labour-based techniques that have
been adapted successfully as a robust option on low volume rural roads where there is a good local supply

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of suitable stone (Intech-TRL, 2006b). These options are suited to homogeneous rock types that have
inherent orthogonal stress patterns (such as granite) that allow for easy break of the fresh rock into the
required shapes by labour based means It consists of a layer of roughly cubic (100mm) stone setts laid on a
bed of sand or fine aggregate within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints (kerbs). The individual stones
should have at least one face that is fairly smooth, to be the upper or surface face when placed. Each stone
sett is adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then tapped into position to the level of the surrounding
stones.
The Cobble Stone technique is similar to Stone Setts, however the individual stones are larger; normally of
size 100 – 300mm. They are cut from suitable hard rock and ‘dressed’ manually to a cubic shape with a
smooth, flat finish on at least one face using hammers and chisels. The dressed stones are laid on a bedding
sand layer (20 – 70mm) and tapped into final position with a hammer. Suitably graded sand is compacted
into the inter-block joints
Compacting with a heavy roller can improve durability. An edge restraint or kerb constructed (for example)
of large or mortared stones is required for durability. Sand-cement mortar joints and bedding can be used to
improve durability and prevent water penetrating to moisture susceptible foundation layers and weakening
them.
7.3.4 Fired clay brick - unmortared or mortared joints

Bricks suitable for road surfacing can be produced by firing clay in large or small scale kilns using coal, wood
or some agricultural wastes as a fuel. The engineering quality bricks must achieve certain strength, shape and
durability requirements (Intech-TRL, 2006b). The fired bricks are generally laid on edge to form a layer of
typical 100mm thickness on sand or sand-cement bedding layer. Sand or sand cement filling is used for the
inter-brick joints.. Kerbs or edge restraints are necessary and can be provided by sand-cement bedded and
mortared fired bricks. The fired bricks are normally laid in a herring bone or other approved pattern to
enhance load spreading characteristics. Un-mortared brick paving is compacted with a plate compactor and
the jointing sand is topped up if necessary. For mortar-bedded and jointed-fired clay brick paving, no
compaction is required. When the mortar has set the layer should be covered in sand or other moisture
retaining material and kept wet for a few days to aid curing. If mortared bedding and jointing are used the
surface should not be trafficked until 7 days after laying.
7.3.5 Concrete brick paving

Concrete block paving may be used for LVRR roads and design and construction requirements in a similar
manner to Fired Clay brick incremental paving. (Intech-TRL, 2006b; Cement & Concrete Assoc. of Australia,
1997; Jones & Promprasith, 1991).
7.4 Bituminous Surfacing
7.4.1 General
Bituminous surfacing or surface treatments generally comprise an admixture of different proportions of
stone or sand, and bitumen (AfCAP, 2012a). The bitumen may be a penetration grade, cutback or emulsion
option.. The bituminous surfacing usually require good quality, screened or crushed stone or sand, but lower
quality aggregate may be used for some types of seals (e.g. Otta Seal).
An effective bond between the surface treatment and the surface of the road base is essential for good
performance. This can be achieved through the use of an appropriate grade of bitumen (the prime coat)
before the start of construction of the surface layer treatment. Some typical types of bituminous surface
treatment are shown in Figure 7.2 and discussed in Sections 7.4.2 to 7.4.8.

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Figure 7.2 Examples of Typical Thin Bituminous Surface Treatments

Single Chip Seal
1.Prime coat
2.Bitumen binder
3.Aggregate
Double Chip Seal

1.Prime
2. Bitumen binder (2 layers)
3. Aggregate: 1st coarser spread layer
4. Aggregate: 2nd finer spread layer
Sand Seal
1.Prime Coat
2.Binder squeezed into sand
3.Sand
Otta Seal
1.Bitumen binder
2.Graded aggregate
3.Sand seal
CapeSeal/Slurry
Scape Seal/SurrySeal
Seal
1.Prime coat
2.Bitumen binder
3.Aggregate
4.Slurry seal
Pre-Mix (Asphaltic Concrete)

1. Prime
2. Pre-Mix
Penetration Macadam
1.Coarse macadam
2. Finer macadam
3. Bitumen penetrating into macdam
7.4.2 Sand seal

This seal consists of a spray of bituminous binder followed by the application of a coarse, clean sand or
crusher dust as aggregate. This surfacing is used on low-volume roads, especially in drier regions, but can
also be used for maintenance resealing, or for temporary by-passes or diversions. For new construction, two
layers are usually specified as single layers tend not to be durable. Single sand seals are generally not a
recommended option. There is an extended curing period (typically 8 – 12 weeks) between the first and
second seal applications to ensure complete loss of volatiles from the first seal and thus minimise the risk of
bleeding.
7.4.3 Slurry seal

A Slurry Seal consists of a homogeneous mixture of pre-mixed materials comprising fine aggregate, stable-
mix grade emulsion (anionic or cationic) or a modified emulsion, water and filler (cement or lime). The

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production of slurry can be undertaken in simple concrete mixers and laid by hand, or more sophisticated
purpose-designed machines which mix and spread the slurry.
Slurry Seals can be used for treating various defects on an existing road surface carrying relatively low traffic.
The following are typical uses:
§ Arrest loss of chippings;

§ Restore surface texture;
§ Reduce unevenness because of bumps, slacks and/or ruts;
§ Rectify low activity surface cracking;
§ New construction as a grout seal following a single Chip Seal or in multiple layers directly on the base of
low traffic roads;
§ A component of a Cape Seal.
7.4.4 Chip seal

This seal (single or double) consists of a spray(s) of bituminous binder (either hot bitumen or bitumen
emulsion) followed by the application of a layer(s) of aggregate (stone chippings). These are commonly
referred to Single Bituminous Surface Treatment (SBST) or Double Bituminous Surface Treatment (DBST). The
binder acts as a waterproofing seal preventing entry of surface water into the road structure while the
chippings protect this film from damage by vehicle tyres.
Chip Seals can be used for a number of purposes, including:
§ New construction (normally DBST);

§ Temporary by-passes or diversions (normally SBST);
§ Maintenance resealing (normally SBST);
§ First layer of a Cape Seal.
7.4.5 Cape seal

A Cape Seal consists of a single 13mm or 19mm aggregate, penetrated with a binder and covered with a
slurry seal. If 19mm aggregate is used, the slurry is applied in two layers. The function of the slurry is to
provide a dense void filler to enhance the stability of the single-sized coarse aggregate layer. The coarse
aggregate is left proud to provide the macro texture for skid resistance.
7.4.6 Otta seal

An Otta Seal is a sprayed bituminous surfacing comprising a mixture of graded aggregates ranging from
natural gravel to crushed rock with relatively soft (low viscosity) binder, with or without a sand cover seal.
This type of seal contrasts with the single sized crushed aggregate relatively hard (high viscosity) binders used
in Chip seals. Otta seals can be single or double (two layers).
Otta Seals can be used for a variety of purposes, including:
§ New construction (single or double Otta Seals with/without sand seal);

§ Temporary seal (normally single Otta Seal - diversions, haul roads, temporary accesses, etc.);
§ Maintenance reseals (normally single Otta Seal).
7.4.7 Penetration Macadam

Penetration macadam is a well understood sealing option in Myanmar and consists of layers of successively
finer broken, or crushed rock, interspersed with applications of heated bitumen to infill voids and seal the
surface. An initial layer of 40-60 mm aggregate is keyed-in and rolled onto the underlying base. A first
penetration of bitumen (commonly at 5-6kg/m2) is sprayed into the initial 40mm aggregate layer and
immediately afterwards a second stone application is made by hand onto the grouted aggregate, using 10–

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20mm chippings. A second penetration of bitumen is then (commonly 3-5kg/m2) is then sprayed onto the
cover layer of chippings The effect is to achieve a matrix of keyed stones grouted and sealed with bitumen
to a depth of about 60 – 80mm. It is laid as a surfacing on a previously prepared (typically WBM or DBM) road
base (MoC, 1983,IFG, 2008b).
7.4.8 Cold Pre-Mix Asphalt

Cold pre-mix asphalt consists of crushed stone aggregate bound together with Bitumen Emulsion (60 to 65 %
slow setting grade, laid in layers, and compacted on a prepared base in 20-30mm layers. Cold mix technology
requires no heating and hence low-cost machinery like concrete mixers can be utilised to provide
considerably high progress rate (Amino E, & Hongve J, 2013).
7.5 Concrete Surfacing Options
7.5.1 Concrete Slab

Un-reinforced or reinforced cement concrete slab pavements can be used to provide a high strength, durable
road surface with very low maintenance requirements. Joints are required to accommodate thermal
expansion and contraction and particular care is required to construct them properly. When the concrete
has set the layer should be covered in sand or other moisture retaining material and kept wet for a few days
to aid curing. Concrete surfaces should normally not be trafficked until 7 days after casting (ARRB, 1993).
Cost-wise It will be difficult to justify normal steel reinforced concrete paving for LVRRs, so that design of
such pavements is not included in this Manual (Intech-TRL 2006a, b).
Geo-Cell paving comprises plastic geocells being stretched out over a prepared road base or sub-base and
pegged in place. The geocells act as an in situ formwork to create an incremental block paving surface by
placing and compacting pavement quality concrete into the geocells. The geocells remain as a sacrificial
formwork which effectively creates the incremental block paving. The concrete requires to be cured as
normal pavement quality concrete (Roughton International 2008).
Geo-Cells is a patented sacrificial formwork system used to cast 3D interlocking articulated block paving and
dam liners in situ. The Geo-Cells product is a large mat comprising square, hollow cells fabricated from thin
plastic film. The mat is equipped with integral laced rigging supplied ex factory.
Geo-Cell paving has good durability, load bearing and load spreading characteristics and low cost
maintenance procedures, and does not require expensive equipment to construct or maintain. Maintenance
resources for Geo-Cell pavements are similar to those concrete slab pavements
7.6 Selection of Pavement Layer Options
7.6.1 Requirements
The surfacing options will normally require structural support from a combination of the following:
§ Natural subgrade;
§ Imported subgrade;
§ Subbase;
§ Base.
Most commonly pavements comprise a both sub-base and base overlying the subgrade, although in some
options only a sub-base may be required, Figure 7.3.

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Figure 7.3 Typical Pavement Layers
Note: Thin bituminous seals are considered as non-structural, other surfacings such as Asphalt Concrete contribute
structural strength.
7.6.2 Performance characteristics of Bituminous Seals

The mechanism of performance of surface treatments varies in relation to the composition of their
constituents as illustrated in Figure 7.4 and described below.
Figure 7.4 Differing Mechanisms of Performance of Bituminous Surfacings
Category A: (e.g. pre-mix, sand seal and Otta seal):

These seal types, like cold-mix asphalt, rely to varying extents on a combination of mechanical particle
interlock and the binding effect of bitumen for their strength. Early trafficking and/or heavy rolling are
necessary to develop the relatively thick bitumen film coating around the particles. Under trafficking, the seal
acts as a stress-dispersing mat comprising the bitumen/aggregate mixture.
Catergory B: (e.g. chip seal, cape seal):
These seal types rely on the binder to “glue” the aggregate particles to the base. Where shoulder-to-shoulder
contact between the stones occurs, some mechanical interlock is mobilised. Under trafficking, the aggregate
is in direct contact with the tyre and requires relatively high resistance to crushing and abrasion to disperse
the stresses without distress.
The life of a bituminous surfacing treatment can vary widely in relation to a number of factors, as indicated
below:

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Climate: Very high temperatures cause rapid binder hardening through accelerated loss of volatiles, while
low temperatures can lead to brittleness of the binder leading to cracking or aggregate loss resulting in
reduced surfacing life. Future climatic increases in temperature need to be considered in bitumen type
selection.
Pavement strength: Lack of underlying pavement stiffness will lead to fatigue cracking and reduced surfacing
life.
Base materials: Unsatisfactory base performance and absorption of binder into more porous base materials
will lead to reduced surfacing life.
Binder durability: The lower the durability of the binder, the higher the rate of its hardening, and the shorter
the surfacing life.
Design and construction of surfacing: Improper design and poor construction techniques (e.g. inadequate
prime, uneven rate of binder application or ‘dirty’ aggregates) will lead to reduced surfacing life.
Traffic: The higher the volume of heavy traffic the shorter the surfacing life. The impact of heavier traffic may
be particularly evident on tight curves especially those on gradients more than about -6%.
Stone polishing: The faster the polishing of the stone, the earlier the requirement for resurfacing.
7.6.3 Factors affecting choice of bituminous surface treatments

The various factors affecting the choice of surface treatments in relation to the operational requirements are
indicated in Table 7.2 (Intech-TRL, 2006a).

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.2 Appropriate Surfacing Selection
Type of Surfacing
Parameter Sub-Division
SS SIS SCS DCS CS SOS+ SS DOS
Service life Short (<5) ü ü ü ? ? ? ?
required (years) X X X ü ü ü ?
Medium (5-10)
Long (>10) X X X ? ? ? ü
Traffic level Light (<100) ü ü ü ? ? ? ?
(AADT) Medium (100-300) X X X ü ü ü ?
Heavy (>300) X X X ü ü ü ü
Impact of traffic Low (no trucks) ü ü ü ? ? ? ?

turning action X X X ü ü ü ?
Medium (trucks)
High (3-axle trucks) X X X ? ? ? ü
Gradient Mild ( <5%) ü ü ü ü ü ü ?
Moderate (5-10%) X X X ü ü ü ?
Steep (>10%) X X X ü ü ü ü
Material Quality Poor X X X X X ü ü
Moderate ? ? ? ? ? ü ü
Good ü ü ü ü ü ? ?
Existing Poor X X X ? ? ? ü
pavement and ? ? ? ü ü ü ü
Moderate
base quality
Good ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Suitable for
labour-based ü ü ü ü ü X X
method3s
Contractor Low ? ? X X X ü ü
experience/ ü ? ? ? ? ü ü
Moderate
capability
High ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Maintenance Low X X X X X ü ü
capability X X X ü ü ü ü
Moderate
High ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
SS Sand seal SlS Slurry seal SCS Single chip seal
DCS Double chip seal CS Cape seal SOS Single Otta seal
DOS Double Otta seal
Where;
ü = Suitable/preferred ? = OK, but maybe not optimal X = Not suitable/applicable
3
Otta seal requires significant amounts of tyred rolling to bring up the bitumen

SECTION B: DESIGN
Pavement Option Selection

The selection of pavement options can be considered as a filtering process as demonstrated in the following
Tables 7.3 to 7.6 (Intech-TRL, 2006a).
Table 7.3 Preliminary Engineering Filter – Paving Materials
PAVING CATEGORY
Waterbround/Drybound Macadam
Stone Setts, Cobble Stone or Pavé
Dressed Stone/Cobble Stone

Engineered Natural Surface
Non-Reinforced Concrete
Required Materials
Bituminous Slurry Seal

Bituminous Sand Seal
Bituminous Chip Seal

Hand Packed Stone
Mortared Stone
Fired Clay Bricks
Concrete Blocks
Gravel Surface
Cape Seal
Otta seal
Crushed stone aggregate ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Stone pieces/blocks ü ü ü ü
Natural gravel ü ü
Colluvial/alluvial gravel ü ü
Weathered rock ü
Clay soil ü
Sand ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Cement ü ü ü ü
Bitumen ü ü ü ü
Bitumen Emulsion ü ü ü ü

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.4 Preliminary Engineering Filter - Pavement Layers / Shoulders
SHOULDERS
SUB-BASES
CATEGORY
PAVING
BASES
Required Materials
Emulsion s tabilised soil

Waterbound macadam
Waterbound macadam
Emulsion stabilised soil

Cement stabilised soil

Drybound macadam
Drybound macadam
Lime stabilisede soil

Armoured gravel
Stone macadam
Gravel
Gravel
Gravel
Crushed stone ü ü ü ü ü ü
aggregate
Stone pieces/
blocks
Natural gravel ü ü ü ü
Colluvial/alluvial ü ü ü ü
gravel
Weathered rock ü ü ü ü
Fired clay bricks
Clay soil ü ü ü
Sand ü ü ü ü ü
Cement ü ü ü
Lime ü ü ü
Bitumen
Bitumen Emulsion ü ü

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.5 Engineering Environment Filters Surfacing
Waterbround/Drybound Macadam
Fired Clay Brick, concrete Block
Bituminous Chip Seal (double)

Dressed Stone/Cobble Stone
Bituminous Chip Seal (single)

Engineered Natural Surface
Non-Reinforced Concrete
Bituminous Slurry Seal
Bituminous Sand Seal
Hand Packed Stone
Ottaseal (double)
Mortared Stone
Ottaseal (single)
Stone or Pavé
Gravel Surface
Cape Seal
Traffic Regime: See Table 7.7
Light traffic ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Moderate traffic ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Heavy traffic
ü ü ü ü ü
(overload risk)
Construction Regime
High labour content ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Intermediate machinery ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Low cost ü ü ü ü ü ü
Moderate cost ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
High cost ü ü ü
Maintenance Requirement
Low ü ü ü ü ü
Moderate ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
High ü ü ü
Erosion Regime (See Table 7.8)
A: low erosion regime ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
B: Moderate erosion
regime ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
C: High erosion regime ü ü ü ü ü
D: Very high erosion

regime ü ü ü ü ü

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.6 Secondary Engineering Filters - Pavement Layers / Shoulders
BASES SUB-BASES SHOULDERS
Emulsion s tabilised soil

Waterbound macadam
Waterbound macadam
Emulsion stabilised soil


Drybound macadam
Drybound macadam

Armoured gravel
Stone macadam
Gravel
Gravel
Gravel
Sealed
Traffic Regime: See Table 7.7
Light traffic ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Moderate traffic ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Heavy traffic
ü ü ü ü ü ü
(overload risk)
Construction Regime
High labour
ü ü ü ü ü
content
Intermediate
ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
machinery
Low cost ü ü ü ü
Moderate cost ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
High cost ü ü
Maintenance Requirement
Low ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Moderate ü ü ü ü
High ü
Erosion Regime (See Table 7.8)
A Low erosion regime

ü ü ü ü ü
B Moderate erosion
ü ü
regime
C High erosion regime

ü
D Very high erosion

ü
regime

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.7 Definition of Indicative Traffic Regime
Indicative Category Traffic Description
Mainly non-motorised, pedestrian and animal modes, motorbikes & less than 25 motor vehicles
Light
per day, with few medium/heavy vehicles. No access for overloaded vehicles. Typical of a Rural
Road with individual axle loads up to 2.5 tonne.
Moderate Up to about 100 equivalent vehicles per day including up to 20 medium goods vehicles, with no
significant overloading. Typical of a Rural Road with individual axle loads up to 6 tonne.
High Between 100 and 300 equivalent motor vehicles per day. Accessible by all vehicle types including
heavy and multi-axle (3 axle +) trucks, Construction & timber materials haulage routes. Specific
design methodology to be applied.
Table 7.8 Definition of Erosion Potential
Road alignment longitudinal Annual Rainfall (mm)

gradient
< 1000 1000 - 2500 2500 - 4000 >4000
Flat ( < 1% ) A A B C
Moderate ( 2-6% ) A B B C
High ( 6-8% ) B C C D
Very High ( >8% ) C C D D
A = Low; B = Moderate; C High; D = Very High
Note: Areas prone to regular erosive flooding should be classed as “High Risk” irrespective of rainfall.
7.7 Unsealed LVRR Design
7.7.1 Design of Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS)
Figure 7.5 Typical Engineered Natural Surface Road Cross Section in Flat Terrain

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 7.6 Typical Engineered Natural Surface Road Cross Section in Hill Terrain
Original ground level

CL
Compacted excavated
material Cut
Slope
4-6% Camber
Prepared
excavated surface Side drain
Compacted fill
§ The side drain may be trapezoidal, V or rectangular (lined) in shape. The edge of road/shoulder should be
at least 30cm above the bed or invert of the side drain, whatever the side drain cross section shape, or
the surrounding ground level. These requirements do not apply in sandy free-draining soil or expansive
soil subgrades.
§ The crown height of the earth road should be at least 50 cm above the bed or invert of the side drain,
whatever the side drain cross section shape, or the ground level.
§ Where the topography allows, wide, shallow trapezoidal side drains for earth roads are preferred. They
minimise erosion risk and will not block as easily as narrow ditches. The ditches usually grass over in time,
binding the soil surface and further slowing down the speed of water, both of which act to prevent or
reduce erosion.
§ The surface of earth roads should be mechanically graded or manually shaped and compacted to provide
a suitably robust and running surface for traffic and the road surface should have a minimum camber of
4% to ensure water runs off the surface and into the side drains.
§ Areas where there are specific problems (usually due to water or to the poor condition of the subgrade)
may be treated in isolation by localised replacement of subgrade, gravelling or other surface upgrade,
installation of culverts, raising the roadway or by installing other drainage measures. This is the basis of a
“spot improvement” approach
§ Water should be drained away from the carriageway side drains by installing lead off (mitre or turn out)
drains, to divert the flow into open space away from the road.
§ These requirements need to be maintained to keep the ENS in a satisfactory serviceable condition.
7.7.2 Design of Natural Gravel Roads

7.7.2.1 General
A gravel road can be considered to consist of a wearing course and a structural layer (base) which covers the
in situ material and provides adequate structural protection for the road foundation. The wearing course will
suffer material losses due to traffic and weather and should be regularly reshaped and replenished under the
maintenance regime to ensure that the structural gravel layer retains at the minimum design thickness. In
practical terms the wearing and structural layers will usually be of the same material and source and be laid
in accordance with the requirements discussed hereafter.
Wearing course gravel material losses can be of the order of 25-50mm/100vpd on flat sections of route.
Higher losses occur due to factors of rainfall, gradient, poor quality material, or poor (or lack of) maintenance
practices.

SECTION B: DESIGN
For the Gravel Road cross section, the side drain may be trapezoidal, V or rectangular (lined) in shape. The
edge of road/shoulder should be at least 30cm above the bed or invert of the side drain whatever the side
drain cross section shape or the surrounding ground level. These requirements do not apply in sandy free-
draining soil or expansive clay subgrades.
To achieve adequate external drainage, the road must also be raised above the level of existing ground such
that the crown of the road is always maintained at a minimum height (hmin) above the side drain inverts or
adjacent ground level, allowing for the variation in wearing course thickness. Cross sections are shown here
schematically for convenience (Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7 Typical Gravel Road Cross Section in Flat Terrain
Figure 7.8 Typical Gravel Road Cross Section in Hill Terrain
Original ground level

CL
Gravel Wearing Course

Cut
Slope
4-6% Camber
Base gravel layer
Prepared sub-
grade on Side drain
Sub-grade over excavated surface
compacted fill
The design procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Assess likely Maintenance regime.
2. Traffic (Baseline flow and forecast).
3. Material and geotechnical information (Field survey and material properties).
4. Subgrade (Classification, foundation for expansive soils and material strength).
5. Thickness design (Gravel wearing coarse thickness).
6. Materials design.
7.7.2.2 Design method

The required gravel thickness shall be determined as follows:

SECTION B: DESIGN
1. Determine the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive strain in the subgrade (Base
Gravel layer thickness and any necessary subgrade improvement: D1).
2. Determine the extra thickness needed to compensate for the gravel loss under traffic during the period
between re-gravelling maintenance operations (Gravel Wearing Course GWC layer thickness: D2).
3. Determine the total gravel thickness required by adding the above two thicknesses (D1+ D2).
7.7.2.3 Minimum thickness required

It is necessary to limit the compressive strain in the subgrade to prevent excessive permanent deformation
at the surface of the road. Figure 7.9 gives the minimum gravel thickness required for each traffic category
with the required thickness of the Gravel Wearing Course (GWC) and base layer depending on subgrade
strength category. The layer thickness takes account of a maximum placement and compacted thickness of
200mm.
The thicknesses are also based on a suitable gravel with a soaked CBR of >15% (G15). Stronger G25 to G45
gravels may be available for use and in this case some reductions in thickness may be permitted using the
following equivalences:
G45 = 1.5 x G15
G25 = 1.3 x G15
A minimum thickness of 150mm should be preserved, thus a 100AADT road gravel with a CBR of 6% could be
constructed with 200 and 150mm layers of G15 or with 150mm of G45 material over 130mm of G25 material
or 100mm of G45.
Figure 7.9 Minimum Thickness LVRR Gravel Roads
Sub-grade AADT
<20 20-49 50-200
S5-6. mm mm mm
CBR>15% 150 175 200
S4 CBR 8- mm mm mm
14% 150 150 200
100 100
S3 mm mm mm
CBR 5-7% 200 150 200
150 150
S2 mm mm mm
CBR 3-4% 200 200 200
100 150 200

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.7.2.4 Gravel loss

The gravel wearing course (GWC) material losses will depend on a range of factors such as:
• Rainfall
• Gradient
• Traffic
• Gravel type
• Maintenance
It is important to assess the likely annual rate of loss to determine maintenance liabilities and ensure that
adequate arrangements are in place for the relatively expensive periodic maintenance re-gravelling. The
following provides guidance on likely surface gravel loss rates for gravel surface material that is within
specification and adequately maintained.
According to TRL Laboratory Report LR 1111, an estimate of the annual average gravel loss can be estimated
from the following equation (TRL, 1984):
GL = f.(4.2 + 0.092 T + 3.50 R2 + 1.88V).T2 / (T2 + 50)

Where
GL = the annual gravel loss measured in mm
T = the total traffic volume in the first year in both directions, measured in thousands of
vehicles
R = the average annual rainfall measured in m
V = the total (rise + fall) as a percentage of the length of the road
f = 0.94 to 1.29 for lateritic gravels
= 1.1 to 1.51 for quartizitic gravels
= 0.7 to 0.96 for volcanic gravels (weathered lava or tuff)
= 1.5 for coral gravels
= 1.38 for sandstone gravels
These gravel loss estimates are only indicative, and there is no substitute for analysis of local gravel road
performance/maintenance records to develop realistic estimates of actual gravel losses in the local
environment. Loss rates will be significantly higher on steep grades. Research on comprehensive sample of
road environments in Vietnam supported the above figures on the basis of measured gravel losses indicating
gravel loss of greater than the 20mm/y could be taken as the limit of sustainability. (Cook and Petts 2005)
7.7.2.5 Total thickness required
The wearing course of a new gravel road should have a total thickness D calculated from:
D = D1 + N.GL (normally with a minimum of 150mm)
Where
D1 is the minimum thickness from Figure 7.9,
N is the period between re-gravelling operations in years,
GL is the annual gravel loss calculated above and
Maintenance re-gravelling operations should be programmed to ensure that the actual gravel thickness
never falls below the minimum thickness D1.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.8 Design of Bituminous Surfacing
7.8.1 General
The design of a particular type of surface treatment is usually project specific and related to such factors as
traffic volume, climatic conditions, available type and quality of materials. Various methods of design have
been developed by for the design of surface treatments. The approach to the design of surface treatments
given in this section is generic, with the objective of presenting typical binder and aggregate application rates
for planning or tendering purposes only (TRL, 2000; TRL 2003; AfCAP 2012b). Where applicable, reference
has been made to the source document for the design of the particular surface treatment which should be
consulted for detailed design purposes.
7.8.2 Prime coat

This is used to provide an effective bond between the surface treatment and the existing road surface or
underlying pavement layer and is essential for good performance of a bituminous surfacing. This generally
requires that the non-bituminous base layer must be primed with an appropriate grade of bitumen before
the start of construction of the surface treatment.
Typical primes are:
§ Bitumen primes: Low viscosity, medium curing cutback bitumen such as MC-30, MC-70, or in rare
circumstances, MC-250, can be used for prime coats.
§ Emulsion primes: Bitumen emulsion primes may not be suitable for priming stabilised bases as they tend
to form a skin on the road surface and to not penetrate this surface.
§ Tar primes: Low-viscosity tar primes such as 3/12 EVT are suitable for priming road surfaces but are no
longer in common use because of their carcinogenic properties which are potentially harmful to humans
and the environment.
The choice of prime depends principally on the texture and density of the surface being primed. Low viscosity
primes are necessary for dense cement or lime stabilised surfaces while higher viscosity primes are used for
untreated, coarse-textured surfaces. Emulsion primes are not recommended for saline base courses.
The grade of prime and the nominal rates of application to be used on the various types of pavements are
given in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9 Typical Prime Application Rates in Relation to Pavement Surface Type
Pavement surface Prime
Grade Rate of application (l/m2)
Tightly bonded
MC-70 0.6 – 0.7
(light primer)
Medium porosity
MC-30 / MC-70 0.7 – 0.8
(medium primer)
Porous
MC-30 0.85 – 1.1
(heavy primer

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.8.3 Chip Seal

Design: The design methods for both single and double chip seals are presented in Overseas Road Note 3
(2nd edition): A guide to surface dressing in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Additional guidance may be
found in AfCAP 2012 and TRL, 2003. In essence, the design is based the concept of partially filling the voids
in the covering aggregate and that the volume of these voids is controlled by the Average Least Dimension
(ALD) of the sealing chips. Corrections to the spray rate need to be subsequently carried out to take account
of site conditions as described in the references.
Materials: Typical constituents for chip seals are:
Binder: The bituminous binder can consist of any of the following:
§ 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade bitumen;
§ MC 3000 grade cutback bitumen;
§ spray grade anionic (60) or cationic (65 or 70) emulsion;
§ Modified binders (polymer modified and bitumen rubber).
Aggregate: The aggregate for a Chip Seal should be durable and free from organic matter or any other
contamination. Typical grading requirements for Chip Seals are given in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10 Aggregate Requirements for Bituminous Chip Seals

Nominal Aggregate Size (mm)
Sieve Size
19.0 13.2 9.5 6.7
(mm)
Grading (%passing)
26.5 100
19.0 85 - 100 100
13.2 0 - 30 85 – 100 100
9.5 0-5 0 – 30 85 - 100 100
6.7 - - 0-5 0 - 40
4.75 - - 0-5 0 - 40
2.36 - - - 0-5
0.425 (fines) < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 2.0
0.075 (dust) < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 1.0
Materials Properties
Flakiness Index Max 20 Max 25 Max 25 Max 30
10% FACT (dry) AADT < 1000vpd: 120kN
10% (wet) Min 75% of corresponding 10% FACT dry
Application rates: For planning purposes, typical binder and aggregate application rates for single bituminous
Chip Seals are given in Table 7.11.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.11 Binder and Application Rates for Chip Seals

Item Double Chip Seal Single Chip Seal (Reseal)
2nd 9.5 mm 2nd 6.7 mm
13.2 mm 9.5 mm
1st 19.0 mm 1st 13.2 mm
Aggregate spread rates (m3/m2)
2nd layer 0.09 0.007
1st layer 0.015 0.011 0.012 0.010
Hot spray rates of 80/100 pen grade bitumen (l/m2)
Traffic
3.0 (total) 2.3 (total) 1.6 1.3
AADT < 200
Traffic
2.5 (total) 1.9 (total) 1.3 1.0
AADT 200 - 1000
Note: See also Table 7.18

Conversions from hot spray rates in volume (litres) to tonnes for payment purposes must be made for the
bitumen density at a spraying temperature of 180oC. For planning purposes, a hot density of 0.90 kg/l should
be used until reliable data for the particular bitumen is available.
7.8.4 Sand seal

There are no formal methods for the design of sand seals with the binder and aggregate application rates
being based on local experience. The following grades of binder are typically used:
§ MC-800 cut-back bitumen;

§ MC-3000 cut-back bitumen;
§ Spray-grade emulsion (65% or 70% of net bitumen);
§ 150/200 penetration grade bitumen
Aggregate: The grading of the sand may vary to a fair degree, but the conditions of Table 7.12 must be met.
Table 7.12 Grading of Sand for Sand Seal
Percentage by mass
Sieve size (mm) Passing through sieve
6.7 100
0.300 0 – 15
0.150 0-2
Sand equivalent (%): 35 Min
Application rates: For planning or tender purposes, typical binder and aggregate application rates for sand
seals are given in Table 7.13.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.13 Binder and Aggregate Application Rates for Sand Seals
Hot spray rates of Aggregate application rate
Application
MC3000 cut-back (m3/m2)
Bitumen (l/m2)
Double sand seal used as a permanent seal 1.2 – 1.4 per layer 0.010 – 0.012 per layer
Single sand seal used as a cover seal over an Otta

0.8 – 1.0 0.010 – 0.012
Seal or Surface Dressing
Single seal used as a maintenance remedy on an

1.0 – 1.2 0.010 – 0.012
existing surfaced road
7.8.5 Otta seal

General Design Principles: The design of the Otta Seal relies on an empirical approach in terms of the
selection of both an appropriate type of binder and an aggregate application rate. Full details of the design
methods are given in the Botswana Guideline No. 1: The Design, Construction and maintenance of Otta Seals
(1999).
As a general guide, the choice of binder in relation to traffic and aggregate grading is given in Table 7.14.
Table 7.14 Choice of Otta Seal Binder in Relation to Traffic and Grading
AADT (vpd) at time Type of Bitumen
of construction Open Grading Medium Grading Dense Grading
> 1000 N/A 150/200 pen. Grade MC 3000
MC 800 in cold weather
100 - 1000 150/200 pen. grade 150/200 pen. Grade MC 3000
In cold weather MC 800 in cold weather
< 100 150/200 pen. grade MC 3000 MC 800
For design purposes, preferred grading in relation to traffic.
Application Rates: The following Application rates for binder and aggregates are recommended:
Binder: As a general guide, Table 7.15 gives the hot spray rates for primed base courses.
Table 7.15 Nominal Binder Application Rates for Otta Seals (l/m2)
Grading
Type of Otta seal Dense
Open
Medium AADT < 100 AADT > 100
Double Layer
1st Layer 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.7
2nd Layer 1.6 1.4 2.0 1.9
Single Layer with Sand Cover Seal
1st Layer 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.9
Fine Sand 0.8 0.7 - 0.9
Crusher Dust/Coarse River Sand 0.9 0.8 - 0.7
Single 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.0
Maintenance Reseal (Single) 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.8

SECTION B: DESIGN
The following points should be noted with regard to the binder application rates:
§ Hot spray rates lower than 1.6 l/m2 should not be allowed.
§ Binder for the sand seal cover seal shall be MC 3000 for crusher dust or coarse river sand and MC 800 for
fine sand.
§ Where the aggregate has a water absorbency of more than 2%, the hot spray rate should be increased
by 0.3 l/m².
Aggregate: As a general guide, Table 7.16 gives the aggregate application rates for Otta Seals.
Table 7.16 Nominal Otta Seal Aggregate Application Rates
Aggregate Application Rates (m3/m2)

Type of Seal
Open Grading Medium Grading Dense Grading
Otta Seals 0.013 – 0.016 0.013 – 0.016 0.016 – 0.020
Sand Cover Seals 0.010 – 0.012
The following points should be noted with regard to the aggregate application rates:
1. Sufficient amounts of aggregate should be applied to ensure that there is some surplus material during
rolling (to prevent aggregate pick-up) and through the initial curing period of the seal.
2. Aggregate embedment will normally take about 3 – 6 weeks to be achieved where crushed rock is used,
after which any excess aggregate can be swept off. Where natural gravel is used the initial curing period
will be considerably longer (typically 6 – 10 weeks).
7.8.6 Slurry seal

The design of a Slurry Seal surfacing is based on semi-empirical methods or experience with the exact
proportions of the mix being determined by trial mixes for which the following guidelines may be used:
Materials: The typical composition of slurry is as follows:
§ Filler should be between 1% and 2% of the mass of fine aggregate;
§ Undiluted Bitumen Emulsion should be approximately 20% by weight of fine aggregate.
Application rates: For planning or tender purposes, the typical composition of the slurry may be based on
the mass proportions indicated in Table 7.17.
Table 7.17 Nominal Slurry Seal Mix Components
Material Proportion (Parts)

Fine aggregate (dry) 100
Cement (or lime) 1.0 – 1.5
60% Stable grade emulsion 20
Water +/- 15

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.8.7 Cape seal

As a combination single seal + slurry seal, the design of a Cape Seal is similar to that for a Chip Seal and Slurry
Seal as described above.
Materials: Typical constituents for Cape Seals are:
Binder: As is the case with Chip Seals, a variety of binder types may be used for constructing a Cape Seal;
Aggregate: The same requirements are required as for Chip Seals and Slurry Seals.
Application rates: For planning purposes, typical binder and aggregate application rates for single Chip seals
are given in Table 7.18.
Table 7.18 Nominal Bituminous Chip Seal Application Rates
Nominal size of aggregate (mm) Nominal rates of application

For planning / tender purposes
Binder (litres of net Aggregate (m3/m2)
Bitumen cold per m2 )
13.2 1.4 0.009
19.0 1.6 0.014
7.8.8 Use of Bitumen Emulsion

Bitumen emulsion based applications eliminate many of the hazards of working with hot bitumen; application
can be planned more easily to progress at the same pace as the completion of the base and thus eliminate
the danger of damages to the base before it is sealed. They are much more labour-friendly than hot bitumen
applications and will contribute to a higher local and gender-balanced labour content of the project.
Anionic emulsions can give poor adhesion with acidic rocks (such as granite and quartzite) but good adhesion
with basic rocks (such as basalt) and with limestone. Cationic emulsions are suitable for use with both rock
types. There are two main grades of anionic and cationic emulsions; rapid, or slow setting and normally
contain between 40 and 70 per cent bitumen, with around 65 per cent being the best for most labour-based
LVRR work.
Rapid setting (RS) emulsions are best for most surface dressing including penetration macadam; whilst slow
setting (SS) is considered best for SS Otta seal, slurry seal and pre-mix.
7.8.9 Cold Pre- Mix Asphalt

Cold Pre-mix Asphalt consists of aggregate and bituminous emulsion material mixed and constructed in
accordance with the specifications. Aggregate consists of coarse aggregate of crushed rock, composed of
hard, durable particles and a filler of finely crushed stone, sand, or other washed natural gravel. The portion
of the material retained on a 5-mm sieve is known as coarse aggregate, and that portion passing a 5 mm
sieve as fine aggregate. The total mineral aggregate shall be graded within one of the gradations shown in
the table below.
The batching and laying of cold mix asphalts can be tightly controlled and thus ensure a uniform and high
quality of the end product. Bituminous materials shall be Bitumen Emulsion (60 to 65 % slow setting grade)
satisfying AASHTO M 208. The percentage of bituminous material, by weight, to be added to the aggregate
will usually be between 3.5 and 7 percent of the weight of the dry aggregate. The exact percentage to be
used shall be based on preliminary laboratory tests and field sieve analyses of the aggregates furnished or in
place.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.9 Structural Design of Paved Roads
7.9.1 Design methods

There are a number of methods that have been developed for the design of flexible paved roads ranging
from the simple to the complex and based on both mechanistic/analytical and empirical methods. The purely
empirical design methods are limited in their application to conditions similar to those for which they were
developed whilst the mechanistic/analytical methods require not only a calibration against empirical data
but also a considerable amount of material testing and computational effort and their application to highly
variable, naturally occurring materials which make up the bulk of LVRR pavements is questionable. The
pavement design method used in this manual is an empirically-based design method.
7.9.2 Design method for paves roads

Design charts or catalogue methods are the easiest to use because all the practical and theoretical works
have been carried out and different structures are presented in chart form for various combinations of traffic,
environmental effects, pavement materials and design options See section 7.10.5 to 7.12.2.
7.9.3 Traffic and environmental effects:

For a correctly constructed pavement carrying low levels of traffic and low axle loads, there is a low risk of a
pavement failure being induced by traffic, and deterioration is controlled mainly by environmental factors.
However, as the traffic levels increase, the specification for bases and sub-bases should approach those of
traffic design charts for high volume roads presented in ORN 31 (TRL, 1997). Experience suggests that the
transition from low-volume to high-volume roads is typically in the 1.0 Mesa (300 AADT) range. Annex VII to
this Manual discusses the impact of increasing the traffic limit for LVRR design from the current 300 AADT to
around 750AADT.
7.9.4 Sealed width

When the total sealed width is 7 metres or less, the outer wheel-track of normal motor traffic is within one
metre of the edge of the seal. This affects pavement performance adversely because of seasonal moisture
ingress. Therefore, relatively stronger pavements are necessary in these situations. If the road width is
sufficient for the outer wheel to be more than 1.5 metres from the pavement edge, and good drainage is
ensured by maintaining the crown height at least 650-750mm above the ditch invert, an improvement in
pavement performance occurs.
7.9.5 Bituminous Sealed LVRR Design Charts

In some countries with a relatively dry climate a relaxation in specification items is possible; the definition of
“dry” in this case being defined having a Weinert “N” value >4. As indicated in section 4.2.2, all Myanmar
regions have N values < 4 and can be considered “wet”, Table 7.19, no additional “dry” option charts have
been included.
Once the quality of the available materials and haul distances are known, the design chart can be used to
review the most economical cross-section and pavement; this involves assessment of design traffic class,
design period, cross-section and other environmental and design considerations.
The design charts do not cater for weak subgrades (CBR < 3%) and other problems soils. In these cases
additional measures should be taken to improve or overlay the weak subgrade (ORN 31; TRL, 1993).

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.19 Thin Bituminous Pavement Design Chart for Structural Layers (mm)
Traffic range (mesas) Layer LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
Subgrade class (CBR) < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
Base 150 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G80 200 G80
S2 (3-4%) Sub-Base 150 G15 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30 175 G30
Subgrade 130 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15
Base 125 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S3 (5-7%) Sub-Base 150 G15 100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
Subgrade 100 G15 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15
Base 175 G45 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S4 (8-14%)
Sub-Base 120 G30 200 G30 200 G30 200 G30
Base 175 G45 125 G65 175 G65 175 G65 175 G80
S5 (15-29%)
Sub-Base 125 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%) Base 150 G45 150 G65 175 G65 175 G65 200 G80
Note; G80, G65 etc refer to granular materials with a soaked CBR of 80%, 65% etc as defined in Table 8.2;
Subgrade= in situ or imported capping material.
Recent re-analysis of existing data has clearly indicated that savings in terms of material quality can be made,
for example by allowing a reduction in base material strength below 80% CBR. The implications of this recent
research are discussed in Section 7.11.2.
7.9.6 Penetration Macadam

Penetration Macadam provides structural contribution as well providing a seal. It is normally used only with
Dry-Bound or Water-Bound macadam structural layers. The current Ministry of Construction specification
document (MoC, 1983) provides guidance on the design and construction of Penetration Macadam using
water bound macadam as the underlying structural layers. Table 7.20 below may also be used with a
reduction in the thickness of the base layer equal to the 40-60mm contribution of the Penetration Macadam.
This design option is not recommended above 300,000 esa.
7.10 Non bituminous surfaced roads
7.10.1 Introduction
Table 7.20 lists the non-bituminous pavement (NBP) options with their respective design charts.
Table 7.20 Non-Bituminous Pavement Surfacing Options
NBP Option Code Ref. Table

Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadams WBM and DBM 7.21
Hand-Packed Stone HPS 7.22
Stone Setts or Pavé SSP and MSSP 7.23
Cobblestone / Dressed Stone CS, DS & MCS, MDS 7.23
Fired Clay Brick CB, MCB 7.23
Non-reinforced Concrete NRC 7.24
Concrete Cells
In many cases the specifications for the strength of these materials is flexible and, depending on the materials
available, substitutions can be made.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.10.2 Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadam (WBM and DBM)

The structural designs for WBM and DBM are as shown in Table 7.21 with the WBM or DBM itself acting as
the wearing course. A capping layers and a sub-base are required as indicated but thicknesses can be reduced
if stronger material is available.
Table 7.21 Thickness Designs for WBM and DBM Pavements (mm)
Base 150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM

S2 (3-4%) Sub-Base 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30 NA NA
Subgrade 150 G15 200 G15
S3 (5-7%) Sub-Base 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 NA NA
S4 (8-14%) NA NA
Sub-Base 100 G30 150 G30 200 G30
S5 (15-29%) NA NA
Sub-Base NOTE NOTE NOTE
S6 (>30%) NA NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
1. The capping layer of G15 material and the sub-base layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger
material is available.
2. On subgrade > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of material of in situ CBR
>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table 7.21.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.10.3 Hand-packed stone (HPS)

The structural designs for Hand Packed Stone with a Sand Bedding Layer (SBL) are as shown in Table 7.22.
Hand Packed Stone is a proven labour-based technique. The Hand Packed Stone is normally bedded on the
thin layer of sand or gravel. For use by heavy traffic, the layer should be compacted with a vibrating or heavy
non-vibrating roller. An edge restraint or kerb constructed of large or mortar jointed stones improves
durability and lateral stability. A degree of interlock is achieved and has been assumed in the designs shown
in Table 7.22.
Table 7.22 Thicknesses Designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) Pavement (mm)
Traffic range (mesas) LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
S2 (3-4%) NA
175 G30 125 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 200 G15 200 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
S3 (5-7%) NA
125 G30 200 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 150 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S4 (8-14%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 30 SBL NA
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30 200 G30
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S5 (15-29%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S6 (>30%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes: The capping layer of G15 material and the sub-base layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger material is
available

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.10.4 Stone sett or Cobble Pavements

Each stone sett is adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then tapped into position to the level of the
surrounding stones. Sand or fine aggregate is brushed into the spaces between the stones and the layer is
then compacted with a roller or plate compactor. Suitable structural designs are shown in Table 7.23.
Table 7.23 Thicknesses Designs for Various Discrete Stone, Brick or Block Surfacings (mm)
Traffic range LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
(mesas)
Subgrade class < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
Stone/block/brick DE DE DE DE DE
Bedding 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
S2 (3-4%) Base 100 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
Sub-Base 100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30
Subgrade 100 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15 200 G15
S3 (5-7%) Base 125 G65 125 G80 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80
Sub-Base 100 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30
Subgrade 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
S4 (8-14%)
Base 150 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
Sub-Base 150 G30 200 G30 200 G30 225 G30
S5 (15-29%)
Base 125 G65 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
Sub-Base 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%)
Base 125 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
Sub-Base NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
1. DE = Discrete Element layer; block stone (SSP, MSSP, CS, DS, MCS, MDS); clay brick or concrete block
2. The capping layer of G15 material and the sub-base layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger
material is available
2. The capping layer can be G10 provided it is laid 7% thicker
3. The base layers (G65 and G80) must not be weaker
4. The sub-base layers can be material stronger than G30 and laid to reduced thickness;
5. On subgrades > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of material of in situ
CBR >15% is in agreement with the recommendations.
7.10.5 Fired clay brick pavement

The surfacing consists of a layer of edge-on engineering quality bricks within mortar bedded and jointed edge
restraints, or kerbs, on each side of the pavement. The thickness designs are as shown in Table 7.23 for LV1
and LV2. Fired clay brick surfacings are not suitable for traffic classes above LV2.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.10.6 Concrete block pavement

This option comprises rectangular concrete bricks (usually around 70mm thick) being laid in a herringbone
or other pattern to camber within confining edge-kerbs (cast either before or after brick placement). They
are compacted into place, with sand brushed-in at the joints. A sand cement mortar joint or bituminous seal
may be specified to be used to waterproof the finished surface as a separate operation, although this is
usually unnecessary on a well-constructed sub-base. As a refinement, the concrete bricks may be cast with a
top edge chamfer to assist surface drainage.
The thickness designs are as shown in Table 7.23 for LV1 and LV2. Fired clay brick surfacings are not suitable
for traffic classes above LV2. Engineering quality concrete blocks are recommended, typically 200x100x70mm
thick with minimum 28 day cube strength of 25MPa.
7.10.7 Mortared options

In some circumstances (e.g. on slopes in high rainfall areas and volume susceptible subgrade) it may be
advantageous to use mortared options. This can be done with Hand-packed Stone, Stone Setts (or Pavé),
Cobblestone (or Dressed Stone), and Fired Clay Brick pavements. The construction procedure is largely the
same as for the un-mortared options except that cement mortar is used instead of sand for bedding and joint
filling. The behaviour of mortared pavements is different to that of sand-bedded pavements and is more
analogous to a rigid pavement than a flexible one. There is, however, little formal guidance on mortared
option, although empirical evidence indicates that inter-block cracking may occur. For this reason the option
is currently only recommended for the lightest traffic divisions up to LV2 until further locally relevant
evidence is available.
7.10.8 Non reinforced concrete (NRC)

The non-reinforced cement concrete option for LVRRs involves casting slabs of maximum 4.0 to 5.0 metres
in length or width between formwork with load transfer dowels between them. In some cases, where
continuity of traffic demands it, these slabs may be half carriageway width. The thickness designs are given
in Table 7.24. The end slab panels of a section of NRC paving should be increased in thickness by 50mm or
lightly reinforced with a steel grid to counteract the wheel impact loading as traffic moves onto the end slab
from adjacent surfacing.
Contraction joints of 10mm width are required between slabs, to relieve tensile stresses. Expansion joints
are required at 200m intervals, with all joints are to be filled and sealed with a mixture of sand and bitumen,
with a reservoir of bitumen provided at the top of each joint. All joints are to be provided with load transfer
steel dowels.
14 mm diameter mild steel reinforcing bars of 500mm length should be placed at 250mm centres at all
expansion and contraction joints. At expansion joints the dowel bar should be anchored into the concrete at
one end and the other end coated with bitumen and fitted into a PVC sleeve. The PVC tube is omitted at
contraction joints. Concrete slabs should normally be constructed at full carriageway width. In some
circumstances (e.g. to allow traffic flow in constrained alignments)) construction of half-width concrete slabs
can be used. Longitudinal joints should have a load transferring dowel and sealing arrangement similar to
that of transverse contraction joints.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 7.24 Thicknesses Designs (mm) - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement (NRC)
Traffic range (mesas) LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
160 NRC 170 NRC 175 NRC 180 NRC 190 NRC
S2 (3-4%)
150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S3 (5-7%)
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30
S4 (8-14%)
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
S5 (15-29%)
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
S6 (>30%) 150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
Notes:
1. Cube strength = 30 MPa at 28 days.
2. On subgrades > 30%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of material of in situ CBR >30%
is in agreement with the recommendations in the table.
7.10.9 Geo- Cells

Rather than being considered for design purposes as a concrete or rigid pavement this construction should
be considered more like a flexible block paving surface where the blocks are cast in-situ. Hence, Table 7.24
provides appropriate guidance. Although Geo-Cells have internationally been constructed with 75mm,
100mm and 150mm thicknesses, the current guidance for Myanmar is to use 150mm thick cells with 30MPa
concrete (DRRD, 2019).
Contraction joints of 10mm width are required at 50m intervals in the pavement, to relieve tensile stresses.
Expansion joints are required at 250m intervals, with all joints are to be filled and sealed with a mixture of
sand and bitumen, with a reservoir of bitumen provided at the top of each joint. All joints are to be provided
with load transfer steel dowels.
14 mm diameter mild steel reinforcing bars of 500mm length should be placed at 250mm centres at all
expansion and contraction joints. At expansion joints the dowel bar should be anchored into the concrete at
one end and the other end coated with bitumen and fitted into a PVC sleeve. The PVC tube is omitted at
contraction joints. Concrete slabs should normally be constructed at full carriageway width. In some
circumstances (e.g. to allow traffic flow in constrained alignments)) construction of half-width concrete slabs
can be used. Longitudinal joints should have a load transferring dowel and sealing arrangement similar to
that of transverse contraction joints.
7.11 Design Chart Amendments with Constrained Traffic and Axle-loads
7.11.1 Research
Recent research being undertaken by ReCAP (TRL, 2019) has re-evaluated, or back-analysed, the
performance a wide range of existing sealed and unsealed LVRRs, This has indicated that many, well-
constructed, sealed LVRRs are performing better than their design anticipated. This follows on from work
previously undertaken on sealed roads in Vietnam (Intech-TRL, 2006) and on very low traffic-low axle load
designs for Laos (SEACAP, 2008)).
The consequence from this work is that some reductions in layer thickness and materials specifications may
be possible in the appropriate circumstances.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.11.2 Amended Design Charts

Table 7.25 presents proposed amendments to thin sealed LVRR designs as proposed in TRL (2019) and Table
7.26 presents proposed designs for very low traffic and low axle loads in Laos. This latter approach has also
emphasised the use of imported capping layer materials as means of reducing base/sub-base thickness. This
would prove a possible approach for Class C roads in areas where there is lack of higher quality base or sub-
base materials, for examples the Delta Region.
Table 7.25 Revised Design Table for Thin Sealed LVRRs with axles < 8 tonnes
Subgrade Traffic (mesa): Axle loads < 8 tonnes

Layer
Class <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Base 150 G45 150 G45 150 G60 150 G60
S1 and S2
Sub-Base 125 G25 125 G25 150 G25 150 G25
≤4%
Subgrade 125 G15 125 G15 150 G15 150 G15
Base 125 G45 125 G45 150 G60 150 G60
S3 and S4
Sub-Base 125 G25 125 G25 125 G25 125 G25
5-14%
Subgrade 125 G15 125 G15 100 G15 100 G15
S5 and S6
Base 175 G45 175 G45 175 G45 175 G45
15->30%
Table 7.26 Revised Design Table for Roads with Very Low Traffic and Axles < 4.5 Tonnes
Subgrade Traffic (mesa): Axle loads < 4.5 tonnes
Class
Layer <0.01 0.01-0.1
Base 100 G45 100 G45
2-4%
Sub-Base 100 G25 125 G25
Base 100 G45 100 G45
5-7% Sub-Base 100 G25 150 G25
Base 100 G45 100 G45
7-11% Sub-Base 100 G25 150 G25
Subgrade 100 G10
Base 100 G45 100 G45
>11%
Sub-Base 100 G25 150 G25
7.12 Pavement Drainage
7.12.1 General
One of the significant challenges faced by the designer is to provide a pavement structure in which the
detrimental effects of moisture are contained to acceptable limits in relation to the traffic loading, nature of
the materials being used, construction and maintenance provisions and degree of acceptable risk. This
challenge is accentuated by the fact that most low volume roads will be constructed from natural, often
unprocessed, materials which tend to be moisture sensitive. This places extra emphasis on drainage and
moisture control for achieving satisfactory pavement life. Two inter-related aspects of drainage need to be
considered during road design, namely internal and external drainage. This section focuses on internal
drainage only which is concerned with water that enters the road structure directly from above the road
pavement or directly from below and the measures that can be adopted to avoid trapping water within the
pavement structure. External drainage which seeks to control water before it enters the pavement structure
is discussed in Chapter 9.

SECTION B: DESIGN
7.12.2 Sources of moisture entry into a pavement

The various causes of water ingress to, and egress from, a pavement are listed in Table 7.27.
Table 7.27 Typical causes of water ingress to, and egress from a road pavement
Means of Water Ingress Causes
Through the pavement through cracks due to pavement failure

surface penetration through intact layers
artesian head in the subgrade
From the subgrade pumping action at formation level
capillary action in the sub-base
seepage from higher ground, particularly in cuttings
reverse falls at formation level
From the road margins lateral/median drain surcharging
capillary action in the sub-base
through an unsealed shoulder collecting pavement and ground run-off
Through hydrogenesis condensation and collection of water from vapour phase onto underside of an impermeable
(aerial well effect) surface
Means of Water Egress Causes
Through the pavement
through cracks under pumping action through the intact surfacing
surface
soakaway action
Into the subgrade
subgrade suction
into lateral/median drains under gravitational flow in the sub-base
To the road margins
into positive drains through cross-drains acting as collectors
7.12.3 Permeability
Moisture ingress to, or egress from, a pavement will be influenced by the permeability of the pavement,
subgrade and surrounding materials. The relative permeability of adjacent materials may also govern
moisture conditions. A significant decrease in permeability with depth or across boundaries between
materials (i.e. permeability inversion) can lead to saturation of the materials in the vicinity of the inversion.
Typical permeability values for saturated soils are presented in Table 7.28.
Table 7.28 Typical Material Permeability
Material Permeability Description

Gap-graded crushed rock > 30 mm/s
Gravel > 10 mm/s Free draining
Coarse sand > 1 mm/s
Medium sand 1 mm/s
Permeable
Fine sand 10 µm/s
Sandy loam 1 µm/s
Practically impermeable
Silt 100 nm/s
Clay 10 nm/s
Impermeable
Bituminous surfacing (1) 1 nm/s
Source: AfCAP, 2012

SECTION B: DESIGN
Note: Applies to well-maintained double chip seal. Thicker asphalt layers can exhibit significant permeability as a result of a linking
of air voids. Permeability increases as the void content of the mix increases, with typical values ranging from 300 µm/s at 2% air voids
to 30 µm/s at 12% air voids. Typically, a 1% increase in air voids content will result in a three-fold increase in permeability (Waters,
1982).
7.12.4 Achieving effective internal drainage

The following guidance is provided for achieving effective internal drainage of the road structure.
Side drainage and crown height above drain invert: Side drainage is one of the most significant factors
affecting pavement performance and, in particular, the nature of the crown height, A minimum value, h, of
0.65 to 0.75m is recommended for LVRRs; where h is the height of the crown of the road above the bottom
of the ditch.
Irrespective of climatic region, if the site has effective side drains and adequate crown height, then the in-
situ subgrade strength stays above the design value. If the drainage is poor, the in-situ strengths will fall to
below the design value.
Drainage within pavement layers: Drainage within the pavement layers themselves is an essential element
of structural design because the strength of the subgrade in service depends critically on the moisture
content during the most likely adverse conditions. Since it is impossible to guarantee that road surfaces will
remain waterproof throughout their lives, it is critical to ensure that water is able to drain away quickly from
within the pavement. This can be achieved by a number of measures as discussed below.
Avoiding permeability inversion: A permeability inversion exists when the permeability of the pavement and
subgrade layers decreases with depth. Under infiltration of rainwater, there is potential for moisture
accumulation at the interface of the layers. The creation of a perched water table could lead to shoulder
saturation and rapid lateral wetting under the seal may occur. This may lead to base or sub-base saturation
in the outer wheel track and result in catastrophic failure of the base layer when trafficked. A permeability
inversion often occurs at the interface between sub-base and subgrade since many subgrades are cohesive
fine-grained materials. Under these circumstances, a more conservative design approach is required that
specifically caters for these conditions.
In view of the foregoing, it is desirable for good internal drainage that permeability inversion does not occur.
This is achieved by ensuring that the permeability of the pavement and subgrade layers are at least equal or
are increasing with depth. For example, the permeability of the base must be less than or equal to the
permeability of the sub-base in a three layered system.
Where permeability inversion is unavoidable, the road shoulder should be sealed to an appropriate width to
ensure that a lateral wetting front does not extend under the outer wheel track of the pavement.
Ensuring proper shoulder design: When permeable base materials are used, particular attention must be
given to the drainage of this layer. Ideally, the base and sub-base should extend right across the shoulders to
the drainage ditches. In addition, proper crossfall is needed to assist the shedding of water into the side
drains. (Chapter 6)
Lateral drainage can also be encouraged by constructing the pavement layers with an exaggerated crossfall,
especially where a permeability inversion occurs. This can be achieved by constructing the top of the sub-
base with a crossfall of 3-4% and the top of the subgrade with a crossfall of 4-5%. Although this is not an
efficient way to drain the pavement it is relatively inexpensive and therefore worthwhile of consideration,
particularly as full under pavement drainage is rarely likely to be economically justified for LVRs. Figure 7.10
illustrates the recommended drainage arrangements for a paved LVR.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 7.10 Recommended pavement drainage arrangements
If it is too costly to extend the base and sub-base material across the shoulder, drainage channels or ‘grips’
at 3m to 5m intervals should be cut through the shoulder to a depth of 50mm below sub-base level. These
channels should be back-filled with material of sub-base quality but which is more permeable than the sub-
base/base itself, and should be given a fall of 1 in 10 to the side ditch. Alternatively, a preferable option would
be to provide a continuous layer of pervious material of 75mm to 100mm thickness laid under the shoulder
such that the bottom of the drainage layer is at the level of the top of the sub-base. The purpose of such
measures should be clearly stated on construction drawings.
Sealing of shoulders: Advantages of sealed shoulders:

§ They provide better support and moisture protection for the pavement layers and also reduces erosion
of the shoulders (especially on steep gradients);
§ They improve pavement performance by ensuring that the zone of seasonal moisture variation does not
penetrate to under the outer wheel track (see Figure 7.10);
§ They reduce maintenance costs by avoiding the need for reshaping and re-gravelling at regular intervals;
§ They reduce the risk of road accidents, especially where the edge drop between the shoulder and the
pavement is significant or the shoulders are relatively soft.
For the above reasons it may be economically justifiable to provide paved rather than unpaved shoulders.
This should be undertaken as part of the design consideration of the pavement cross-section.
Unsealed shoulders: A common problem associated with the use of unsealed shoulders is water infiltration
into the base and sub-base for a number of reasons, which include:
§ Rutting adjacent to the sealed surface;
§ Build-up of deposits of grass and debris;
§ Poor joint between the base and shoulder (common when a paved shoulder has been added after initial
construction).
Avoiding ‘trench’ construction: Under no circumstances should the trench (or boxed in) type of cross section
be used in which the pavement layers are confined between continuous impervious shoulders. This type of
construction has the undesirable feature of trapping water at the pavement/shoulder interface and inhibiting
flow into drainage ditches which, in turn, facilitates damage to the pavement and shoulders under even light
trafficking. This ancient type of road construction is totally unsuited to modern traffic loading. “Boxed”
construction is a common cause of road failure due to the reduction in strength and stiffness of the pavement
material and the subgrade below that required to sustain the traffic loading.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Adopting a holistic and integrated approach: The foregoing highlighted pavement drainage measures are all
aimed at:
§ Preventing water from entering the pavement in the first place;
§ Facilitating its outflow as quickly as is reasonable, given the cost implications;
§ Ensuring that the presence of water in the road for an extended period of time does not cause failures.
It should be appreciated, however, that the adoption of any single measure on its own is unlikely to be as
effective as the adoption of a judicious mixture of a number of complementary measures applied
simultaneously. Such an approach forms part of the philosophy of minimising the risks associated with using
locally occurring natural materials in the pavements of LVRs.

SECTION B: DESIGN
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JKR Malyasia, 2012. Design Guide for Alternative Pavement Structures , Low Volume Roads. Road and
Geotechnical Engineering Unit, Public Works Dept, Malaysia
Jones T.E. & Promprasith Y., 1991. Maintenance of Unpaved Roads in Wet Climates. 5th Int Conf. On Low
Volume Roads, TRR 1291.
Kleyn E.G.& van Zyl G.D., 1988. Application of the DCP to Light Pavement Design. 1st Symposium on
Penetration Testing, Orlando USA.
LGED, 2005. Road Design Standards. Rural Road. Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), Gov. of
Bangladesh.

SECTION B: DESIGN
MoC, 1983. Road Construction Specifications. Department of Roads, Ministry of Construction, Government
of the Union of Myanmar Naypyitaw
Parry J D, Hewitt N C & Jones T E, 1993. Concrete Pavement Trials in Zimbabwe. Research Report 381.TRL Ltd
for DFID
Rolt J, 2007. Behaviour of Engineered Natural Surface Roads. SEACAP 19 Technical Paper 2.1. DFID for MRD,
MPWT, Cambodia.
SADC, 2003. Low Volume Sealed Roads Guideline. Chapter 5: Pavement design, material and surfacing. SADC-
SATCC
SANRAL, 2013.South African Pavement Engineering Manual; Chapter 10: Pavement design. South African
National Road Agency.
SEACAP, 2008. Low Volume Rural Road Standards and Specifications: Part II Pavement Options and Technical
Specifications. TRL-LTEC Report for SEACAP and MPWT, Laos
Thornthwaite C. W, 1948. An Approach Towards a Rational Classification of Climate. Geographical Review,
Vol 58, 55-94.
TRL, 1984. The Kenya Maintenance Study on Unpaved Roads Research on Deterioration. TRL LR 1111, UK.
TRL, 1993. ORN 31 (4th Edition). A guide to Structural Design of Bitumen Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-
tropical countries. TRL Ltd for DFID, UK.
TRL, 2000. ORN 3. A guide to Surface Dressing in Tropical and Sub-tropical Countries. TRL Ltd, for DFID, UK.
TRL, 2003. Manual for Labour based Construction of Bituminous Surfacings on Low Volume Roads. TRL Ltd
Report R7470 for DFID.
TRL, 2006. UK DCP 3.1 User manual. Measuring Road Pavement Strength and Designing Low Volume Sealed
Roads using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. TRL Ltd, for DFID, UK.
TRL, 2019. Development of Guidelines and Specifications for Low Volume Sealed Roads through Back
Analysis. Draft Final Report. ReCAP Reference Number: RAF2069A
TRL-LTEC, 2008. Low Volume Rural Roads Standards and Specifications; Part III. SEACAP 3, DFID for MPWT
Lao PDR.

SECTION B: DESIGN
8 Construction Materials
8.1 Introduction
As indicated in Chapter 3, construction materials are a key element of the LVRR road environment and their
identification and characterisation are vital factors in the development of cost-effective LVRR designs.
A key objective in sustainable rural road design and construction is to best match the available construction
material to the road task and the local environment. When reserves are limited or of marginal quality, their
cost-effective usage is a priority and it is important to use materials to ensure that they are neither sub-
standard nor wastefully above the standards demanded by their engineering task. Hence the necessity of
applying locally relevant specifications and either adapting designs or improving materials to suit. (Cook et al
2001). A common reason for construction costs to escalate once construction has started is that the materials
are found to be deficient in quality or quantity. This leads to expensive delays whilst new sources are
investigated, or the road is redesigned to take account of the materials actually available.
The types of natural road construction materials may be summarised as follows:
§ Common fill
§ Imported (selected) subgrade
§ Subbase and base aggregate
§ Road surfacing aggregate
§ Surfacing Block or Paving stone
§ Aggregates for structural concrete
§ Filter/drainage material
§ Gabion fill
§ Rock fill (embankments)
§ Rip-rap
§ Masonry stone
This Chapter gives guidance on the identification and selection of sources of appropriate road-building
materials with respect to key characteristics that govern their performance. The associated Annexes II and III
provide additional detail on geotechnical testing of construction materials and on the use of marginal
materials.
8.2 LVRR Natural Material Requirements
8.2.1 Specification of Suitable Materials

Figure 8.1 Natural Materials in a Typical
Construction
Sealed Pavement
materials
requirements outlined in this chapter have been developed
from Myanmar Ministry of Construction specifications
reviewed in conjunction with experience from recent and
ongoing LVRR projects in Myanmar and elsewhere in the
region (MoC 1983).
Table 8.1 summarises key characteristic requirements

of LVRR construction materials and Table 8.2 presents
definitions for a range of granular materials utilised in LVRR
design and construction. To some extent these vary in
response to project specific location and road task, as
detailed in Chapter 7 for pavements, Chapter 9 for structures and Chapter 10 for Earthworks.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.1 Key Material Characteristics

Road Use Ley Specification Criteria
Common Fill Plasticity, swell potential, compacted strength, max particle size
Imported sub-grade Plasticity, swell potential, compacted strength, max particle size
Sub-Base/Base Variable for, crushed stone, natural gravel and laterite
Plasticity, swell potential, compacted strength, grading
Gravel Wearing Course Plasticity, swell potential, durability, compacted strength, grading
Surfacing Aggregate Fines, grading, shape, particle strength and durability, bitumen adhesion, polishing,
abrasion,
Stone Surfacing Cobbles, hand-packed stone, strength, durability, shape
Filter Material Fines, grading
Concrete Aggregate Fine; fines, grading, deleterious inclusions,
Coarse: Strength, shape, durability, deleterious inclusions, silica reaction (mineralogy)
Gabion Fill Strength, durability, size, shape.
Rock fill/ Strength, durability, size, shape
Rip Rap Strength, durability, size, shape
Mortar Stone Strength, durability, size, shape

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.2 Material Types and Abbreviated Nominal Specifications
Code Material Abbreviated Specifications
Min. CBR: 80% @ 98/100% AASHTO T180 and 4 days soaking

Natural gravel or graded Max. Swell: 0.2%
G80
crushed stone Max. Size and grading: Max size 37.5mm, grading as specified. PI: < 6 or as
otherwise specified (material specific).
Min. CBR: 60 or 65% @ 98/100% AASHTO T180 and 4 days soaking
G65/G60
crushed stone Max. Size and grading: Max size 37.5mm, grading as specified
PI: < 6 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
Min. CBR: 50 or 55% @ 98/100% AASHTO T180 and 4 days soaking
G55/G50
Min. CBR: 45% @ 98/100% AASHTO T180 and 4 days soaking
G45
Min. CBR: 30% @ 95/97% AASHTO T180 & highest anticipated moisture content
Natural gravel or graded Max. Swell: 1.0% 1.5% @ 100% AASHTO T180
G30
crushed stone Max. Size and grading: Max size 63mm or 2/3 layer thickness
Max. Swell: 1.0% @ 100% AASHTO T180
G25 Natural gravel/soil
Max. Size and grading: Max size 63mm or 2/3 layer thickness. PI: <12 or as
otherwise specified (material specific)
G15 Gravel/soil
Max. Size: 2/3 of layer thickness
PI: < 12 or 3GM + 10 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
G7 Soil
Max. Size: 2/3 layer thickness
PI: < 12 or 3GM + 10 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
G3 Soil Max. Swell: N/A
Max. Size: 2/3 layer thickness
8.2.2 Common Fill

In general, location and selection of fill material for low volume roads does not pose significant problems.
Exceptions include:
§ Organic and peaty soils;

§ Clays with high liquid limit and plasticity (swelling clays);
§ Fabric sensitive soils;
§ Highly micaceous soil.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Problems may exist in Myanmar in flood plain or deltaic deposits where very fine compressible materials are
abundant.
Where possible, fill should be taken from within the road alignment (balanced cut-fill operations) or by
excavation of the side drains (exception in areas of expansive soils). Borrow pits for fills should be limited as
much as possible both on environmental impact ground, especially in agriculturally productive areas.
8.2.3 Imported Subgrade

The main aim of the selected subgrade layer, where required, is to provide a uniform platform on which to
place the subbase and base course (where needed). This layer is also used to provide a suitable substrate on
which to compact the subbase and base.
Where in-situ and alignment soils are weak or problematic, import of improved subgrade may be necessary.
As far as possible the requirement to import material should be avoided due to the additional haulage costs.
Import of strong (CBR>10-15%) subgrade materials can also be considered in the context of providing cost
saving resulting from a consequent reduction of pavement thickness. Where improvement is necessary or
unavoidable, mechanical and chemical stabilisation methods on existing soils can be considered.
As discussed in Chapter 7, subgrades (either in situ or imported) are classified on the basis of the laboratory
soaked CBR tests, or the equivalent DCP values. This subgrade strength is normally assigned to one of six
strength classes, Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Subgrade Classes

Design CBR class S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
CBR range (%) 3-4 5-7 8 - 14 15 - 29 30+
8.2.4 Base and Sub-base

A wide range of materials including lateritic, calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels and other
transported and residual granular materials resulting from weathering of rocks can be used successfully as
base and sub-base material. Sub-base and base materials are expected to meet requirements related to
maximum particle size, grading, plasticity, and CBR.
The CBR strength required of both the subbase and base will be a function the traffic, the environment (in
situ moisture conditions predominantly) and the underlying support (Chapter 7).
The recommended grading envelopes to be used for base are shown in Table 8.4. Envelope C modifies the
upper limit of envelope B to allow the use of sandy materials, but its use is not recommended in wet climates.
Envelope D is a simple grading definition that can be used for very low volume, low axle load, traffic in both
wet and dry climates.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.4 Particle Size Distribution for Natural Gravel Base
Per cent by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve

Envelope A
Test Sieve size Nominal maximum particle size Envelope B Envelope C
37.5mm 20mm 10mm
50mm 100 100
37.5mm 80-100 100 80-100
20mm 55-95 80-100 100 55-100
10mm 40-80 55-85 60-100 40-100
5mm 30-65 30-65 45-80 30-80
2.36mm 20-50 20-50 35-75 20-70 20-100
1.18mm - - - - -
425µm 8-30 12-30 12-45 8-45 8-80
300µm - - - - -
75µm 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-30
Envelope D
1.65 < GM < 2.65
The plasticity requirement also varies depending on the traffic level as shown in Table 8.5 and Table 8.6.
Table 8.5 Plasticity Requirements for Natural Gravel Base/Sub-base Materials
Traffic class (mesas)

Subgrade
Property
of base
class4
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Ip <12 <9 <6 <6 <6

S2 PM <400 <150 <120 <90 <90
Grading B B A5 A5 A5
Ip <15 <12 <9 <6 <6

S3 PM <550 <250 <180 <90 <90
Grading C1 B B A5 A5
Ip Note2 <12 <12 <9 <9

S4 PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading D3 B B B A5
Ip Note2 <15 <12 <12 <9

S5 PM <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading D3 B B B A5
Ip Note2 <15 <15 <12 <9

S6 PM <550 <500 <300 <180
Grading D3 C1 B B A5
Notes:
1. PM: Plasticity modulus
2. Grading ‘C’ is not normally permitted in the wet Myanmar environments; grading ‘B’ is the minimum requirement
3. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
4. Grading ‘D’ is based on the grading modulus 1.65 < GM < 2.65
5. All base materials are natural gravels; Subgrades are non-expansive
6. Envelope A varies depending on whether the nominal maximum particle size is 37.5, 20 or 10mm

SECTION B: DESIGN
Laterite soils are widely distributed in Lower

Myanmar and have been used in the past for road
Figure 8.2 Nodular Laterite
construction and building purposes (Tin Tin Ohn,
1993).
The requirements for selection and use of lateritic

gravels for bases are slightly different to those given
for other natural gravels (Table 8.6, CIRIA 1988). The
most important requirements for a laterite to show
good road performance are that the material is well
graded with a high content of hard nodules, or
quartz particles with adequate fines content (Figure
8.2). However, when judging the gradation of
lateritic gravel, it is important to assess its
composition to decide if separate specific gravity
determinations of the fines and coarse fractions
should be made. For example, for nodular laterites,
the coarse fraction is iron-rich whilst the fine
fraction is predominantly kaolinite. Thus, there is a
Photo J Cook
significant difference in the specific gravities of the
coarse and fine fractions, and the grading should be calculated taking this into account.
For design traffic levels greater than 0.3 Mesa, a requirement is that the liquid limit should be less than 30.
Below this traffic level, this requirement is relaxed to a liquid limit of less than 35. Where sealed shoulders
over one metre wide are specified in the design, the maximum plasticity modulus may be increased by 40
per cent.
Table 8.6 Guidelines for the Selection of Lateritic Gravel Base/Sub-base Materials
Traffic class (mesas)

Subgrade
Property
class
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Ip <15 <12 <9 <9 <6

S2 PM <400 <150 <150 <120 <90
Grading B B A A A
Ip <18 <15 <12 <9 <6

S3 PM <550 <250 <180 <120 <90
Grading C B B A A
Ip <20 <15 <15 <9 <9

S4 PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B A
Ip <25 <18 <15 <12 <9

S5 PM - <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B B
Ip <25 <20 <18 <15 <12

S6 PM - <550 <400 <300 <180
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B A
Notes:
1. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
2. Unsealed shoulders are assumed. Further modification to the limits can be made if the shoulders are sealed. If
sealed shoulders >1m are specified in the design, the PM may be increased by 40 %

SECTION B: DESIGN
3. The compaction requirement for the soaked CBR test to define the subgrade classes is 100% Mod. AASHTO with
a minimum soaking time of 4 days or until zero swell is recorded..
For granular sub-bases a minimum CBR of 25-30% is commonly required at the highest anticipated moisture
content when compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95% AASHTO T180 compaction.
Materials which meet the recommendations of Table 8.7 and Table 8.8 should perform adequately as sub-
bases when used within the recommendations of the design catalogues in Chapter 7.
Table 8.7 Typical Particle Size Distribution for Sub-bases
Per cent by mass of total aggregate passing

Sieve Size (mm)
test sieve
50 100
37.5 80 – 100
20 60 – 100
5 30 – 100
1.18 17 – 75
0.3 9 – 50
0.075 5 - 25
Table 8.8 Plasticity Characteristics for Granular Sub-bases
Climate Liquid Limit% Plasticity Index% Linear Shrinkage%
Moist tropical and wet tropical (N<4) < 35 <6 <3
Seasonally wet tropical (N<4) < 45 < 12 <6
Arid and semi-arid (N>4) (not normally occurring in Myanmar) < 55 < 20 < 10
Under certain circumstances, mechanical or chemical treatments may be required to improve the quality to
the required standard. This often requires the use of special equipment or processing plant (Section 8.4).
8.2.5 Gravel Wearing Course

Ideally, an unsealed Gravel Wearing Course (GWC) should be durable and of consistent quality to ensure it
wears evenly. The desirable characteristics of such a material are:
§ Good skid resistance;
§ Smooth riding characteristics;
§ Cohesive properties (suitable amount of plasticity);
§ Resistance to ravelling and scouring;
§ Wet and dry stability;
§ Low permeability;
§ Load spreading ability.
For ease of construction and maintenance, a wearing course material should also be easy to grade and
compact. The material properties having the greatest influence on these characteristics are the particle size
distribution and the characteristics of the coarse particles. There is also a requirement for there is sufficient
plasticity to hold the GWC together. Typical required properties are summarized in Table 8.9.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.9 Material Specifications for Unsealed Rural Roads
Characteristic Requirement
Maximum size (mm) 37.5
Oversize index (Io) ≤5%
Shrinkage product (Sp) 100 to 365 (max.240 preferable)
Grading coefficient (Gc) 16 to 34
Soaked CBR (at 95% Mod. AASHTO) ≥15%
a Io = % retained on 37.5mm sieve)
b Sp = Linear shrinkage x passing 0.425 sieve
c Gc = (% passing 26.5mm – % passing 2.00mm) x (% passing4.75mm)/100
Notes:
1. Specifications should be applicable after placement and compaction

2. The Grading Coefficient and Shrinkage Product must be based on a conventional particle size distribution
determination which must be normalised for 100% passing the 37.5 mm screen.
The likely influence of material properties on GWC performance are summarised in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 Gravel Wearing Coarse Material Quality Zones
Performance indicators for unbound surfaces
500
D
450
Slippery
400
Shrinkage Product .
350
300 B C
A
Erodes Good Ravels
250
200
150
100
E
50 Corrugates and ravels
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
Grading Coefficient
The material quality zones define material quality in relation to their anticipated in-service performance. The
combination of grading coefficient and shrinkage product of each material determines which material quality
zone it falls into. The characteristics of materials in each zone are as follows:
A. Materials in this area generally perform satisfactorily but are finely graded and particularly prone to
erosion. They should be avoided if possible, especially on steep grades and sections with steep cross-
falls and super-elevations. Roads constructed from these materials require frequent periodic labour-
intensive maintenance over short lengths and have high gravel losses due to erosion.
B. These materials generally lack cohesion and are highly susceptible to the formation of loose material
(ravelling) and corrugations. Regular maintenance is necessary if these materials are used and the road
roughness is to be restricted to reasonable levels.

SECTION B: DESIGN
C. Materials in this zone generally comprise fine, gap-graded gravels lacking adequate cohesion, resulting
in ravelling and the production of loose material.
D. Materials with a shrinkage product in excess of 365 tend to be slippery when wet.
E. Materials in this zone perform well in general, provided the oversize material is restricted to the
recommended limits.
8.2.6 Road Surfacing Aggregate

The requirements for aggregate to be used in a bituminous surfacing layer are that they must be durable,
strong and should also show good adhesion with bituminous binders. It should also be resistant to the
polishing and abrasion action of traffic. Adhesion failure implies a breakdown of the bonding forces between
a stone aggregate and its coating of bituminous binder, leading to physical separation. Mechanical failure by
fretting and subsequent ravelling of the surface is one consequence of adhesion failure.
Basic rocks (e.g. basalt) are considered to have better adhesion properties than acidic rocks (e.g. granite).
Experience has indicated, for example, that coarse granite with large feldspar crystals is likely to experience
bitumen adhesion difficulties.
Apart from the petrological nature of the material, its cleanliness or freedom from dust is also a factor. Limits
of less than 1% dust (<75 microns) are difficult to obtain by screening alone and washing of the aggregate
may be required.
Table 8.10 Typical Requirements for Bitumen Chip Seal Aggregate
Nominal Aggregate Size (mm)

Sieve Size
(mm) 19.0 14 10 6
Grading (% passing)
26.5 100
19.0 85-100 100
13.2 0-30 85-100 100
9.5 0-5 0-30 85-100 100
6.7 - 0-5 0-40
4.75 - - 0-5 0-40
2.36 - - - 0-5
0.425 (fines) <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <2.0
0.075 (dust) <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <1.0
Materials Properties
Flakiness Index Max 20 Max 25 Max 25 Max 30

10% FACT (dry) AADT < 1000 vpd: 120 kN
10% FACT (wet) Min 75% of corresponding 10% FACT dry
Pre-mix coarse aggregate will be the material component fully retained on an 4.75mm sieve and consist of
clean crushed rock or crushed gravel or blended combinations of both, free from decomposed stone, organic
matter, shale, clay and any other substances and have following characteristics
• Aggregate Crushing Value or AIV of not greater than 30 or LAA value of 40%.
• Bulk specific gravity not less than 2.50

SECTION B: DESIGN
• Flakiness index not greater than 35%

• Sodium sulphate soundness test Weight loss not more than 12%
• Not less than 75% by weight of the particles shall have at least two fractured faces.
Fine aggregate should be composed of clean, hard durable particles, rough surfaced and angular, free from
vegetable matter, soft particles, clay balls or other objectionable material.
The mix of the coarse and fine aggregates combined shall comply with the grading given in Table 8.11.
Table 8.11 Typical Grading for Bituminous Pre-mix

Sieve Size (mm) Passing by Weight %
25 100
20 75-100
12.5 60-80
4.75 35-55
2.4 20-33
0.600 6-18
0.075 2-8
8.2.7 Block or Paving Stone

The block or paving stones should be a strong, homogenous, isotropic rock, free from significant
discontinuities such as cavities, joints, faults and bedding planes. Rocks such as fresh granite, basalt and
crystalline limestone have proven to be suitable materials. Quartzite rock is generally not suitable, nor is any
rock that polishes or develops a slippery surface, or erodes under traffic. Rock for paving stone should be
tested to ensure it meets the following requirements;
§ Uniaxial compressive strength >75MPa;
§ Los Angeles Abrasion value: <25%;
§ Sodium Sulphate Soundness <10% loss.
The material infilling the spaces between the cobble stones should be a loose, dry natural or crushed stone
material with a particle size distribution equivalent to well-graded coarse sand to fine gravel. It must be clean
and free from clay coating, organic debris and other deleterious materials.
8.2.8 Manufactured blocks or bricks

The fired clay bricks should be of engineering standard with the following characteristics:-
§ Dimensions: 200x100x70mm;
§ Water absorption: <16% of their weight of water after 1 hour soaking;
§ Unit weight: >1200 kg/m3;
§ Crushing strength: >25MPa.
Concrete blocks should have dimensions: 200x100x70mm thick composed of concrete with minimum 28 day
cube strength of 25MPa and maximum aggregate size of 6mm.

SECTION B: DESIGN
8.2.9 Aggregates for Structural Concrete

Concrete aggregate is divided into two parts: coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. The fine aggregate is
normally naturally occurring sand, although fine crushed stone can also be used, with particles up to about
2mm in size. The coarse aggregate is normally stone with a range of sizes from about 5mm to 25mm (or
sometimes larger); it may be naturally occurred gravel, or more commonly crushed or hand-broken quarry
stone. In areas without hard stone resources and with an established fired clay brick industry, burnt bricks
can be machine or hand crushed to be used in concrete (Howard Humphreys, 1998)
Aggregates must be entirely free from soil or organic materials as well as fine particles such as silt and clay,
otherwise the resulting concrete will be of poor quality. Some aggregates, particularly those from salt-rich
environments, may need to be washed to make them suitable for use.
Both the coarse and fine aggregates need to contain a range of particle sizes; a ratio by volume of one-part
fine aggregate to two parts coarse aggregate is generally used. Aggregates can be crushed and screened by
hand or by machine. Both reinforced and mass concrete has a range of potential uses within LVRR projects
including; pavement slabs, bridges, culverts, retaining walls and drainage linings. Each of these may have
particular aggregate specifications. In general, the concrete aggregates should conform to the current
Myanmar Standards for concrete aggregate with no uncrushed rounded coarse natural aggregate being
acceptable.
Table 8.12 Typical Concrete Aggregate Grading Requirements

AASHTO Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate
Sieve (mm) Nominal Grading: Grading
Size Down (mm), % Passing by Weight % Passing by Weight
37.5 mm 25.0 mm 19.0 mm 12.5 mm
50 100
37.5 95-100 100
25 95-100 100
19 35-70 90-100 100
12.5 25-60 90-100
9.5 0-5 20-55 40-70 100
4.75 0-10 0-10 0-15 95-100
2.36 0-5 0-5 0-5 80-100
1.18 50-85
0.600 25-60
0.300 10-30
0.150 1-10
0.075 0-3
8.2.10 Filter/Drainage Material

Filter materials have crucial roles in assisting in controlling the ingress and flow of water and in the reduction
of pore water pressures within earthworks, retaining structures and the pavement. Filter materials can
account for a significant proportion of the construction material costs, particularly in wetter regions where
road designs need to cater for the dispersion of large volumes of water, both as external drains and as internal
layers within wet-fill embankments. The general requirements for filter material are summarised in Table
8.13.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.13 Basic Requirements for Filter/Drainage Materials
Key Engineering Factor Material Requirement

The fundamental filter property is primarily a function of material grading. It is generally
desirable for filter aggregates to be equidimensional as this aids flow distribution and
Permeability facilitates packing. It is also considered better to use material with rounded to sub-rounded
rather than angular particles.
Aggregate particles need to be load resistant to abrasion and any loads imposed by the road
Strength design.
Aggregate particles need to be resistant to breakdown due to wetting and drying and
Resistance to Degradation weathering during construction and for the life of the project.
Resistance to Erosion The as-placed material must be resistant to internal and external erosion.
Aggregate should generally be inert and resistant to alteration by groundwater. Weak surface
Chemical Stability coatings such as clay, iron oxide, calcium carbonate, gypsum are undesirable.
8.2.11 Miscellaneous Rock Materials

As listed previously, there are a number of additional applications for moderately strong to strong rock in
LVRRs. Table 8.14 summarises these uses and the required properties:
Table 8.14 Miscellaneous Rock Use

Rock Use Key requirements
Rock fragments ranging between 100 mm and 250 mm in size. with a variation of 5% oversize
and/or 5% undersize rock, provided it is not placed at the exposed surface. In all cases,
Gabion Fill oversize rock shall not be larger than 300 mm or smaller than 100 mm. Rocks should be strong,
angular to round, and durable so that they will not disintegrate under wetting-drying cycles
during the life of the structure.(Smith, 1999)
Strong angular rock preferably cubic and not elongated or platy in shape. It is suggested that,
in general, fragments should not exceed a maximum dimension of two-thirds of the layer
Rock Embankment thickness. Fragments should be intact and preferably homogeneous without planes of
weakness (bedding). Fragments should be durable so that they will not disintegrate under
wetting-drying cycles during the life of the structure.(Smith, 1999; USDI, 1998)
Riprap should comprise strong, durable fragments. They should be angular and not subject
to breaking down when exposed to water or weathering. It is recommended the specific
Riprap
gravity should be at least 2.5. The sizes of stones used for riprap protection are determined
by purpose and specific site conditions.(Smith, 1999)
Durable strong angular rock durable so that it will not disintegrate under wetting-drying cycles
Rock masonry
during the life of the structure.

SECTION B: DESIGN
8.3 Material Types in Myanmar
8.3.1 Geological Framework

The inherent nature of natural road building materials used in road construction has a profound effect on
their engineering performance; hence it is important to understand of the geological nature rocks and their
weathered products if they are to be used successfully. Knowledge of geology also provides a framework for
identifying material sources and characterising their likely behaviour.
Table 8.15 Broad Material Types
Resource Group Description General Material Uses
Hard-Rock Strong to very strong igneous, sedimentary and Materials require crushing and classifying before being
metamorphic rock types normally requiring utilised as road aggregates. Relatively high cost quarry
drill-and blast quarrying techniques for development and material processing.
excavation.
Weak-Rock Weak to very weak igneous, sedimentary and Materials may require some processing before being
metamorphic rocks that may be excavated by utilised for road pavements.
mechanical means, including ripping where
necessary. This group includes rocks that have
been weakened by weathering processes.
Residual Soils and Soil-like materials that have been formed largely These materials may be utilised as-dug or classified for fill,
Duricrusts in situ by tropical and sub-tropical weathering capping layer, sub-base or base. Would generally not be
processes. Materials generally excavated by considered for surfacing aggregates.
borrow-pit techniques. Occasionally indurated
duricrust may require ripping.
Transported Soils Soil-like materials such as sand and gravel that Sound gravel and cobble materials can be processed to
(Alluvium or have undergone processes of erosion, produce high quality aggregates. The sorting action of
Colluvium) transportation and deposition in addition to erosion and transportation may result in materials lacking
weathering. Materials generally excavated by in some particle sizes.
borrow-pit techniques
8.3.2 General Materials Groups

Myanmar contains a wide range bedrock types as well as their weathering products, transported soils and
residual soils (Barber et al, 2017) many of which may be utilised as materials for constructing LVRR. Tables
8.16 to 8.18 summarise the natural materials most commonly found in Myanmar that may be used as road
construction materials and give a broad indication of their uses and possible problems.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.16 Uses of Hard Rocks Found in Myanmar
Rock Type General Description General Material Uses
Granite-diorite Medium-coarse grained, light coloured igneous Strong durable rock used for block stone, concrete and
rock. Contains quartz, feldspars and possible surfacing aggregate, good shape, poor bitumen adhesion
micas Susceptible to deep and variable when rock contains large feldspar crystals.
weathering.
Dolerite Medium grained tightly crystalline dark basic Very strong durable rock used for block stone, concrete
minor intrusive composed largely of plagioclase and surfacing aggregate, good shape, good bitumen
feldspars and augite. adhesion. Potential problems with in-service
deterioration if weathered.
Andesite Fine grained intermediate lava composed Strong durable rock used for block stone, concrete and
essentially of plagioclase feldspar and mafic surfacing aggregate. Possible poor aggregate shape.
minerals (hornblende, biotite, augite)
Basalt Fine-grained dark basic lava. Composed largely Strong durable rock used for block stone, concrete and
of plagioclase feldspars and augite and surfacing aggregate. Possible anisotropic character and
sometimes olivine. Varieties rich in poor aggregate shape. Aggregates can be susceptible to
olivine/chlorite susceptible to rapid disintegration problems in service.
deterioration and disintegration. Aggregates
can be susceptible to disintegration problems in
service.
Quarzitic Sandstone Medium grained detrital sedimentary rock with Variable strength and durability, Great variability, a
clasts composed of quartz particles, fabric may function of fabric and matrix. May be interbedded with
be cemented by silica, iron oxides or carbonates. weaker materials. Possible use as an aggregate; and some
Great variability, a function of fabric and matrix. types of rock fill.
May be interbedded with weaker materials.
Siltstone Similar to sandstone but with predominantly Variable strength, shape and durability. Great variability,
silt-sized particles. Tends to be interbedded with a function of fabric and matrix. May be interbedded with
other sedimentary materials, including weaker materials. Unlikely to be of use as an aggregate.
mudstone. Poor quality rock fill.
Limestone and Consist essentially of crystalline calcium Very strong to strong and durable. Used as block stone
Dolomite carbonate. If magnesium carbonate then the and aggregate. May contain minor amounts of non-
term Dolomite is appropriate. carbonate detritus.
Shale/Slate A very low-grade metamorphic rock in which Weak to moderately strong rock. Low durability. Unlikely
cleavage planes are pervasively developed to be used as an aggregate. Possible use as poor quality
throughout the rock. Poor durability and shape. rock fill.
Marked tendency to split along cleavage planes
(fissile).
Schist A medium to high-grade metamorphic rock Strong to very strong. Moderate durability Poor particle
characterised by the parallel alignment of shape. Possibility of free mica being produced during
moderately coarse grains usually visible to the processing. Use as rock fill.
naked eye. The preferred orientation described
as schistosity.
Gneiss Medium to coarse mineral grains with a variably Strong to very strong. Moderate durability Poor particle
developed layered or banded structure, shape. Use as rock fill. Possible use as marginal aggregate
minerals tended to be segregated, e.g. if well processed. Potential shape problems.
quartz/feldspar/ mafic mineral banding.
Quartzite A contact metamorphic rock formed from a Strong to very strong. Good durability, possible use as
quartz rich sandstone or siltstone. Contains aggregate. . Abrasive to construction plant
more than 80% quartz.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.17 Possible use of Weak Rocks in Road Construction
Rock Type Potential Uses Potential Problems
Mudstone As embankment fills and possible selected Very low particle strength. Potential for slaking and
fill/capping layer material. swell/shrink in wet climates.
Shale As embankment fill and selected fill/capping Potential for slaking and swell/shrink in wet climates.
layer material. Possible use as sub-base Requires care in compaction for embankment fill as
material in dry climates. breakdown of material in a voided rock fill could lead to in
service settlement.
Weak limestones As embankment fill and selected fill/capping Possible poor as-dug gradings. Low particle strength and
layer material. Possible selected use as sub- in-service deterioration.
base or base material for low volume roads.
Weak Sandstones As embankment fill and selected fill/capping Possible poor as dug grading. Low particle strength and
layer material. Possible use as sub-base or base potential for in service deterioration.
material in dry climates.
Weathered Hard As-dug: As embankment fill and selected Any problems highlighted 8.2 will be accentuated by
Rocks fill/capping layer material. Sub-base/base weathering. Particular problems associated with the rapid
material for low volume roads. deterioration of weathered basic igneous materials.
Table 8.18 Broad Soil Types in Road Construction
Rock Type Description Potential Use
Soil from Highly Soil-like material within the weathering profile Generally used for common fill. Problems resulting from
Weathered Rocks that has retained the relict structure of the over-compaction and break-down of material fabric. High
(Saprolite) parent rock. mica content in some weathered rocks
Residual Soil True residual soil has developed a new-formed Used for common fill. Generally less problems than with
fabric to replace the remains of rock fabric saprolitic soil.
material.
Residual Gravel Concentrations of weathering resistant quartz Usability as-dug is a function of the ratio of fines to gravel.
within residual soil profiles. Commonly used as sub-base and, if processed or
stabilised, as base/sub-base material
Transported soils Colluvium, Alluvium, Coastal deposits ranging Commonly used as common fill and pavement materials
from clay to coarse cobble and boulder depending on their grading, particle strength, plasticity
and shape.
Laterite “As dug” materials highly variable in strength, Commonly used as sub-base, base and GWC. Can be
size and durability modified / stabilized with lime. Higher plasticity materials
will be subject to significant loss of strength on saturation.
8.4 Materials Management
8.4.1 Information requirements

Guidance on the site investigation, including sampling and laboratory testing of construction materials is
included in Chapter 5 and Annexes II and III of this Manual. The principal objective in acquiring information
about road construction materials is to identify geotechnical materials that are capable of meeting the
engineering, economic and environmental requirements of the project. Information relevant to this objective
may be summarised in Table 8.19.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.19 Key Data Sets in Materials Management

Data Set Comment
Potential borrow and quarry locations should be clearly identified on relevant maps (electronic or hard
Source locations copy) together with co-ordinates and means of access. Information on existing locations should be
and their history acquired in terms of materials performance on existing roads and/or any relevant laboratory testing. Local
knowledge on each location can be extremely useful.
Geological The geological setting should be identified in terms of rock and soil types together with any relevant
environment hydrological information (flood risk etc.).
The geotechnical properties of the materials likely to be produced by the location must be defined and
Geotechnical assessed in comparison with proposed specifications. Samples from existing stockpiles of materials should
character be sampled where possible, otherwise representative samples from test pits or bored core (from quarry
investigations) must be taken.
Estimate the volume in cubic metres of useable material at the locations not including unusable
Volumes of material
overburden and taking account of bulking and compaction factors.
Identify at an early stage the actual project materials specifications that are proposed and review these in
Project
the light of available materials. Propose any adjustments that might be possible within concept of local
specifications
material usage.
Obtain costs of material extraction and processing as well all costs associated with haulage to the project
Costs
site. Use this information to establish haulage diagrams for actual construction costing (See Chapter 12)
8.4.2 Extraction and Processing of Materials

The extraction and processing of road construction materials can be a large component of cost in the overall
project budget. For LVRRs there should be an emphasis on eliminating processing or reducing it as much as
possible.
There are five main types of material extractive operation (Smith & Collis, 2020):
§ Quarrying: extraction in drilled and blasted material, e.g. hard rock;

§ Borrow pitting: extraction of unconsolidated material, e.g. gravels and weak rocks;
§ Cut to fill operations along a road alignment;
§ Mining: underground material extraction, either by shaft or audit;
§ Dredging: extraction of unconsolidated material from under water.
In borrow areas the minimum thickness of a deposit normally considered workable for excavation for
materials for subgrade, sub-base and base is of the order of one metre. However, thinner horizons could also
be exploited if there are no alternatives. The absolute minimum depends on material availability and the
thickness of the overburden. If there is no overburden, as may be the case in arid areas, horizons as thin as
300mm may be excavated, (Figure 8.4).
Processing (crushing and screening) of as-excavated resource is undertaken to produce construction
materials that meet required specifications by means of either mechanical alteration or physical selection. In
general terms, materials utilised for common fill, would normally require no processing in contrast to high
quality hard-rock aggregates which can be subjected to several phases of crushing and sorting. The amount
of processing required is a function of the relationship between the as-extracted character and the required
mechanical, chemical and physical properties.
Hard rock quarry development and extraction will almost inevitably involve a drill and blast operation
followed by mechanical processing, although some operations may be undertaken using labour-based
methods (Figure 8.4).

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 8.4 Material Extraction
Variably thick gravel layer extracted for GWC Labour based aggregate production
Photo J Cook Photo J Cook
Processing plants can be fixed or mobile. Fixed plant is more common in large, established quarries, while
semi-mobile plant is more appropriate for major construction projects where the life of the quarry is directly
related to the duration of the project. For many LVRR projects light mobile crushing and screening plant is
utilised in small-scale operations where minimal amounts of processing are required.
Processing is used to:
§ Reduce the excavated material to suitable sizes of aggregate;

§ Group the sizes together where required into appropriate gradings;
§ Remove unwanted fines;
§ Reduce oversize.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 8.20 Crushing Options and Limitations (Smith & Collis, 2020; McNally. 1998)
Crusher
General Application Description
Type
Jaw Crusher Usually as primary Rock is broken by slow compression-release cycles between plates, on fixed and one
crushers, small versions moving on opposite sides of a wedge-shaped chamber. This narrows downwards so
may be used as secondary that after blocks are split on the compression stroke the resultant pieces slip further
crushers. down on the release stroke until on the next cycle they are released. In most
quarrying operations the single toggle machines operate satisfactorily – well suited
to small and medium-sized operations, including mobile plant.
Gyratory Usually as primary A gyratory crusher resembles a pestle in a narrow open-base mortar, or two cones
Crusher crushers; cut-down one inverted within the other. The inner solid cone moves eccentrically around the
versions may be used as fixed outer bowl alternately opening and closing gaps around the lower rim.
secondary crushers.
Rolls Primary crusher Machines can be fitted with single double or multiple rollers, although double rolls
Crusher are most common – one fixed and the other spring-loaded. Use of the rolls crusher is
limited to weaker rock (UCS<100Mpa) and non-abrasive rock such as limestone and
shale. Cheap in relation to high capacity and easily transportable – good choice for
weak rock for select fill or for demolition rubble.
Cone Usually used as secondary Similar in operation to small gyratory crushers in having an oscillating inner and a
Crusher or tertiary crushers static outer one the inner cone is pivoted from below rather than suspended from
above. They have large capacities in relation to small size. Compared to impact
crushers they produce a narrower range of sizes, less fines and more flaky particles.
Impact Usually used as secondary Rocks broken by the action of rapidly rotating or beaters attached to a central shaft
Crusher or tertiary crushers that - may be horizontally or vertically mounted. The feed particles cascade into the
crushing chamber and shatter on impact with the beaters or are deflected by them to
strike hardened breaker plates lining the chamber. Relatively light and cheap for their
capacity and do not require elaborate foundations. Their main disadvantage is the
cost of frictional and chipping wear on breakers and plates and the consequent
downtime for replacement. Generally limited to rocks with UCS <150Mpa and free
quartz content <5-7%. Advantageous with wet and sticky clay-rich gravels. Product
shape is good.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 8.5 Material Extraction Methods
Jaw crusher Small mobile crusher combined with screen

Photo J Cook Photo J Cook
Medium sized crushing and screening plant used for a LVRR network rehabilitation
Photo J Cook
8.4.3 Resource Restoration

The environmental damage caused by uncontrolled extraction and rehabilitation practices can extend over
a wide area and may only become apparent after project completion. Examples include soil erosion causing
siltation of natural water courses and health and safety issues from flooded borrow pits. Environmental
damage caused by borrow pits, and their access roads, is often most severe in areas important for subsistence
farming. However, historically, restoration of borrow pits has been the exception rather than the rule.
Ideally borrow pits should be reinstated as closely as possible to their original ground level (Roughton
International, 2000). This avoids permanently changing the landscape and altering local drainage patterns.
Excavated soil and gravel can be replaced with spoil materials derived from road construction or
improvement works. Spoil materials may comprise cut materials not required for embankment construction
or unsuitable subgrade materials, provided that they do not contain large quantities of plant matter and are
sufficiently dry to allow placement.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Backfill materials should not contain materials that might migrate and pollute ground water. If no spoil
material is available for back-filling then provision of drainage structures may be necessary to prevent the
erosive action of surface water and/or ponding in the abandoned pit.
In the case of large borrow pits exploiting thin near surface gravels, areas that are worked out should be
progressively back-filled, top-soiled and planted.
Re-establishment of top-soil and vegetation is a key part of any borrows area restoration. Replacing topsoil
and planting of vegetation on shallow slopes (less than 20°) presents no difficulty, but needs to be carried
out with care in an appropriate season of the year. Slopes >20O may have to restored in line with anti-erosion
and bioengineering measures described in Chapter 10 (Earthworks).
8.5 Using Locally Available Materials
8.5.1 Benefits
The maximum use of naturally occurring unprocessed materials is a central pillar of the LVRR design
philosophy. Current international specifications tend to exclude the use of many naturally occurring,
unprocessed materials (natural soils, gravel-soil mixtures and gravels) in pavement layers in favour of more
expensive crushed rock, because they often do not comply with traditional requirements. However, recent
research work has shown quite clearly that so-called “non-standard” materials can often be used successfully
and cost-effectively in LVRR pavements provided appropriate precautions are observed (Cook et al 2002;
AUSTROADS, 2019).
The adoption of this approach provides the scope to consider a reduction in specification standard when
considering particular material types within defined environments. Recognising the material’s “fitness for
purpose” is central to assessing the appropriate use of non-standard materials. However, the use of such
materials requires a sound knowledge of their properties and behaviour in the prevailing environment.
8.5.2 Marginal Materials

PIARC (1989) has defined non-standard and non-traditional materials as:
"...any material not wholly in accordance with the specification in use in a country or region for normal road
materials but which can be used successfully either in special conditions, made possible because of climatic
characteristics or recent progress in road techniques or after having been subject to a particular treatment."
Local material usage may involve either the innovative use of an established local material or the adaptation
of a non-standard or out-of-specification material within a revised design.
When reserves are limited or of marginal quality, their relevant usage is a priority and it is important to use
materials to ensure that they are neither sub-standard nor wastefully above the standards demanded by
their engineering task. Hence the necessity of deriving locally relevant specifications and either adapting
designs or altering materials to suit. Detailed guidance on the use of marginal materials is contained in Annex
III to this document.
If the project is in an area where good quality construction materials are scarce or unavailable, consideration
should be given to:
§ Amending the design requirements;
§ Improving the material (e.g. mechanical or chemical stabilisation);
§ Material processing (e.g. crushing, screening, blending);
§ Innovative use of non-standard materials (particularly important for low traffic roads

SECTION B: DESIGN
Summary of the use of marginal materials

1. Appropriate use of materials is a key factor in appropriate design of LVRRs.
2. There is an increasing body of knowledge that supports the use of locally available construction
materials even though they may be non-standard in character.
3. There is scope for increased use of non-standard local materials and innovative designs in Myanmar
LVRRs
4. A knowledge-based decision process is vital for the selection of appropriate LVRR materials.
8.6 Material Improvement
8.6.1 General
Many natural materials can be modified to make them suitable for road pavements, but this process is only
economical when the cost of overcoming a deficiency in one material is less than the cost of importing
another which is naturally acceptable.
The common practice is to refer to materials whose properties have been artificially improved as having been
“stabilised” rather than “modified”. Many guidelines will adhere to more scientifically correct definitions
where stabilisation refers to materials whose character, strength and durability have been significantly
altered whilst modification refers to a process where smaller percentages of additive are added to “modify”
properties rather than radically alter them. To avoid any confusion this Manual will use the term
“stabilisation” for materials improvement by addition and mixing.
8.6.2 Mechanical Stabilisation

The simplest method of increasing the strength is to stabilise it mechanically. In areas where good quality
materials are not readily available it may be possible to blend two materials to produce an acceptable product
(Figure 8.6). For example, it may be an option in the deltaic area of Myanmar to mix limited amounts of
imported crushed rock with local clayey materials to produce an acceptable sub base or even base.
Blending of materials is carried out for two main reasons namely to
1. Improve the stability of cohesive soils of low
strength by adding coarse material or
2. Improve the stability of otherwise unstable Figure 8.6 Lateritic soil mechanically stabilised with
granular materials by adding a fine material crushed stone aggregate as base
material.
The well-established processes of constructing
Water-Bound Macadam and Dry-Bound Macadam
are actually mechanical stabilisation methods of
achieving a satisfactorily strong and interlocking
pavement layer by using aggregates of 2 (or possibly
3) sizes that may be produced by simple processing
methods.
Mechanical stabilisation of fine grain soils, by the
addition of non-cohesive granular material, requires
sufficient granular material to be added to ensure
that the granular fragments are in contact forming a
matrix with particle-particle contact throughout.
Photo J Cook

SECTION B: DESIGN
Care must be taken to ensure that the plasticity of the fines fraction is controlled. The strength of a blended
material must always be determined by testing samples that are representative of the field-mixed product
and not on artificially well-mixed laboratory samples.
Mechanical stabilisation is usually found to be the most cost-effective process for improving poorly graded
materials; however, this cannot always be achieved. It is important to consider the practical limits of this
type of processing. For example, production of a uniform mixture by the addition of granular material to a
clay-rich one may produce a uniformly graded material, but one in which the clay may still play the dominant
role in determining the properties of the material.
8.6.3 Chemical Modification

Chemical stabilisation normally involves the incorporation of relatively small percentages of lime or cement
(Sherwood, 1993). These stabilisers are called hydraulic binders which ‘set’ in the presence of water. They
can dramatically increase the strength of unbound materials making them suitable for use in the main load
bearing layer of a road pavement, or they can be mixed with soils in small amounts which merely alter the
physical characteristics of the soil, such as plasticity or moisture or moisture condition, rather than to
significantly strengthen it.
The common features are that the natural materials are bound together using a low percentage of the chosen
stabiliser. The choice of stabiliser is largely dependent on the properties of the destabilised material.
Materials with a low plasticity, and therefore low clay content, are more suitable for cement stabilisation.
Materials with higher plasticity and a more cohesive nature are better stabilised with lime.
It is not unusual for designers to achieve stabilisation by using both cement and lime for a particular project.
Everything depends upon achieving the desired strengths and other engineering properties at the lowest
cost. Table 8.21 summarises the envelopes of suitability for the different medication methods.
Table 8.21 Guide to Selecting a Method of Stabilisation (after Austroads 1998)

Plasticity Index (Ip)
Ip<10 10<Ip<20 Ip>20 Ip<6 Ip<10 Ip>10
PP<601
Stabilisation Type Applicability2
Cement A A B A A A
Lime B A A C B A
Bitumen B B C A A C
Bitumen-Cement A B C A A B
Mechanical A C C A A B
(1): PP; Plasticity Product = Ip x % passing 75 micron
(2) A: Usually suitable. B: Doubtful. C: Usually not suitable
8.6.3.1 Cement Stabilisation

The amount of cement added is usually less than 5%. The initial chemical reactions occur quite quickly hence
the processing of the materials has to be completed in a fairly short time; construction must be completed
within two hours. The cement is then allowed to cure for a period of, usually, 7 days. Although not essential,
use of a batching plant to blend the cement with the host material and water rather than mixing on the road
gives a more consistent mix and a better result.
Cement can be used to stabilise most soils. The exceptions are those with a high organic content, which
retards the hydration process, and those with clay content outside the normal specification range and where
it is difficult to mix the soil/cement mixture evenly. Addition of cement to base materials results in a reduction
in plasticity and swell, and an increase in strength and bearing capacity. CBR values well in excess of the
minimum requirement for destabilised normally result.

SECTION B: DESIGN
8.6.3.2 Lime Stabilisation

Lime may be in one of the following forms;
(a) quicklime: calcium oxide (CaO),
(b) slaked or hydrated lime: calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
(c) calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Calcium carbonate has no cementing properties and only quicklime and hydrated lime are used as stabilisers
in road construction. For hydrated lime the majority of the free lime (i.e. Ca(OH)2 that is not combined with
other constituents) should be present as calcium hydroxide. Lime for building purposes is required to be 95%
pure calcium hydroxide while agricultural lime may be only 65% pure. The quantity is often also referred to
as the ‘available lime’. For a particular, application it is important to carry out laboratory tests with the same
lime as will ultimately be used for the project.
The ICL test (Sherwood, 1993) can be used to give a rapid indication of the minimum amount of lime that
needs to be added to a material to achieve a significant change in its properties. Samples of the material are
mixed with water and different proportions of the lime being used. The minimum amount of lime needed to
give a pH of 12.40 is expressed as the ICL of the material.
The test can be completed in one hour and is thus a rapid means of establishing the minimum amount of
lime required for stabilisation. However, it does not dispense with the need to carry out strength
determinations because it does not establish whether the soil will react with lime to produce a substantial
strength increase. Research has also suggested that the lime percentage obtained from the test does not
necessarily produce the maximum cured compressive strengths for tropical and sub-tropical soils (TRB 1987).
Quicklime has a much higher bulk density and is less dusty than hydrated but is generally not used in LVRR
projects due to its caustic nature and consequent health and safety issues.
Typically, 3 to 5 per cent of stabiliser is necessary to gain a significant increase in the compressive and tensile
strengths. The gain in strength with lime stabilisation is slower than that for cement and a much longer time
is therefore available for mixing and compaction. Lime has a much lower specific gravity than cement so, for
a given percentage mass, a higher volume is available and it is therefore easier to achieve uniform mixing.
The production of cementitious compounds can continue for ten years or more but the strength developed
will be influenced by the materials and the environment. Between one month and two to three years after
compaction there can be a four-fold increase in the elastic modulus.
8.6.4 Bitumen Stabilisation

It is also possible to stabilise marginal materials with the addition of small percentages of slow setting
bitumen emulsion. This process is only effective with sand materials with little or no fines and is likely to be
more costly than the other stabilisation options and should only be considered in, for example, coast areas
where only sand is available for construction purposes within reasonable haul distances. Recent trials
research, however, has shown it to be an effective procedure in the appropriate circumstances. (Intech-TRL,
2006)

SECTION B: DESIGN
References
Austroads, 1998. Guide to stabilisation in roadworks. National Association of Australian State Road
Authorities.
Austroads, 2018.Appropriate Use of Marginal and Non-standard Materials in Road Construction and
Maintenance. Technical Report AP-T335-18.
Barber A J, Khin Zaw, Crow M J. 2017. Myanmar: Geology, Resources and Tectonics Geological Society,
London, Memoirs. Volume 48, 2017
CIRIA (1988). Laterite in road pavements. Charman J (Ed) Special Publication 47. Construction Industry
Research and Information Association. UK.
Cook J R, Bishop E C, Gourley C S and Elsworth N E. 2002. Promoting the use of marginal materials TRL Ltd
DFID KaR Project PR/INT/205/2001 R6887.
Cook J R, Gourley C S and Elsworth N E. 2001. Guidelines on the selection and use of road construction
materials in developing countries TRL Ltd DFID KaR Project R6898
Cook J R, Petts R C, Rolt J. 2013. Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements: A Guide to Good Practice.
Research Report for AfCAP and DFID
DoR, Nepal. 2007. Roadside Geotechnical Problems: A Practical Guide to their Solution. Dept of Roads, Gov.
of Nepal.
Fookes P G & Marsh A H, 1985. Some Characteristics of Construction Materials in the Low to Moderate
Metamorphic Grade Rocks of the Lower Himalayas of East Nepal. 2: Engineering characteristics. Proc Inst.
Civil Eng., Vol 70, 139-162.
Howard Humphreys & Partners (UK), 1994. Road Materials & Standards Study (RMSS) Bangladesh. Reports
for the Ministry of Communications Roads & Highways Department.
Intech-TRL, 2006. Rural Road Surfacing Trials: Construction guidelines. SEACAP 1 Final Report Appendix A.
Report for DfID and Ministry of Transport, Vietnam
McNally G H. 1998. Soil and rock construction materials. E & F N Spoon, London.
PIARC, 1989. Marginal materials. State of the art, Brunschwig G, ed. Paris, France.
Roughton International Ltd 2000. Guidelines on Materials and Borrow Pit Management for Low Cost Roads.
DFID KaR Report R6852
Sherwood, P T (1993). Soil stabilisation with cement and lime. State of the art review. TRL Limited. HMSO,
London
Smith M R & Collis L, 2020. Aggregates: Sand, Gravel and Crushed Rock Aggregates for Construction (3rd Edn).
Geological Society Engineering Geology Spec Pub 9, UK.
Smith R, Stone: Building Stone, Rock Fill and Armourstone in Construction. Geological Society Engineering
Geology Spec Pub 16, UK.
U.S. Dept of Interior (UDSI), 1998. Earth Manual, 3Rd Edn. Bureau of Reclamation.

SECTION B: DESIGN
9 Cross Drainage and Small Structures
9.1 Introduction
This Chapter is concerned with the external and cross-drainage system and the drainage standards for LVRRs.
It is essentially a guide containing appropriate technical explanations of all the steps in designing their surface
water drainage systems. Internal pavement drainage is considered in Chapter 7 and earthwork drainage is
dealt with in the following Chapter 10. Due to the vulnerability of drainage structure to climate impact, the
threats from current and future climate are given appropriate attention, particularly with respect to data
collection and analysis. This Chapter does not deal with route surveying, site investigations, and route
selection or the actual structural design of major bridges. The planning and structural design of river crossings
of greater than 10m span and major drainage structures is dealt with in the current MoC Bridge Design
Manuals.
Roads form a barrier to the natural drainage of surface water from the surrounding land into streams, lakes
and rivers. In the absence of any control arrangements the water would find its own way across the road,
resulting in gullies and washouts along the road. Without provision for dealing with cross drainage, roads can
also cause flooding in adjacent areas causing damage to property, crops and livestock. Flooding will also
disrupt communications causing economic and social harm and even a threat to life, if traffic is washed off
an inundated road surface. In road design it is essential that cross drainage structures are located along the
road alignment where water courses would otherwise be cut. Several types of cross-structures are used to
allow water to be safely removed downstream while protecting the road structure, adjacent property and
maintaining communications along the road during high flow periods (Larcher et al, 2010)
Neither rainfall nor rivers distinguish between roads carrying low and high volumes of traffic. Therefore, the
basic approaches to protecting a road from the effects of water are essentially the same and largely
independent of traffic. Hence, for LVRRs the cost of the drainage system can comprise a larger proportion of
the costs of the road. There are, of course, different levels of protection associated with the risk of serious
damage to the road. For principal trunk roads little risk can be tolerated and so expensive drainage measures
must be employed. For LVRRs the consequences of failure in the drainage system are correspondingly lower
but, within the range covered by LVRRs, there are some significant differences depending on the length of
the road as well as the availability of an alternative route.
Water crossing structures are used as cross-drains for ditch relief and to pass water under a road at natural
drainage and stream crossings. The objective is to provide all-season access to as many as possible road users
in line with the National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access (GoM, 2017). The design and choice of an
acceptable type of crossing are based on the technical and economic feasibility of the structure and the
structure’s ability to meet other environmental objectives such as prevention of erosion and sedimentation.
A final choice is based on an evaluation of costs and the ability to meet the hydrological and hydraulic design
criteria for the site.
The challenge for the engineer is to choose a level of protection that is appropriate for the class of road and
the consequences of drainage failure. This challenge is compounded by the need to assess future climate
impacts. The choice of structure is based on good engineering judgement taking into account:
§ Human safety
§ Economic feasibility/cost benefit
§ Length of structure required
§ Stream crossing geometry
§ Sediment and debris loading
§ Terrain stability
§ The magnitude of the water discharge and flood history
§ Future climate-based changes to the flow regime.

SECTION B: DESIGN
The Chapter covers the commonly used drainage solutions used on LVRRs from drifts to small bridges as set
out in the following sections.
9.2 Typical crossing and drain types
9.2.1 Best Management Practices for Erosion Control and Water Quality Protection
All types of crossing structure should be built according to best management practices (BMP):
1. Use BMPs and incorporate erosion-control measures into the design, construction, and maintenance
of crossings to protect water quality.
2. Incorporate construction dewatering into the project. Avoid working in the water!
3. Develop a project “erosion-control plan,” including appropriate physical, vegetative, or biotechnical
measures, types of materials, and timing.
4. Choose appropriate project BMPs and include them in project budgets, design, and project
implementation. Monitor them for implementation and effectiveness.
5. Periodically inspect and maintain the structure to ensure that it is functioning properly.
6. “Disconnect” the road from the stream crossing by diverting road surface water before reaching the
crossing, armouring ditches and stabilising the roadway surface (often steep) approaching the
crossings.
9.2.2 Low Water Crossing Structures

Low water crossings (LWC)s, fords, or drifts, as they are also often known, can offer a desirable alternative
to culverts and bridges for stream crossings on low-volume roads where road use and stream flow conditions
are appropriate. Like other hydraulic structures for stream crossings, they require specific site considerations
and specific hydrologic, hydraulic, and biotic analyses. Ideally, they should be constructed at a relatively
narrow, shallow stream location and should be in an area of bedrock or coarse soil for good foundation
conditions. A ford can be narrow or broad, but should not be used in deeply incised drainages that require a
high fill or excessively steep road approaches.
Figure 9.1 A typical LWC Figure 9.2 Typical crossing suitable for LWC
construction
LWCs are road-stream crossing structures designed to be overtopped by high flows or by debris. They can be
desirable alternatives to culverts and bridges and they can offer substantial environmental advantages in
some stream environments. They are useful, for example, where streamflow is highly variable and large
amounts of woody debris pose a risk to crossing structures.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 9.3 shows the basic low-water crossings types, from simple ford though to low water bridge.
Figure 9.3 Low Water Crossing Types
Source: Keller G & Sherar J, 2003

SECTION B: DESIGN
LWCs are commonly used in areas with highly variable flows, such as dry streams subject to flash floods and
thunderstorm-prone areas. High, short-duration peaks followed by long intervals of very low or no flow is
most conducive to low-water crossings as long as traffic interruptions during floods are tolerable. Because
standard crossings need to be very large to convey such high flows together with their debris loads, they may
not be economically feasible for many low-volume roads. Streams with highly variable flows may also be less
stable than streams in which steady base flows support vigorous riparian vegetation. Putting a large
expensive structure on a channel that may shift within the structure’s lifetime is even less desirable
The cost of the typical structure like a bridge or culvert is usually significant in the overall cost of roads,
particularly a low volume roads. Hence, the causeways, drifts and the low water crossing, in general, maybe
a cost-effective method for crossing wide rivers which are dry for the majority of the year or have low
permanent flows and can be closed for short periods of time without serious consequences.
Myanmar is one of the countries most affected by extreme weather events according to the Global Climate
Risk Index (Kreft et al., 2016). Further to the normal monsoon rains season, several parts of Myanmar have
been affected by extreme floods. Hence, LWCs like submersible bridges, vented or unvented drifts are a
suitable and cost-effective choice in many rural and flooded areas across the country.
Three main types of crossing structures are designed to be submerged at some flows: (1) unvented (simple)
fords, (2) vented fords, and (3) low-water bridges. Because basic designs require tailoring to individual site
requirements and locally available materials, many variations of each of these basic types of low-water
crossing structures have been developed over time.
Improved fords or drifts
Improved fords have a stable driving surface of rock, concrete, asphalt, concrete blocks, concrete planks,
gabions, geocells, or a combination of materials. Figure 9.5 shows a typical example. Sometimes a small
channel or slot is included at the structure’s low point to pass very low flows and aquatic animals. The
downstream roadway edge may be stabilized and defined with logs, riprap, gabions, or Jersey barriers.
Figure 9.4 Improved Ford
Source: Keller G & Sherar J, 2003
Vented fords
Vented fords fall into two categories—low vent-area ratio (VAR) and high VAR—each of which affects stream
channels differently (Figure 9.5). Vented fords with culverts that are small relative to the bankfull channel
area have a low VAR. A vent opening that approximates or exceeds the size of the bankfull channel has a high
VAR.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 9.5 VAR-ratio definition sketch (Keller G & Sherar J, 2003)
Low water level bridges
Low-water bridges could be described as structures with elevated decks with a natural stream bed bottom.
This distinguishes them from wider box culverts which have an engineered bottom section as part of the
culvert structure. They may be designed with one or several piers. Low-water bridges generally have greater
capacity and are able to pass higher flows underneath the driving surface than most vented and unvented
fords. As with fords, however, low-water bridges are designed and installed with the expectation they will be
under water at higher flows.
In general, low water bridges are not a very suitable option for Myanmar where flooding is rather seasonal
following the monsoon rather than of brief duration flash flood type. Where a bridge is required it is
preferable to have the deck elevated above the deign flood for the crossing.
9.2.3 Potential Benefits of Low-Water Crossings

LWCs are generally less expensive to construct. More often than not, designs are less complicated,
construction is quicker, and fewer materials are involved. Although the initial cost of more complex low-
water crossings may exceed those of simple culvert installations, the lower long-term maintenance and repair
costs may still make selecting a low-water crossing more economical.
Simple LWCs like unvented fords are useful in naturally unstable channels such as alluvial fans and braided
streams, or in channels with extreme flow variations. Because they obstruct flows less than most culverts,
they are less likely to cause flow diversions or accelerations both of which can exacerbate a channel’s
inherent tendency toward instability. They can also be inexpensive to reconstruct in a new location if the
channel does move.

SECTION B: DESIGN
LWCs are very useful in catchments that have experienced severe disturbances and where substantial
mobilization of rock and woody debris is expected. They are most suited for rural roads with low-to-moderate
traffic speeds. Unimproved fords may only be driven over at low speeds of less than 15 to 30 km per hour.
Vented fords with a broad, smooth dip and gentle transitions may be suitable for speeds up to 50 to 70 km
per hour. If high-speed traffic is anticipated, then low-water crossings are likely unsuitable for that road.
The following section lists the both the advantages and disadvantages of low water crossing structures to
assist with decision making when deciding whether a low water crossing is the most appropriate structure
for the crossing:
Advantages
1. Structures designed for overtopping.

2. Less likely than culverts to be damaged by debris or vegetation plugging.
3. Typically, less expensive structures than large culverts or bridges.
4. Less susceptible than other structures to failing during flows higher than the design flow.
5. Good for “storm-proofing” roads where large amounts of sediment and debris are expected, for example,
after a large storm event.
Disadvantages
1. Can be dangerous to traffic, particularly NMT, during high-flow periods

2. Have periodic or occasional traffic delays during high-flow periods.
3. Are not well-suited to deeply incised drainages.
4. Are typically not desirable for high use or high-speed roads.
5. Can be difficult to design for aquatic organism passage.
9.2.4 Key engineering design elements for low-water crossings

Structure-Site Compatibility
Select and design structures to maintain the function and bedload movement of the natural stream channel.
Conform to the natural channel shape and elevation where possible.
1. Avoid “damming” the natural channel or adjacent flood plains. Keep the channel open.
2. Do not cause significant aggradation in the channel upstream of the structure, or degradation or
down cutting downstream of the structure.
3. Do not confine or narrow the normal (bank full) flows.
4. Do not increase the natural stream channel velocity.
5. Accommodate major flood flows without significant drops in the water surface profile.
6. Align structures perpendicular to the stream channel.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Roadway and Site Geometry

Build a structure that fits the site, with a vertical and horizontal alignment that will be safe and will allow the
design vehicle to pass over the crossing.
1. Select a site with a relatively straight road alignment.
2. Locate a crossing at a straight reach of the stream.
3. Conform to the natural dip of the channel as much as possible.
4. Limit grades into the ford to 10 percent or less if possible.
5. Use a vertical curve dip through the ford, sufficiently gentle enough not to catch the bumper or
undercarriage of vehicles passing through the ford.
6. Provide enough space for backing up and turnaround when needed.
Site Hydrology
Ideally use either a flow-duration or flood-frequency (peak discharge) design approach to specifically size the
low-water crossing structure. Nonetheless, when site hydrological conditions are unknown or difficult to
determine, LWCs make a good structure choice. They can easily be designed to overtop a large volume of
water and/or debris, and they are not sensitive to the exact flow quantity. Determining the hydrological
properties of a site should be an interdisciplinary process, involving hydrologists and engineers. In summary
the following steps for low water crossing design are:
1. Determine the peak design flows (Q50 or Q100 events) to select the maximum size of the structure
and identify maximum high-water level.
2. Determine low-flow information (baseflow to Q2, or bank full flow) to size the vents in a structure,
and estimate the frequency of probable delays.
3. Quantify flows suitable for fish passage through structure or vents.
4. Estimate traffic-delay times using either flow-duration data or field knowledge of the site.
Hydraulic Design
1. Determine the site hydraulic factors needed for prudent structure design.
2. Determine flow capacity through vents and over the structure, up to the high water elevation.
3. Use computer models such as Hydroculv and Hydrochan, Manning’s Equation, pipe capacity
nomograms, or broad-crested weir formulas to determine flow through and over respective
components of the ford.
4. Determine stream velocities (through the structure) that will require riprap or other scour protection
measures.
5. Limit velocities to those suitable for required fish passage using FishXing software.
Scour, Bank Protection, and Preventing Channel Changes
There are basically three types of scour or erosion. The first two are caused by the existence of the drainage
structure itself in concentrating the flow of water and/or increasing its velocity. There are two aspects:
§ Erosion/scour around the structure itself that threatens its integrity and its continued existence.;
§ Erosion/scour that occurs because of the structure but upstream and especially downstream away from
it.
The third type is essentially natural scour or erosion that occurs within all natural water channels irrespective
of the existence of man-made drainage structures. This will alter the hydraulic environment over time and
needs to be considered in the design of the road.

SECTION B: DESIGN
The amount of scour is dependent on the speed of the water flow and the erodibility of the material that the
water comes into contact with. If the flow is not parallel to the constriction more scour will occur on one side
than the other. Water is accelerated around abutments, piers and other obstructions, creating vortices with
high velocities at abrupt edges on the obstruction, increasing the scour depth, often dramatically.
1. Protect the channel, the structure, and its foundation against scour and erosion and prevent
accelerated stream flows that can damage structures, wash out the approaches, or provide a source
of sediment into the watercourse.
2. Prevent a “waterfall” and other scour-critical areas by keeping structures low to the channel and by
avoiding channel constriction and mid-channel structures or obstructions.
3. Install scour protection or energy dissipation measures, including rock riprap, concrete aprons and
cut-off walls, gabion basket aprons, or plunge pools.
4. Protect streambanks with vegetation, bioengineering measures, erosion control or reinforcing mats,
gabions, concrete blocks, rock riprap.
5. When riprap is used, size and place the rock to prevent rock movement resulting from the velocity
and force of water.
6. The amount of scour experienced at a structure is proportional to the restriction in the normal water
flow. Hence, as a general principle, wherever possible, any constrictions to water flow should be
minimised.
7. Cut-off walls, also called curtain walls, should be provided at the edge of a structure to prevent water
eroding the material adjacent to the structure. The location and depth of cut-off walls for the various
structures is shown in Table 9.1 and Table 9.2.
Table 9.1 Cut-off Wall Locations
Structure Locations
Drift Upstream and downstream of drift slabs.
Culvert Edges of inlet and outlet apron.
Vented drift/ford Upstream and downstream sides of main structure and approach ramps.
Large diameter Upstream and downstream sides of approach ramps. These foundations of the main structure
culvert should be built at a greater depth than the standard cut-off walls below the possible scour depth.
Table 9.2 Cut-off Wall Depths
Structure Cut off wall depth(m) comments

Drift 1.5
Relief culvert 1.0
Water course culvert 1.5 Head walls and wing walls
Vented Drift 2.0

SECTION B: DESIGN
9.2.4.1 Structural Design of Driving Surface:

Design low-water crossings to support the design vehicle for the onsite soil conditions.
1. Provide at least 300 mm compacted soil cover over culverts or a concrete slab (typically at least 150
to 200 mm thick) over box culverts, based upon manufacturers’ requirements or structural analysis.
2. Construct the roadway driving surface with material durable enough or heavy enough to resist the
shear stresses or lateral forces of the water flow.
3. Protect the entire “wetted perimeter” of the ford (the area of the entire high flow), plus freeboard
(typically 600 to 1,100 mm of additional height).
4. Remove soft or organic subgrade soils and replace the soil with select, structurally sound material in
a layer thick enough that will support the traffic without deformation.
9.2.4.2 Traffic Control and Safety

Consider all traffic safety issues to produce a safe crossing site.
1. Ideally locate low-water crossings at sites where the road is straight and where good sight distance
exists.
2. Build 150 by 250 mm wood or 400 mm high concrete curbs to define the roadway and keep traffic
on the structure.
3. Place object markers along the road at each corner of the structure to define each entrance of the
structure.
4. Install warning signs to identify the approaching ford and warn drivers of flooding and possible traffic
delays.
5. Use marker posts that indicate the depth of flow.
6. Consider making the ford extra wide for traffic safety, and wherever possible, using 4:1 or flatter fore
slopes on embankments.
7. If site evaluation determines that a ford would be unsafe, choose a conventional structure such as a
culvert or standard bridge.
9.2.4.3 Materials Selection
Choose strong, durable, cost-effective materials for construction of low-water crossings. The driving surface
may be made of local rock, aggregate confined in geocells, gabions, concrete planks, asphalt, masonry, or a
massive concrete slab. Most vented box fords are made of structural steel-reinforced concrete, because of
its strength and durability.
1. Use local riprap where appropriate, cost effective, and available in the necessary size (Smith, 1999).
Riprap is unsuitable if it is undersized and if the forces of water can move it.
2. Where suitably large rock is not available for scour protection, use alternative materials such as
gabions, grouted riprap, root wads with boulders, concrete blocks, or massive concrete.
3. In relatively low-velocity, low-energy areas use vegetative or biotechnical streambank stabilisation
measures, erosion control mats, or turf reinforcing mats.
4. Maintain materials quality control in the structure in accordance with appropriate standard
specifications.
9.2.5 Culverts
There are two main types of culverts namely, box culverts and pipe culverts. For low volume roads in
Myanmar these are generally of constructed of reinforced concrete. Box culverts can either be constructed
in situ or for smaller culverts these may be prefabricated. Pipe culverts are generally prefabricated off-site
and relocated during road construction. Both box and pipe culverts a can be single or multiple cells (box) or

SECTION B: DESIGN
barrels (pipe). Multiple units allow a larger flow across a wider span without increasing the height of the
crossing allowing road elevation to remain more constant at the crossing. Box culverts also reduce the super-
elevation required for the road surface compared with pipe culverts, which is a consideration especially in
road sections where numerous crossings are required such as when traversing paddy field areas.
The size and type of culverts to be chosen depends on the design flood flow of the channel to be culverted.
Table 9.3 Design discharge capacity of Culverts use for road cross-drainage
Design Qmax Design
Type Size Type Size
(m³/s) Qmax (m³/s)
PC 1 x 0.8 m diam. 1.00 BC 1.0 x 0.6 m 0.8
1 x 1.0 m diam. 1.50 0.8 x 0.8 m 1.0
2 x 1.0 m diam. 3.00 1.0 x 1.0 m 1.6
3 x 1.0 m diam. 4.50 1.5 x 1.0 m 2.3
BC 1 cell x 2 x 1.5 m 4.50 BC 1 cell x 3 x 2.5 m 17.50
2 cell x 2 x 1.5 m 8.10 2 cell x 3 x 2.5 m 25.00
3 cell x 2 x 1.5 m 11.25 3 cell x 3 x 2.5m 32.50
2 cell x 3 x 1.7 m 15.00 2 cell x 3 x 3.0 m 27.00
3 cell x 3 x 1.7 m 22.50 3 cell x 3 x 3.0 m 39.00
BC 1 cell x 3 x 2.0 m 9.50
2 cell x 3 x 2.0 m 17.50
3 cell x 3 x 2.0 m 25.50
Note: BC – box culvert PC – pipe culvert, Qmax maximum discharge through the culverts
Table 9.3 shows typical maximum design flows for both pipe and box culverts single and in parallel given
typical road crossing conditions. If required where inlet or outlet condition to a culvert may be steep or
restricted, calculations for culvert diameter can by calculated from hydraulic principles using inlet and outlet
conditions and varying slope length, cross-sectional area, roughness and profile of the proposed culvert to
find an optimal size. While this could be done manually with spread sheet normal it is more practical to use
a software application such as HydroCulv which is licence free software or using part of a larger proprietary
hydraulic design package. Figure 9.6 shows a typical design output from a culvert design developed with
HydroCulv software.
Figure 9.6 Typical output from culvert design package

SECTION B: DESIGN
Estimating the design discharge for choosing the appropriate size of culverts is discussed further in Section
9.6.5.
In general box culverts are easier to construct using a local labour and construction methods and are more
easily checked for quality. Pipe culverts may often not be available locally and local construction of pipes may
not be of adequate standards e.g. pipes manufactured locally for lining wells are unlikely to be suitably
reinforced for load bearing road applications.
Culverts are required at smaller river or creek crossings where they convey river water directly under the
road. However, where roads traverse low lying valley bottom, especially those which have been developed
for paddy, regular relief culverts will be required at intervals. Generally, these culverts are dry for most of
the time. Relief culverts are especially important when the road is embanked above surface level to prevent
the road acting as a dam to flows across the low lying areas.
Without regular relief culverts the flow regime to the paddy field areas may also be disrupted by the road
embankment potentially isolating area of paddy from both water supply and drainage and thus damaging
crops. In general, across extended areas of embanked road culverts must be provided at no more than 250m
spacing. Relief culverts for side drainage will also be required in steep terrain in mountainous regions (section
9.2.7).
As well as the considerations above concerning relief culverts, paddy field areas require special consideration
concerning culvert crossings in Myanmar, where large areas are developed as paddy fields. As well as natural
drainage channels the location of culverts should take into account the specific needs of paddy field
cultivation to minimise disruption to agriculture in the vicinity of the road. Stakeholder consulting of the
location of crossings is always recommended as crossing requirements may not always be obvious from
purely engineering considerations
Where irrigation delivery and drainage channels cross the road alignment these must always have a culvert
provided. Even though these channels may transmit very small flows, it is always recommended that a
minimum allowable size culvert is installed (0.8 m) while this maybe oversized for the likely flow it is
important that a smaller size culvert is not installed. Smaller culverts may become easily blocked with debris
and may prove impossible to clear, unlike larger culverts which can be cleared manually.
Figure 9.7 Typical Single Cell Box Culvert

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 9.8 Box Culvert with Two Cells Figure 9.9 Typical Single Barrel Pipe Culvert
Figure 9.10 Pipe Culvert with Two Barrels
In many parts of Myanmar farmers pump water from adjacent canals and rivers into their fields using river-
bank diesel pumps, lifting typically from one to four metres. This pumping often requires delivery pipes to be
run across roads running parallel to the channels. Delivery pipes are often of flexible construction and to
avoid damage, pipes are sometimes run through dug channels across the road, damaging the road surface,
or are laid in small culverts across the road. The best solution for this agricultural requirement is, in
consultation with stakeholders, to build the road with small culverts incorporated to accommodate irrigation
delivery pipes. There should be no restriction of the minimum size of culvert in this case as no natural open
flow will be passing through the culvert. It is important that the location of the delivery pipe culverts is chosen
in consultation with local farmers.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 9.4 Typical Design Capacities for Culverts

Design Qmax Design
Type Size Type Size
(m³/s) Qmax (m³/s)
PC 1 x 0.8 m diam. 1.00 BC 1.0 x 0.6 m 0.8
1 x 1.0 m diam. 1.50 0.8 x 0.8 m 1.0
2 x 1.0 m diam. 3.00 1.0 x 1.0 m 1.6
3 x 1.0 m diam. 4.50 1.5 x 1.0 m 2.3
2 cell x 2 x 1.5 m 8.10 2 cell x 3 x 2.5 m 25.00
3 cell x 2 x 1.5 m 11.25 3 cell x 3 x 2.5m 32.50
2 cell x 3 x 1.7 m 15.00 2 cell x 3 x 3.0 m 27.00
3 cell x 3 x 1.7 m 22.50 3 cell x 3 x 3.0 m 39.00
BC 1 cell x 3 x 2.0 m 9.50
2 cell x 3 x 2.0 m 17.50
3 cell x 3 x 2.0 m 25.50
Note: BC – box culvert PC – pipe culvert, Qmax maximum discharge through the culverts
9.2.6 Small bridges

Where conditions are too wide to install culverts and there is a risk of large debris such as trees being washed
down the water course and lodging in the culvert, a small bridge is the preferred option. This would usually
consist of a single span and will span the natural river-bed, unlike a culvert which has a concrete base.
The size of the bridge span will generally be dependant of the width of the channel to be crossed and as small
bridges do not largely reduce capacity of flow, the bridge invert should be adjusted to the maximum flow
level design discharge. This will often be chosen based on known or estimated flood levels in the channel at
the crossing point, taking future climate predictions into account.
Small bridge capacity may also be estimated using design software to model the flow regime of a design
discharge capacity that has been developed using procedures as set out in Section 9.6.5. Using modelling
software such as HEC-RAS or similar will require detailed survey of upstream and downstream of the bridge
crossing including at least eight cross sections and a long profile of the river reach upstream and downstream
of the proposed bridge crossing. Modelling may therefore may often not be considered a cost effective
method for design of low volume rural roads especially where many crossings occur. Modelling may also be
complicated by backwater conditions at the crossing. This often occurs where a rural road is running along
the bank of a larger river bank and the crossing is required to allow a tributary to enter the main water course
under the road alignment. This situation is very commonly found in rural roads. Here modelling at a level
suitable for the design of low volume road is unlikely to be successful and previous wet season water levels
are likely to a more reliable indication of bridge requirements.
9.2.7 Side Drains

To avoid build-up of water at road-sides both culverts and small bridges may need to have road side drains
leading to the crossing structure. A summary drain types and their criteria are set out in Table 9.5.
Side drains are required to ensure water is drained quickly away from the road after a storm event with the
aim of having no residual water sitting within 0.3m of the road sub-grade. In general, the side drain grade
will normally follow the roadway grade with the minimum grade for an unpaved drain being 1%.
Mortared masonry lined side drains are required on grades where soils are easily eroded. For these soils,
lined channels are recommended for all grades of 3% or more (Type 2 protected earth drain). However, he
soils in some areas are much firmer than in others and therefore the final selection of which sections of road
need to be lined and which ones do not, will have to be assessed after roadside foundations are excavated.

SECTION B: DESIGN
For the purposes of design, all road sections with grades exceeding 3% should be considered as requiring
lining of the side drains with adjustments to be made at the time of construction.
In residential area where there are many houses and especially schools or other utility buildings, covered U-
drains are recommended (Type 3, U-drain covered). Where the road is cut into a hill side and in order to save
uphill slope excavation V-drains with reduced top width as compared with trapezoidal drains are
recommended (Type 4, V-drain uncovered). Where the road width is restricted by hard geology road width
can be minimised by using covered V-drains over which vehicles can pass when two-way traffic is required
(Type 5, V-drain covered with stone or masonry). Typical drain sections are set out in Figure 9.11 with
typical side drain cross sections shown in Figure 9.12.
To ensure the capacities of the side drains are not exceeded, the maximum spacing between culverts for
different grades for the standard designs are also recommended. For example, at a 2% grade, the maximum
spacing between cross culverts is 250 to 500 m decreasing to 160 m at 6% grade and 80m at 10% grade.
Table 9.5 Standard Drains
No. Type of drain Criteria for drain type
1 earth drain side slope<3%
2 protected earth drain masonry >3% slope
3 u-drain (covered) RC/masonry near village
4 v-drain uncovered steep slopes/limited space area
5 v-drain covered with rc stone or masonry steep slopes, very limited space
Figure 9.11 Drain Cross Sections

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 9.12 Typical Side Drain Arrangement (Keller G & Sherar J, 2003)
Source : Low Volume Road Engineering Best Practices; USDA Forest Service
Mitre drains (side drain relief outlets / culverts) are required on the sections of roads where water can be
safely evacuated away from the road. This reduces the flow rates that need to be carried in the side drains.
The relief drains are angled at about 30o from the side drain. Figure 9.13 shows a sketch of a typical mitre
drain arrangement.
Figure 9.13 Typical Mitre Drain Schematic (Keller G & Sherar J, 2003)
Source : Low Volume Road Engineering Best Practices; USDA Forest Service

SECTION B: DESIGN
9.3 Selecting the Best Structure for the Crossing Site

To select the best structure for the crossing it is important to the site, costs, stream flow patterns, channel
characteristics, and aquatic organism passage needs. The following section set out criteria for indicating the
type of crossing that may be preferable at any location.
Table 9.6 Some Criteria for selection of suitable crossing type
Preferred crossing type

No Criteria at crossing
Low-water crossing Culvert Small bridge
These is an existing crossing structure
1 not suitable may be suitable may be suitable
other than a low –water crossing
The road is a critical route or does not
2 not suitable may be suitable maybe suitable
have alternative access to the area.
The channel is entrenched to
3 moderately entrenched (broad and suitable not suitable not suitable
shallow).
Occasional traffic delays are
4 suitable not suitable not suitable
acceptable.
The channel is ephemeral or has
5 suitable may be suitable may be suitable
relatively low baseflow.
The catchment has large flow
6 suitable may be suitable may be suitable
fluctuations or a “flashy” response.
The channel carries a large amount of
7 suitable not suitable may be suitable
debris.
9.3.1 Low water crossings

Based on the criteria shown in Table 9.6 the suitability for construction of a low water crossing can be
assessed.
In general the most suitable area for a low water crossing will be where criteria three is satisfied and criteria
four is not a critical restriction. For criteria five to seven other alternatives such as a culvert or small bridge
would be more suitable and more cost effective than a low water crossing.
In general, the criteria for making a low water crossing a preferable solution are set out in Table 9.7.
Table 9.7 Criteria for selection of a low-water crossing
Criteria Most Applicable

Access Priority Low
Alternative route Available
Traffic speed Low
Average daily traffic Low
Flow variability High
High-flow duration Short(hours)
High-flow frequency Seldom ( rare closure)
Debris loading High
Channel Entrenchment Broad and shallow

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 9.8 lists some questions and possible solutions that need to be considered to correctly design a low
water crossing.
Table 9.8 Choosing the Type of Low Water Crossing
Considerations Decisions
Is road use low and is the stream ephemeral, or does it If YES, first consider a simple (at-grade), unimproved ford.
have a low base flow and high peak “flashy” flows?
Are the channel bottom and streambank materials soft or If YES, consider an improved ford with a hardened driving surface.
erodible?
Is stream continuity required because of environmental If YES, consider (1) an unimproved ford with a natural bottom; (2)
issues at this crossing? an improved at-grade ford with a roughened driving surface, (3)
a low-water bridge, or (4) a high-VAR ford.
Is driving through water frequently prohibited or are long If YES, consider only the vented structures and low-water bridges
traffic delays unacceptable? with an elevated driving surface
Is the channel incised or entrenched? If YES, consider a vented structure with boxes that match the
channel’s shape.
Is the channel very broad or does it carry a considerable If YES, consider a relatively long span low-water bridge
base flow with high peak flows?
Does the channel carry a lot of large woody debris? If YES, consider an unimproved or improved unvented ford.
Does the drainage pass periodic debris torrents through If YES, consider rock-fill fords. Alternatively, massive concrete
an incised channel? vented fords have been used with trash racks to pass the debris
over the structure.
Is a barrier needed to exclude exotic species? If YES, consider an improved, unvented ford with a raised
platform or a raised vented ford with a perched outlet (consider,
however, potential adverse channel effects).
Is a grade control structure needed? If YES to promote aggradation, first consider an improved
unvented ford with a raised platform (a low dam). A vented ford
with perched vents may also work. To stop headcutting, consider
using a structure with a solid, stable bottom and downstream cut-
off wall
9.3.2 Culverts
Generally, culverts are placed in relatively small crossings with maximum design discharge of around 40
m3/sec. Flows larger than this will entail many multiples of culvert pipe or boxes and a small bridge may
become a more suitable choice.
Culverts are unlikely to be suitable where the channel is quite entrenched and where much debris is expected
to be entrained. In these cases a small bridge may be a more suitable choice. Table 9.9 shows the criteria for
selecting a culvert.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 9.9 Criteria for selection of a culvert
Criteria Most Applicable

Access Priority Moderate to high
Alternative route May not be available
Traffic speed Medium to normal road speed
Average daily traffic Any
Flow variability Low to medium
High-flow duration Any
High-flow frequency Any
Debris loading Low
Channel Entrenchment Shallow
The choice of whether to use box or pipe culverts depends on various factors. In general box culverts are
easier to construct either in situ or in a local yard. It may not be possible for pipe culverts of suitable quality
and reinforcement to be manufactured locally and this may limit use of this type of culvert in some areas.
Box culverts do also have the advantage that by they have a flat top slab which allows easier road
construction of over the culvert and it is easier to construct the crossing with a flush surface to normal road
elevation to allow maintained of traffic speed. Pipe culverts have to be set lower to allow a flush road surface
and need to be covered by a layer of compacted soil to spread traffic load.
9.3.3 Small Bridges

Generally small bridges are more expensive to construct than culverts so they are often placed where culverts
are not suitable due to such factors as: topography e.g. across deeply incised channels; where there is a high
debris load expected which is likely to block the restricted openings of culverts or; where design flood
discharge would entail installation of too many culvert barrels. Table 9.10 shows the criteria for selecting a
small bridge.
Table 9.10 Criteria for selection of a small bridge
Criteria Most Appropriate

Access Priority High
Alternative route May not be available
Traffic speed Normal road speed
Average daily traffic Any
Flow variability High
High-flow duration Any
High-flow frequency High
Debris loading High
Channel Entrenchment Any

SECTION B: DESIGN
9.4 Climate change impacts

Run-off (for drainage/culvert design) determination is based on estimates of the amount of rainfall that will
drain from a given catchment within a given period. Usually, historical records of observed rainfall are used
to determine the average return interval (ARI) in years for maximum rainfall. This rainfall is then translated
into run-off using catchment-specific models to determine maximum flows and design criteria for the road
drainage system.
Climate change is expected to affect these design calculations in a number of ways, through increasing the
intensity and frequency of heavy rainfall events, and through changing the antecedent moisture loading of
soils and the average water contained in storage ponds. The most significant change is expected to come
from a general increase in the maximum rainfall associated with heavy rainfall events. The reason for this
change is that a warmer atmosphere can generally hold more water, so that more water is available during
any particular rainfall event. As a first approximation, the increased amount of rainfall over a typical 24-hour
heavy rain event is scaled in proportion to the increase in temperature. The expected change of the absolute
rainfall depth in design storms can be incorporated into standard design calculations and subsequent run-off
modelling.
More complex rainfall modelling is required where catchments are large with a complex topography, or have
specific characteristics that warrant a more detailed investigation of changes in rainfall characteristics.
Other climate changes that may be of relevance to design are changes in temperature (temperature
influences evaporation rates from organic surfaces and hence initial water retention capacity), and changes
in mean rainfall (which also affects the initial water retention capacity of pervious surfaces). Both aspects
could therefore lead to a shift between the fast and slow run-off components of a run-off model. It is
important that this manual, which may be in use for many years, takes due consideration of climate change
to allow climate resilient design (Chapter 4).
Figure 9.14 Predicted rainfall trends for the seven physiographic regions in Myanmar
Source: Myanmar’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change

SECTION B: DESIGN
As can be seen in Figure 9.14 for the design life time horizon of LVRR roads, there would appear to be small
change in predicted annual rainfall. However, a conservative approach is recommended as predictive models
have, historically, often underestimated change. The annual graph, importantly, does not take into account
increased seasonality and intensity of rainfall.
The likely increased frequency of storms, the increased spatial variability and increased intensity of the
rainfall are aspects having the most impact on road drainage and must be taken into consideration in
preparing climate resilient designs. The impacts of the likely increased short duration storms of high intensity
rainfalls may be significant. These will result in increased rapid run-off often carrying debris (vegetation).
Traditionally, for rural roads, it is often recommended that drainage design considers an ARI of about 10
years but, taking account of the forecast climate change impacts, the historically determined 20 year ARI
rainfall storm data should now adopted for the drainage designs. Adjustments recommended include:
1. Increased design capacity of culverts i.e. the minimum culvert size of 0.8 m x 0.8 m is recommended
instead of 0.6 or less width or pipe diameters used traditionally,
2. Closer spacing of cross-drainage structures than traditionally used (especially for the roads with more
erodible soils)
3. Improved road side drainage with lining installed at lesser slopes than traditionally used
4. Increased design capacity of bridges to allow for increased flows as well as passage of debris (trees)
Many townships in southern Myanmar are with within the Ayeyarwady and Sittoung delta area thus, water
levels adjacent to the road may often be controlled by regional water levels associated with the Ayeyarwady
River rather than locally produce runoff. It should also be noted that this area in in the Cyclone Zone as set
out below.
According to according to the National Adaption Programme of Action Myanmar the following changing
cyclone regime is found in southern part of Myanmar.
In the past (before 2000), cyclones made landfall (i.e. centre of the storm moved across the coast)
along Myanmar‘s coast once every three years. Since the turn of the century, cyclones have made
landfall along Myanmar’s coastline every year. From 1887 to 2005, 1,248 tropical storms formed in
the Bay of Bengal. Eighty of these storms (6.4% of the total) reached Myanmar’s coastline. Recent
cyclones of note include Cyclone Mala (2006), Nargis (2008) and Giri (2010). Cyclone Nargis hit the
coast in May 2008 and was the most devastating cyclone on record that Myanmar has ever
experienced. The Ayeyarwady Delta and the eastern part of Yangon were most affected experiencing
wind speeds >258 km/h. The main impacts included: i) extensive damage to mangroves, agricultural
land, houses and utility infrastructures; ii) salt-water intrusion into agricultural lands and freshwater
sources causing economic, social and environmental damage; iii) loss of livelihoods and homes (3.2
million people affected), including 138,373 deaths; and iv) damages of ~US $4.1 billion. Cyclone Giri
hit the coast in October 2010 resulting in a maximum storm surge of approximately 3.7 m and wind
speeds in excess of 120 km/h. The Cyclone caused damage and loss of government buildings,
households, schools and farm assets. The death toll was significantly less than that of Cyclone Nargis
(45 people). However, the cyclone resulted in 70,000 people left without homes4.
4
Myanmar NAPA report page 27 ibid.

SECTION B: DESIGN
It should be noted that it is unlikely that, based on cost, any LVRR in the southern townships can be protected
from surges of several metres. A strategy of “living with floods” is perhaps a better approach and is used
elsewhere in areas suffering from regular inundation such as in the Mekong Delta. In this approach roads are
designed to be resilient to inundation and can be brought rapidly back into use after inundation subsides
without any lasting damage. This approach depends on good construction of embankments and adequate
relief culverts to allow excess water to drain away quickly.
9.5 Environmental Considerations for Choosing a Crossing Location in the Catchment

In addition to the large-scale road or road system evaluation, the site should be evaluated with respect to its
watershed context. The entire watershed is linked via its drainage network and upstream and downstream
changes can seriously affect a site. Although Table 9.10 is not an exhaustive list the questions that should be
considered, it will help identify essential ecological processes that should be factored into decisions about
crossing locations and design.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 9.11 Considerations for Choosing a Crossing Location

No Design Queries Issues Action required for road design
1 Is the crossing on or just downstream Landslides and earthflows can intermittently produce large amounts of sediment that Topographic and soils and land cover survey of the catchment
from unstable landforms (e.g., alluvial may cause downstream culvert structures to plug and fail. Alluvial fans and other area to investigate soil stability and sediment transport in the
fans, landslides)? Is it located in a depositional areas are located where valley gradient flattens or where a confined river.
depositional area? stream enters a wider valley. Crossing structures in these locations are subject to
plugging. In addition, when deposition happens rapidly, such as during a large flood,
the channel may shift to another location, leaving the structure isolated.
2 Is the channel stable at the watershed A stream is a dynamic continuum. Changes in watershed and channel conditions Topographic and soils survey of the catchment area to
scale? Is there a headcut working occurring upstream or downstream can affect any point on the stream. For example, investigate soil stability and sediment transport in the river.
upstream that could affect the site in streams continuously adjust in response to floods, changes in sediment loads, or Survey of sand and gravel mining activities in the river
the future? What changes from changes in riparian conditions that control bank stability. Channel incision initiated channels and adjacent areas
planned watershed development by, for example, gravel mining or channel straightening can migrate upstream,
could affect channel stability affecting the entire system’s bank and bed stability. An existing or planned dam in
upstream or downstream of the site the river system will change the channel sediment load and can affect streambed
and, therefore the site itself? elevations.
3 What types of flows are expected As well as the rainfall regime in the catchment, parameters such as catchment shape Survey of rainfall runoff relationships (RRR) in the catchment
from the watershed? Are base flows and slope and vegetation cover great affect the flow regime of rivers. Soil erosion and should be carried out as part of river crossing designs. The
steady, or is the watershed “flashy” area of human disturbance of the catchment such as forest clearance and agricultural RRR in conjunction with the results of the topographic, soil
with brief, high peak flows? Is most activities on steep slopes significantly increase erosion and sediment transport and and land cover surveys should be used to better understand
flow clear water or do high flows deposition in the river channels. the design requirements for river crossings
carrying a lot of sediment and debris?
4 What hydrologic changes are likely to Changes in land cover, such as road and housing development, fires, or timber A socio-economic survey of activities in the catchment is
occur due to any planned watershed harvests, can change the proportion of precipitation that runs off quickly in floods. required to estimate possible future changes in the
development? How might the current Because the road network connects directly to the stream system through ditches catchment flow and sedimentation regime, thus affecting
streamflow regime (i.e., flow and crossings, runoff is delivered to the stream system more quickly, increasing peak cross-river structures in the catchment area.
quantity, timing, and duration) discharge and stream power. The increase in the erosive capabilities of the stream
change over the structure lifetime? can lead to the undermining and outflanking of a structure. If major development is
foreseen, consider selecting structures with larger capacities, and upgrading or re-
armoring existing structures.
The same changes that increase peak flows may also decrease baseflows because a
greater proportion of precipitation runs off rather than infiltrating into the soil
mantle for storage and slow release later in the season. If such decreases are
foreseen, consider changing the crossing structure design to ensure low-flow passage
for aquatic organisms.

SECTION B: DESIGN
No Design Queries Issues Action required for road design

5 What aquatic biota is present? What Vulnerable species can be greatly affected by flow regime changes such as migratory Ecological surveys should be carried out to identify vulnerable
are their passage needs? passage blocking cause by cross river structures such as fords. aquatic species and mitigation measures they may require to
ensure sustainability of the ecology.
6 What are the constraints on crossing The impact on historical and other sites of cultural significance needs to be A cultural survey of the road alignment needs to be carried
location, (e.g., nearby archaeological understood in order to maintain cultural objects such as sites of religious significance out including where the river crosses water courses.
sites, private land, location of near water courses.
threatened, endangered, or sensitive
plants.)
7 How is the current crossing affecting Entrenched channels require a quite different approach to river crossing design to In entrenched channels design capacity of the structure can
the stream? Is it causing sediment those which are on active flood plains which may need more structures such as be estimated using catchment parameters such as rain runoff
deposition (aggradation) upstream embankment and relief culverts rather than a single river crossing structure. relationships. In flood plain areas design may rely more on
and/or incision (degradation) historical information of previous flood levels.
Entrenched channel crossings usual have their design capacity estimated by the
downstream? Is it causing bank
upstream catchment conditions whereas flood plain areas may be affected by
erosion?
downstream conditions. This is especially so in the southern delta areas of Myanmar
where flooding in the large deltas may be regional and prolonged.

SECTION B: DESIGN
9.6 Hydrological design for crossings and drains

Drainage structure design should be based on some reasonable design flow, as well as site characteristics
and environmental considerations such as irrigation use. Determining a reasonable design flow for any
engineered drainage structure is critically important, both for the structure to perform properly and to
prevent failures of structures. A reasonable design flow is commonly based upon a storm event that will have
an ARI of 10 to 100 years, depending on type and value of the structure and local regulations. In general, in
Myanmar LVRRs are designed to a 10 year ARI standard with bridges over 12 metres having a 50 to 100 year
ARI.
Any culvert of other crossing structure has a finite flow capacity that should not be exceeded. Bridges also
have a specific capacity for the given cross- sectional area, but typically it is large. Drifts and vented drifts
design is based upon estimates of both low flows and peak flows for that specific drainage, but are less
sensitive to flow estimates.
For a known catchment area several methods can be employed to estimate a design flow for a given return
interval. For catchments with bridges of less than ten metres span, that are being considered for this manual,
it is very unlikely that a gauging station with a record of actual flows will be available in the catchment, or in
adjacent similar catchments, so that directly measured flow data will not be available. Therefore, indirect
methods to estimate design discharges with be required at almost all crossing locations. These are based on:
the catchment (watershed) area draining to the structure and the rainfall intensity duration frequency (IDF)
relationship.
9.6.2 Catchment area

To determine a design flow most design methods require that the drainage catchment area is defined.
Traditionally this has usually been carried out using topographic maps delineating the catchment (water
shed) boundary by following the ridge contours on the map to enclose the drained area. This area can then
be measured using a plan meter or counting grid squares enclosed. Disadvantages with this method are that
it is labour intensive and is prone to map misinterpretation leading to error. Topographic maps are also not
necessarily immediately available in Myanmar.
Figure 9.15 Catchment area analysis using a DEM and GIS

SECTION B: DESIGN
The preferred method is to use a digital elevation model (DEM) and catchment analysis using a geographic
information system (GIS). The DEM data can be downloaded for the area of interest in Myanmar anywhere
there is an internet connection.
Several DEMs are available for public download at no cost5. As well as proprietary GIS, public domain GISs
such a QGIS are also available to use at no cost and can carry out the required catchment analysis to provide
both catchment area and the alignment of the main water courses.
Figure 9.15 shows a typical catchment area reporting to a crossing structure that has been analysed using a
DEM analysis by GIS and overlaid on a Google Earth Image.
9.6.3 Rainfall Intensity duration frequency (IDF)

IDF curves are preferably developed from instantaneous rainfall record of at least 10 years in length from
rainfall, stations within a representative distance of the crossing point. Instantaneous record is produced by
modern data loggers using tipping bucket or electronic weighing rain gauges.
In entrenched channels design capacity of the structure can be estimated using catchment parameters such
as rain runoff relationships. In flood plain areas design may rely more on historical information of previous
flood levels.
Nevertheless, daily and monthly rainfall records of more than 10 years are often available as each township
generally has an operational climate station. Many of these climate stations were upgraded in the 1990s and
records are available for a good length of time in many townships. Using monthly rainfall data and IDF curve
approximation can be developed based on a relationship between the annual maximum monthly rainfall and
the intensity and duration of rainfall likely to occur. As an example, using 20 years of monthly rainfall data
collected at Magway station in the Central Dry Zone an IDF relationship for a range of ARIs has been
developed. This is shown in Table 9.12 and charted graphically in Figure 9.16.
Table 9.12 Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) table at Magway (Central Dry Zone)
Time Intensity (mm/hr.)
(minutes) (hours) 1 year 2 year 5 year 10 year 20 year 50 year 100 year
1 0.02 127 143 166 187 209 244 274
5 0.08 74 83 97 109 122 142 160
10 0.17 59 66 77 86 97 113 127
15 0.25 51 58 67 75 85 98 111
30 0.5 41 46 53 60 67 78 88
60 1 32.1 36 42 47 53 62 69
120 2 21.0 23.6 27.5 30.9 34.7 40 45
180 3 15.7 17.6 20.5 23.0 25.8 30.1 33.8
360 6 9.5 10.7 12.4 14.0 15.7 18.3 20.5
720 12 5.4 6.1 7.1 7.9 8.9 10.4 11.7
5
The following web site may be used to down load several type DEM covering Myanmar including the SRTM and Aster
DEMs : https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. DEMs are available worldwide at a resolution of 1 arc second (approximately
30m). This is a free site and anyone can open an account to download data at no cost.

SECTION B: DESIGN
1440 24 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.7 6.4
Figure 9.16 Intensity-Duration-Frequency-Curve at Magway
9.6.4 Rainfall Runoff Coefficients

Table 9.13 shows typical runoff factors from various land types which can be used in the development of
storm design runoff using the Rational Method.
Table 9.13 Rational Method typical values of runoff coefficient "C"
Land cover Runoff Coefficient
Bare Soil 0.20-0.60
Cultivated Fields (sandy soil) 0.20-0.40
Cultivated Fields (clay soil) 0.30-0.50
Turf, Meadows 0.10-0.40
Steep Grassed Areas 0.50-0.70
Wooded Areas with Level Ground 0.05-0.25
Forested Areas with Steep Slopes 0.15-0.40
Bare Areas, Steep and Rocky 0.50-0.90
Asphalt Pavement 0.80-0.90
Cobblestone or Concrete Pavement 0.60-0.85
Gravel Surface 0.40-0.80
Native Soil Surface 0.30-0.80
Residential, Flat 0.40-0.55
Residential, Moderately Steep 0.50-0.65
Commercial or Downtown 0.70-0.95

SECTION B: DESIGN
9.6.5 Design Discharge

Table 9.14 shows the types of methods that can be used for determining design discharges discharges for
drain and river crossing sizing.
Table 9.14 Design flow analysis methods for various catchment sizes
Catchment Catchment
Typical type of analysis
type area
Small <2500 ha Rational method, local experience
Medium 4,000 ha to Regression analysis, historical flood marks, manning’s, local experience
10,000 ha
Large >4,000 Gauging data, high water marks, statistical methods or regression analysis
Typically for small catchment areas the Rational Method is often used.
This method allows calculation of runoff of a catchment area by using the Rational Formula as follows:
Q= 0.278 C I A
Where:
Q = flow in cubic metres per second (m3/sec)
C = run off coefficient, expressing fraction of the rainfall that is assumed to become direct runoff (typical
ground cover values of C are shown in Table 9.13)
I = intensity of rainfall in mm/hour for the durations of the corresponding time of concentration for the
catchment. (Table 9.12 and Figure 9.16 shows typical values for a range of Tcs as calculated by the method
shown below)
A = the drainage area in km2.
Tc = the time of concentration. This is the time period (duration) required for rain water to reach the outlet
from the most remote point in the drainage area
The formula used to calculate Tc is:
Tc = (0.87 L3 / H)0.385
Where:
L = the length of the catchment area in kilometres
H = the difference in level for the highest point of the catchment to the outlet level (at the road crossing).
The Rational Formula is based on the theory that the runoff rate is linearly related to rainfall intensity. This
means that the runoff rate would become constant if a uniform rain of a constant intensity falls on an
impervious specific area. The actual runoff, which varies over the area, is however far more complex than
the formula indicates.
Since the error of runoff estimate increases with increasing size of the drainage area , the Rational Formula
is normally limited to an area size of about 25 km² (2500 ha ).
For larger areas the formula should be used with care and the catchment split into small areas with uniform
runoff coefficient rates. Other empirical, graphical or statistical formulas should be considered where
catchment areas exceed 25 km2.
Often for larger catchment the best indication of flood flow in the catchment is local knowledge of previous
floods or existing flood marks.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Regional flood analysis is a commonly used procedure to develop flood estimates for catchments where little
or no flood data exists. lt is also a useful procedure providing an independent assessment of design floods
that are computed by other methods. The regional flood frequency curves have their most useful applications
in estimating the flood potential of an ungauged catchment Regional flood frequency curves show the ratio
of floods for a given return period relative to the mean annual flood (MAF). It is therefore necessary to make
an estimate of the mean annual flood for the ungauged catchment. The mean annual flood is dependent
upon many variables, the most important and commonly available being the drainage area. The mean annual
flood for a particular catchment is determined graphically by plotting mean annual floods against respective
drainage areas of all gauged stations in the region. The flood of any given frequency for the ungauged area
is then obtained by determining the corresponding flood ratio from the regional frequency curve for the
region of which the ungauged basin is a part and multiplying it by the estimated mean annual flood of the
ungauged basin. Some typical regional mean annual floods are shown plotted in Figure 9.176 (J. R. Meigh &
F. A. K. Farquharson et al). It can be seen that the man annual floods r vary widely with region. Unfortunately,
due to lack of available historical data Myanmar has not been included in the chart shown in Figure 9.17.
However improved data sets for Myanmar are becoming available as the hydrometric system of Myanmar is
now being currently upgraded. Inclusion of re-evaluation and historic data previously unavailable and may
allow regional curves to be developed. It should be noted that using the regional flood method is likely to be
most useful for larger crossings.
Figure 9.17 Comparison of regional mean annual floods
Source: A Worldwide Comparison of Regional Flood Estimation Methods and Climate
6
Reference: A worldwide comparison of regional flood estimation methods and climate, J. R. Meigh & F. A.
K. Farquharson ,Hydrological Sciences-Journal-dés Sciences Hydrologiques, 42(2) April 1997

SECTION B: DESIGN
9.7 Hydrological data sets

Table 9.15 shows the data sets are required to carry out analysis for crossing designs allowing design storms
of the selected average return interval (ARI) to be for each crossing.
Table 9.15 Data Sets and Sources Required to Develop Design Storms
Data type Source
Rainfall data
Climate data
Department of Meteorology
and Hydrology, Ministry of
Hydrological Transport and Communications
and
Hydrographic
data
Google Earth, Remote sensing

Land cover data e.g. landsat
https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
Digital
elevation Aster, STRM, other
models https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
(DEM)

SECTION B: DESIGN
References
Government of Cambodia,2003. Road Design Standard Cambodia Part 3 Drainage, Cam PW.03.03.103.99,
Asian Development bank
Government of Myanmar (GoM), 2017. National Strategy for Rural Roads and Access.
Government of Myanmar; 2012; Myanmar’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate
Chang;, National Environmental Conservation Committee, Ministry of Environmental Conservation
and Forestry Myanmar
Meigh J &. Farquharson F A K; 1997; A Worldwide Comparison of Regional Flood Estimation Methods and
Climate; Hydrological Sciences-Journal-dés Sciences Hydrologiques, 42(2)
Keller G & Sherar J, 2003. Low Volume Road Engineering Best Practices; USDA Forest Service
Kreft S, Ekstein D & Melchior I; 2017; Briefing Paper:Global Climate Risk Index ; Germanwatch
Larcher p, Petts R, & Spence R, 2010. Small Structures for Rural Roads. A Practical Planning, Design,
Construction and Maintenance Guide. DFID, ADB, gTKP, published by ADB
Adamson P & Chong T. 1995; A Review of Estimation Procedures for Urban Flood Risk; Halcrow/ Department
of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia
Smith R, Stone, 1999. Building Stone, Rock Fill and Armourstone in Construction. Geological Society
Engineering Geology Spec Pub 16, UK.

SECTION B: DESIGN
10 Earthworks
10.1 Introduction
In order to comply with horizontal or vertical geometric guidelines and thus permit reasonable access for
users, Low Volume Rural Road (LVRR) alignments in Myanmar within hilly or mountainous areas may require
the construction of cut or embankment earthworks. Embankments may also be required in low lying areas
to raise alignments above flood levels, or as approaches to bridges. These earthworks should be designed to
minimise subsequent slope failure by implementing designs and construction procedures that are compatible
with the engineering properties of the excavated soil-rock or the placed fill, whilst at the same time
considering the impact of these earthworks on existing slopes or foundations.
Cut and fill earthworks are likely to be of particular significance in the mountainous or steep hilly regions
such as parts of Shan and Chin states, whilst the lower lying area of the coastal and the delta and coastal
states, may require alignments to be raised on embankment; frequently on soft and compressible soils.
The interaction of LVRR route alignment and the geometry or instability of the natural slopes may be such
that construction to recognised safe angles is not an economical or engineering feasibility. If temporary road
closures and debris clearance can be tolerated and allowed for in maintenance, then steeper slopes may be
an economic option, otherwise engineered or bio-engineered stabilisation or protection measures may have
to be considered. This is will be the case particularly in areas of identified natural hazard or where significant
potential climate vulnerabilities have been identified.
This Chapter covers aspects of earthwork design including embankments, cut-slopes and imported subgrade.
It contains sections on low cost erosion and slope protection including the use of cost-effective bio-
engineering options. This Chapter also outlines the potential vulnerability of earthworks to current and future
climate impacts and the consequent importance of adequate earthwork drainage.
10.2 General Principles of Earthwork Design and Construction
10.2.1 Alignment and Earthwork Balance

In an ideal situation there should be a focus on achieving an “Earthwork Balance”, whereby the amount of
excavated materials is equal to the volume of fill required; thus removing the requirement either for spoil
disposal or for additional borrow areas. In many cases this target of balanced earthworks is not possible,
particularly in low lying flat coastal or steep mountainous areas. It should, however, be a design target to
reduce excess spoil or excess borrow to minimum, on both cost and environmental impact grounds. In this
context the innovative use of marginal earthwork materials and approaches to cut-slope stabilisation should
be a priority for Myanmar LVRR designers.
10.2.2 Excavation
Methods of excavation are determined by a combination of intact soil-rock strength and rock mass structure,
Figure 10.1 (Pettifer & Fookes, 1994).
Excavation of rock slopes should be undertaken in such a way that disturbance, for example, due to blasting,
is minimised (Harber et al, 2011). It should also be undertaken in a manner to produce material of such size
that allows it to be placed in embankments in accordance with the relevant specifications.
Structural excavation includes the excavation of material to permit the construction of culverts, foundations
for bridges, or retaining walls. Suitable materials taken from structural excavations should be used either in
backfilling around the completed structure or in other parts of the construction site.
When insufficient material for the formation of embankments is available from excavations performed within
the limits of the right-of-way, additional suitable material is taken from borrow pits (Roughton International,

SECTION B: DESIGN
2000). In addition to geotechnical or material requirements, there are requirements relating to

environmental impact compliance concerning the condition in which borrow pits should be left when they
are abandoned (See Chapter 3, Section 5).
Figure 10.1 Assessment of Excavatability
Source: Pettifer & Fookes, 1994
10.2.3 Fill Placement and Compaction

Compaction is the simplest way of improving the engineering properties of soil or rock fill materials.
Essentially, air is expelled, and particles are forced into closer contact with water volume remaining the same
(Parsons, 1992). Compaction is aimed at:
§ Reducing permeability;
§ Reducing in service compressibility;
§ Increasing shear strength;
Earthwork compaction is usually defined in terms of a percentage (usually around 85-90%) of a defined
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) under a defined compactive effort (AASHTO Modified). Earth fills are
constructed using relatively thin layers of soil. The maximum thickness of loose soil is usually 250–300mm.
The soil is thoroughly compacted before the next layer is placed
Except as otherwise specified, rock embankments are normally constructed in successive layers of 0.75m or
less in depth. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, the rock sizes necessitate a greater depth of layer and
the height of fill will permit, the layer depth may be increased as required, but depth of layer should not
exceed one metre.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.1 lists the more common options for compaction of fill (and also pavement layers; see chapter 7).
For LVRRs there are likely to be a number of constraints on the selection of optimum machine options on
site, for example:
§ Small contractors may have limited capacity to employ to multiple machine options;
§ Narrow carriageway widths combined with the need for maintaining cross-fall will the limit width of
compactor drum;
§ Small LVRR contractors may have limited experience in the application of some options.
In the common LVRR construction package in Myanmar of a single road, or section of a road, the aim should
be to select the most flexible option. In this case the use of small to medium sized (3-5 tonne) smooth wheel
rollers offers the option of both vibratory compaction and deadweight compaction. Special cases, for
example extensive rock fill or high cohesive fills would call for additional specialist plant.
Table 10.1 Typical Compactor Options

Machine Description and Use
1 Vibrating-Plate compactor Small hand compactors used for compacting fill behind, for example, retaining walls or
close to bridge or culvert structures.
2 Pedestrian Roller Usually vibrating. Hand operating rollers for narrow access tracks or trails and possibly
shoulders.
3 Smooth wheel deadweight Traditional 8t three-wheel compactor commonly used in Myanmar. May also be smaller
roller tandem option. Best suited to surface finishing.
4 Smooth wheel vibrating Single or tandem drum – low frequency high amplitudes suited for thicker cohesive fills
roller with higher frequency-lower amplitudes for thinner more granular material layers.
5 Deadweight sheepsfoot Tamping machine with rod-like feet. Most effective in softer or wetter cohesive fills. Leaves
roller usually a vibrating an indented surface which may require finishing. Unsuitable for near surface subgrade or
option pavement layers. Not suitable for rock fill.
6 Pneumatic tyred roller The kneading effect of the deadweight and tyre pressure is very effective fine granular
materials. Specific requirements for some sealing options – particularly Otta Seal
7 Grid rollers Heavy steel mesh drums used for breaking up oversize but weak rock-fill.
8 Impact rollers “Square-wheel” specialist rollers for either thick lifts or for compacting in situ voided or
collapsible soils.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 10.2 Typical LVRR Compacting Machines
a. Vibrating Plate Compactor b. Pedestrian Roller
C. Three Wheel Deadweight Roller D. Small 2t Smooth Wheel Vibrating Roller
E. Small Sheepsfoot Roller F. Impact Roller

SECTION B: DESIGN
10.3 Cut-Slope Design

Cut slope design for LVRRs is likely to be initially guided by existing standards or on past experience with
similar soil and rock materials in similar environments, rather than individually designed. However critical
cuts particularly greater than 10m in height may require a more detailed engineering geological or
geotechnical assessment, depending on the complexity of the ground conditions. This would include an
assessment of the strength of the soil-rock materials and the mass structure (See Chapter 5).
The slope angles indicated in Table 10.2 (derived from regional experience based on Ingles, 1985) have been
provided as a general guide for LVRRs. It is emphasised that these angles cannot be applied without due
consideration of the actual ground conditions.
Table 10.2 General Guidance on Cut-Slope Angles (V:H)
Slopes (V:H) for Various Cut Heights

Rock Materials (1)
<5m 5-10 m 10-15 m
Strong to moderately strong rock. granite, basalt, limestone, sandstone. (with

1:0.2 1.03 - 1.08
no adverse structure)
Weak rock. Shale, bedded sandstone, moderately weathered granite, basalt,

1:0.4 – 1.05 1.06-1.08
limestone, sandstone
Very weak rock. Mudstone, highly weathered granite, basalt, limestone,

1:1 1:1.5 1.1.5-1.75
sandstone
Soil Materials (2)
Coarse colluvium Poorly graded 1:1.25-1:1.5
Dense or well graded 1:0.8 – 1:1.0 1:1.0-1:1.5 (3)

Clayey sand soil
Loose 1:1.0 – 1:1.5 1:1.2-1: (3)
Sandy soil, mixed with gravel or Dense, well graded 1:0.8 – 1:1.2 1:1.0 – 1:1.5
rock Loose, poorly graded 1:1.0 – 1:1.5 1:1.5 – 1:2
Cohesive soil 1:1.0 – 1:1.2 (3)
Cohesive soil, Mixed with rock or cobbles 1:1.0 – 1:1.2 1:1.2 – 1:1.5 (3)
Notes (1): Rock slope angles may be governed to a large extent by interacting discontinuities (joints, bedding, faults). (2) Residual
soils may contain relict structure that influences stability (3) Slopes will require special investigation or comparison with existing
earthwork stability
As Table 10.2 indicates, cuttings in strong homogenous rock masses can often be very steep where adverse
structure is not present although, persistent joint, bedding or foliation surfaces may determine the final cut
slope profile. In heterogeneous slopes, where both weak and hard rock occur, the appropriate cut-slope
angle can be determined on the basis of the location, nature and structure of the different materials and the
variations in permeability between the different horizons (Harber et al, 2011).
One of the most effective ways to decide upon a suitable cut slope is to survey existing cuttings in similar
materials along other roads or natural exposures in the surrounding areas. Generally, new cuttings can be
formed at the same slope as stable existing cuttings if they are in the same material with the same overall
structure (Cook et al, 1992).
Benched slopes are generally used in deeper cuts (>10m) or where layered soil rock profiles are encountered.
The construction of benches should be considered as a means to intercept falling debris and control the flow
of water. Berms are commonly provided at every 5-10m height of a slope or, if possible, at material

SECTION B: DESIGN
boundaries and changes of slope angle. If land-take is available, then a bottom berm is advantageous beneath
erodible slopes to prevent debris continually falling on the carriageway or side ditch (ICIMOD, 1992).
There is no hard rule regarding the dimension of benches, but bench widths of 1.5 to 2.0m are common with
a bench drain and cross-sectional slope of up to 5% (Figure 10.3). In weaker materials the water should be
encouraged to drain along the bench to a discharge point rather than over it. Maintenance of these drains is
important to prevent water accumulating on the bench.
Figure 10.3 Schematic Cut Profile
10.4 Embankment Design

Embankment design has to take into account two key elements; the character of the available fill materials
and geotechnical nature of the foundations. Embankment slopes and cross sections should be designed also
taking account the geometric alignment requirements and terrain.
Embankments impose a load on the underlying foundation soil. On some soils, this may result in settlements
and, if the foundation soil is extremely weak, an embankment slip failure may occur. The settlement
characteristics of soil profiles vary considerably from minimal-problem well-drained granular soils to
geotechnical difficult soft clay or organic soils.
Most types of soil and broken rock can be used for construction of embankments, but materials of the
AASHTO classification A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 are preferred (USDI,1998). More plastic materials may create
problems in wet weather. Highly expansive clays and organic soils should not be used as fill. Typical angles
for embankment fill on sound foundations are presented in Table 10.3.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.3 Suggested Fill Slope Gradients
Embankment Side-slope (V:H) for Various Heights

Fill materials
5m 5-10m 10-15m 15-20m
Well graded sand, gravels, sandy or silty gravels 1:1.5 – 1:1.8 1:1.8 – 1:2.0
Poorly graded sand 1:1.8 – 1:2.0
Weathered rock spoil 1:1.5 – 1:1.8 1:1.8 – 1:2.0
Sandy soils, hard clayey soil and hard clay 1:1.5 – 1:1.8 1:1.8 – 1:2.0 --
Soft clayey soils 1:1.8 – 1:2.0 - --

Note: Derived from regional experience based on Ingles, 1985.
For embankments > 5-10m in height or on steep sidelong ground, detailed geotechnical investigation and
analysis may be required. The overall stability of a fill slope on a hillside may be difficult to assess. Before
constructing a fill slope on side-long ground, it is necessary to terrace or step the formation in order to
prevent a possible slip surface from developing at the interface between the fill and the natural ground.
Problems can occur when strata or foliations in the rock masses beneath the fill are dipping parallel to the
ground slope, or where the groundwater table is at or very close to the surface. Effective sub-surface drainage
is a key requirement in such cases.
10.4.2 Soft Soils Foundations

The aim of the embankment designer should be to ensure that any settlement should be complete prior to
the placement of the road pavement. In the case of problem soils this may require the use of special
construction techniques. LVRR designs in the coastal regions of Myanmar can benefit from recent research
in Bangladesh (Mott Macdonald, 2017) which, building on work in Indonesia (WSP, 2001), identified a range
of techniques from the literature review, and discussions with local stakeholders:
§ Excavate and Replace / Displacement

§ Sand Compaction Pile
§ Sand Drain (with surcharge)
§ Prefabricated Vertical Drains (with surcharge)
§ Geotextile basal reinforcement
§ Cement Columns.
The constrained budgets of most LVRR programmes in Myanmar demands that the most geotechnical
attractive solutions listed above may have to be rejected on cost grounds in favour of more pragmatic
options. For embankments founded on soft soils the most usual design option in low-cost road engineering
is excavation down to satisfactory strength materials where possible. Where this is not feasible then detailed
geotechnical analysis will be required. Low-cost options for designing and constructing embankments on
weak or problem spoils for LVRRs are outlined in Table 10.4.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.4 Low Cost Options for Embankment on Soft Ground
Technique Application
Replacement The weak or problem soil is removed, either partly or completely, and replaced by more suitable
material. The embankment will then be founded on firmer ground and settlement will be greatly
reduced. Granular free draining material (sand, gravel or a mixture of sand and gravel) should be used
as fill material when filling is to be done below water. Acceptable cohesive soil can be used when the
excavation is dry and the fill material can be compacted in lifts as normally specified.
In partial excavation a layer of free draining material may be required as a drainage blanket at the base
of the fill to speed up consolidation of the remaining soft layer during construction. The economic limits
to full removal would be around 3-4 m.
Counterweight berms The principle of counterweight berms is to add weight to the toe of the embankment to increase the
resistance against slip or lateral spreading. When used in front of an approach fill to a bridge this
method will increase stability thus reducing lateral pressure on the substructure. This option is very
effective in solving stability problems with soft soils but will not solve the long-term settlement
problem that may be particularly associated with organic materials.
Surcharging Surcharging involves placing temporary additional load onto the proposed embankment to increase
primary settlement. The load applied should be sufficient that the settlement during the construction
period is equal to the total expected settlement from the embankment less the allowable post
construction settlement. When the desired settlement has been achieved the surcharge is removed.
The effectiveness of this method depends on the following factors:
• Thickness of the soft soil;
• Permeability of the soft soil;
• The presence of drainage layers;
• Available construction time;
• Shear strength of the soft soil.
Staged construction: As consolidation progresses in the soft soil under the embankment load, the void ratio in the subsoil
decreases and. hence, density increases and the undrained strength increase and increase in shear
strength of the subsoil is a function of the degree of consolidation. Therefore, the rate of filling can be
controlled to allow sufficient consolidation to provide the required strength increase. This method
should be considered when the design height of the embankment exceeds the critical height that can
be safely supported by the subsoil.
Use of light material The stability and amount of settlement of road embankments constructed on soft soil depend on the
weight of the embankment; therefore, reducing the weight of the embankment will reduce stress in
the subsoil and reduce excessive settlement and instability. By using lighter fill material than ordinary
fill the weight of embankment will be reduced.
10.4.3 Expansive Soils

Expansive soils are those which exhibit particularly large volumetric changes (swell and shrinkage) following
variations in moisture contents. Expansive soils can be thick and laterally widespread which makes the
implementation of countermeasures costly, particularly for LVRRs. Any such measures for dealing with such
soils need to strike a balance between the costs involved and the benefits to be derived over the design life
of the road. Traditional countermeasures (AfCAP, 2012) include the following:
1. Placing an uncompacted layer(s) of sand, gravel or rock fill over the clay and wetting up, either naturally
by precipitation or by irrigation.
2. Pre-wetting (2-3 months) to induce attainment of the equilibrium moisture content before constructing
the pavement.
3. Partially or completely removing the expansive soil and replacement with inert material.
4. Modifying or stabilizing the expansive soil with lime to change its properties.

SECTION B: DESIGN
5. Increasing the height of the fill (surcharge) to suppress heave.
6. Minimizing or preventing moisture change using waterproofing membranes
10.5 Cut to Fill

Cut-fill cross sections are a combination of excavation into hillside above the alignment and placement of the
excavated fill on the “down” side. Although the cut-fill option is attractive in terms of earthwork balance it
also a frequent cause of failure unless adequate design and construction precautions are adopted, Figure
10.4.
Vital requirements for an adequate cut to fill design are:
§ Suitable cut slope excavation;

§ Fill section key-in to natural slope;
§ Adequate drainage to prevent pore pressure build-up or lubrication of the cut-fill interface;
§ Specification for compaction of fill in layers and not simply dumped over the alignment edge;
§ Specification of complete removal of vegetation and organic material prior to construction;
§ Construction of embankments on loose spoil material derived from earlier excavations;
§ Prevention of erosion on slopes immediately below the embankment.
Figure 10.4 The Cut-Fill Situation
10.6 Slope Protection and Stabilisation
10.6.1 Earthwork and Natural Roadside Slope Instability

Roadside slope failures typically occur where a slope is too steep, a cut slope in soil and/or weathered rock
contains weak erodible materials or adverse joints, or fill material is not properly compacted. In all three
cases, the change in groundwater regime following rainfall can lead to an overall reduction in stability and
possibly failure. Once slope failures are initiated they can develop rapidly. Erosion can also take place on
unprotected earthworks as well as slopes adjacent to river channels, especially downstream of culverts,
bridges and roadside turnouts. In addition, uncontrolled runoff can erode the roadside drains, road pavement
and the edge of the road. Simple erosion occurrences can lead to larger slope failures if not dealt with.
Key references for the recommendations in the following sections are: Fookes et al, 1985; ICIMOD, 1992;
DoR, Nepal, 2007; Geological Society, 2011.

SECTION B: DESIGN
10.6.2 Instability Location and Types

Roadside instability may involve one or more of the following situations
§ Above alignment erosion or failure of cut-slopes;

§ Below alignment erosion or failure of embankment slopes;
§ Failure in natural ground;
§ Combinations of the above.
Table 10.5 and Figure 10.5 summarise common instability scenarios.
Table 10.5 Common Types of Erosion and Slope Failure
Mechanism Description Depth
Rills and gullies form in weak, unprotected surfaces. Most

Usually in the top 0.1 metre, but can
Erosion on the surface common on fill and tipped spoil. Erosion should be expected on
become deeper if not controlled.
all bare or freshly prepared slopes.
Erosion that is established on the slope continues to develop and
Usually in the top 0.5 metre, but can
Gully erosion grow bigger. Large gullies often have small landslides along the
become deeper if not controlled.
sides.
Mass slope failure on a shallow slip plane parallel to the surface.
Shear failure Frequently 0.5 metre or less below
This is the most common type of landslide, slip or debris fall. The
(translational surface (or along a local
plane of failure is usually visible but may not be straight,
landslide, planar or discontinuity) but may be several
depending on site conditions. It may occur on any scale, and large
debris slide) metres deep.
areas of subsidence may also be due to these.
Mass slope failure on a deep, curved slip plane, with the toe of
Shear failure the debris rising slightly. Some small, deep landslides in residual Often more than 1.5 metres deep,
(rotational landslide) soil are the result of this process, but generally they are not even in a small failure.
common.
Slumping or flow where material is poorly drained or has low
cohesion between particles and liquefaction is reached. These
Slumping or flow of
sometimes appear afterwards like planar slides, but are due to Frequently 0.5 metre or less below
material when very
flow rather than sliding. The resulting debris normally has a surface.
wet
rounded profile. They may occur on steeply cultivated land
following intense rainfall.
Collapse due to failure of the supporting material. This normally
Rock or debris fall or takes the form of a rock fall where there is a weakness or fracture 0.5 to 2 metres in road cuts; deeper
collapse in a rock mass, or where a weaker band of material has eroded to in natural cliffs.
undermine a harder band above.
In gullies and small, steep river channels (bed gradient usually
more than 15°), debris flows can occur following intensive rain
The flow depth is usually 1 to 2
Debris flow storms. This takes the form of a rapid but viscous flow of liquefied
metres deep.
mud and debris. The depositional area may cover a broad area
below the outlet of the channel.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 10.5 Typical Roadside Slope Failure Scenarios (After SEACAP, 2008)
Failure by undercutting of natural

slope
Failure in cut-slope
Shallow failure in cut-slope
Erosion of cut slope
surface
Surface erosion
leading to failure
Deep failure
River or
stream
erosion Failure in Fill
Failure in fill & natural
ground
Failure natural ground
10.6.3 General approaches

Slope stabilisation and erosion control can employ a range of methods to mitigate the causes of failure
together with measures to improve stability. In the case of LVRRs in particular, it is important to select
affordable methods that are relevant to the class of the road, the type of landslide, the materials involved
and the extent of the slope instability problem. Techniques commonly used to prevent the occurrence of
landslides and to stabilise the existing slope failures include modifying earthworks (cuts and fills), retaining
structures and revetments, surface and sub-soil drainage and bioengineering. Stabilisation methods that
involve more substantial engineering works include anchoring, piling and deep subsurface drainage, but
these are rarely used on low volume roads. For LVRRs, combinations of bioengineering, low cost retaining
walls such as gabions, dry-stone and mortared masonry walls, and surface drainage structures are a cost-
effective method to stabilise slopes, Figure 10.6, Table 10.6 and Table 10.7.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 10.6 General Stabilisation Options (Dept of Roads Nepal, 2007)
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√ Removal 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ Realignment 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
√ √ Earthwork 1 1 2 2 2 2
√ √ √ Drainage 2 1 1 1 1 2 1
√ √ √ Retaining wall 2 2 2 1 2 1 1
√ √ Revetment Wall 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
√ √ √ √ Bioengineering 2 2 2 2 1 2 1
√ Check Dams 1 1 2
√ √ Tied-back wall 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
√ √ Pile wall 2 1 1 1 2 2 1
√ Buttress 1 1 2 2
√ River Training 2 2 2 2 1
√ Anchors-Bolts 1 1 2 2 2
√ √ Catch works 2 2 2 2
√ √ Surface Protection 2 2 2 1
B,C D: Primarily Slope Stabilisation 1 Principal option to be considered for problem solution
A, E,F,G Slope protection, problem control 2 Secondary option

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.6 Stabilisation Options for Above the Road Problems
Instability Stabilisation options Drainage options Protection options

Bioengineering and drainage (Section 10.7) In most cases, bio-engineering is adequate, where
A cut-off drain above the cut slope can reduce water
Erosion of the cut slope gullies are long or slopes are very steep, small check
runoff; however, these are difficult to maintain and can
surface dams may be required; Sometimes a revetment wall at
contribute to instability if blocked or otherwise disturbed.
the toe helps to protect the side drain.
Reduce the slope grade and if this is feasible, then
A subsoil drain may be required behind a wall if there is Bio-engineering can be important to prevent surface
add erosion protection;
evidence of water seepage; erosion and increase the resistance of the surface soil.
Failures in cut slope A retaining wall to retain the sliding mass; For
Herringbone surface drains may be required if the slope Will have no effect on deeper failure prevention or
small sites where the failure is not expected to
drainage is impeded. stabilisation
continue, a revetment might be adequate.
Reduce the slope grade, and if this is feasible, Bio-engineering can be important to prevent surface
A subsoil drain may be required behind a wall if there is
then add protection. A retaining wall may be erosion and increase the resistance of the surface soil.
Failures in cut slope and hill evidence of water seepage;
required to retain the sliding mass. This may need Will have no effect on deeper failure prevention or
slope Herringbone surface drains may be required if the slope
to be quite large, depending on the depth of the stabilisation
drainage is impeded.
slip plane.
Reduce the slope grade, and if this is feasible, Bio-engineering can be important to prevent surface
A subsoil drain may be required behind a wall if there is
then add protection. A retaining wall to support erosion and increase the resistance of the surface soil.
Failures in hill slope but not evidence of water seepage;
the sliding mass, as long as foundations can be Will have no effect on deeper failure prevention or
cut slope Herringbone surface drains may be required if the slope
found that do not surcharge or threaten the cut stabilisation
drainage is impeded.
slope.
Consider re-alignment of road away from
Deep failure in the original
instability. If slow moving, short term option may Ensure road-side drainage is controlled. Bio-engineering will not be effective.
ground beneath the road
be to repave or gravel the road.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.7 Stabilisation Options for Below the Road Problems
Instability Stabilisation options Drainage options Protection options

Erosion of the fill slope
Bioengineering and drainage (Section 10.7) Ensure road-side drainage is controlled Bio-engineering a key option
surface
Re-grade or remove, replace and compact fill;

Bio-engineering can be important to prevent
Before replacing fill, cut steps in original ground
surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
Failures in fill slope to act as key between fill and original ground; Ensure road-side drainage is controlled
surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
A new road retaining. wall may be prevention or stabilisation.
the only option
Re-grade or remove, replace and compact fill; Bio-engineering can be important to prevent
Failure in fill slope and original Before replacing fill, cut steps in original ground surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
Ensure road-side drainage is controlled
valley slope to act as key between fill and original ground; surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
A new road retaining wall may be the only option. prevention or stabilisation
Bio-engineering can be important to prevent

Re-grade if sufficient space between road and
surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
Failure in original slope valley side; Ensure road-side drainage is controlled
surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
A new road retaining wall may be the only option. prevention or stabilisation
Slope protection (walls and rip-rap etc.) may be
Removal of support from May need extensive river training works to
None necessary – possible with additional
below by river erosion prevent further erosion.
bioengineering options

SECTION B: DESIGN
10.6.4 Earthwork drainage

Slope stability is greatly influenced by the movement of water; either by the erosive impacts of surface
water or the changes in pore pressure resulting from rainfall infiltration and concentration within the
slope mass. Water may decrease pore suction in the underlying soil and increase pore water pressure,
thereby reducing the effective stress and the stability of the slope. Hence, the construction of surface
and sub-surface drainage structures is vital to ensure that excess water can be intercepted and
conveyed to a safe location where it will not create further instability problems. (TRL, 1997, GEO, Hong
Kong 2000; DoR Nepal, 2007, see also Chapter 9)
Principal earthwork drainage options are summarised below,
Cut-off drains are used to reduce surface runoff at the crest of a cut slope or slope failure. In order to
reduce the likelihood of continuing slope movements breaching the drain, they are sometimes located
many tens of metres above the failure crest. The potential problem with cut-off drains is that unless
they are regularly maintained, they can create their own instability problem. It is not recommended
that cut-off drains be constructed unless regular maintenance can be assured.
Herringbone (or chevron) drains are constructed herringbone fashion on slope faces to collect surface
seepages and surface runoff. They are often quite shallow (about 1m deep), but can be much deeper.
Care needs to be taken to ensure that the construction of the drain does not lead to further instability,
and to ensure that the drain can still function in the event of minor downslope movements.
Counterfort drains are used to depress a high water-table. These drains are constructed at right angles
to the toe of the slope and are often dug to a depth of 3 metres or more at intervals of 3-10 metres
depending on the permeability of the subsoil.
Horizontal drains are used to intercept groundwater and seepage at depth. They require the use of
plastic pipes and specialist drilling equipment that may not always be available, and they are not easy
to install.
Lined channels or cascades are likely to be necessary if a watercourse or gully is a direct cause of the
instability in the first place. A lined channel may be necessary to divert an existing watercourse from
the failed area, or to train the watercourse within defined limits. The lining itself may be impermeable
(mortared masonry and/or concrete) or permeable (gabion). The structure may comprise cascades,
chutes and check dams. As a general rule, gabion structures are preferred since they are flexible and
allow water ingress provided they are located below the wet season groundwater table.
Check dams are necessary where undue scour would otherwise occur from the stream flow of water.
10.6.5 Retaining and Revetment walls

Retaining walls must be designed to withstand the pressure exerted by the retained material
attempting to move forward down the slope due to gravity. The lateral earth pressure behind the wall
depends on the angle of internal friction and the cohesive strength of the retained material. Lateral
earth pressures are smallest at the top of the wall and increase towards the bottom. The total
pressure may be assumed to be acting through the centroid of a triangular load distribution pattern,
one-third above the base of the wall. The wall must also withstand pressure due to material placed
on top of the fill behind the wall (“surcharge”).
Groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated also exerts a horizontal hydrostatic pressure on
the wall and must be considered in the design. Dissipation of ground water is normally achieved by
constructing horizontal drains behind the wall with weepholes.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 10.7 Typical LVRR Retaining Structures (DoR, Nepal, 207)
Figure 10.8 Typical LVRR Revetment Structures (2) (DoR, Nepal, 207)
Dry-stone walls are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. The stability
of the wall is provided by the interlocking of the stones. The great virtue of dry stone walls is that they
are free-draining. The durability of dry-stone walls depends on the quality and amount of the stone
available and the quality of the construction work. They are useful as revetments for erosion
protection and as a means of supporting soil against very shallow movement. Dry stone walls should
not exceed 5-6m in height.
As with dry stone walls, a mortared masonry wall design uses its own weight and base friction to
balance the effect of earth pressures. Masonry walls are brittle and cannot tolerate large settlements.
They are especially suited to uneven founding levels but perform equally well on a flat foundation.
Mortared masonry walls tend to be more expensive than other gravity wall options. If the wall

SECTION B: DESIGN
foundation is stepped along its length, movement joints should be provided at each change in wall
height so that any differential settlement does not cause uncontrolled cracking in the wall.
Mortared masonry walls require the construction of weep-holes to prevent build-up of water pressure
behind the wall. Weep holes should be of 75mm diameter and placed at 1.5m centres with a slope of
2% towards the front of the wall. A filter of lean concrete or geo-textile should be placed at the back
of the weep holes to permit free drainage of water.
Gabion walls are built from gabion baskets tied together. A gabion basket is made up of steel wire
mesh in a shape of rectangular box. It is strengthened at the corners by thicker wire and by mesh
diaphragm walls that divide it into compartments. The wire should be galvanized, and sometimes PVC
coated for greater durability. The baskets usually have a double twisted, appropriate size, hexagonal
mesh, which allows the gabion wall to deform without the box breaking or losing its strength.
Gabion walls are cost effective because they employ mainly locally available rock and local labour.
Gabion structures are commonly used for walls of up to 6m high, but are used in appropriate locations
up to 10m. Gabion walls are usually preferred where the foundation conditions are variable, the
retained soils are moist, and continued slope movements are anticipated.
Because of their inherent flexibility, they may not be preferred as retaining walls immediately below
and adjacent to rigid pavement roads due to the possibility of flexible movement of the wall and
subsequent pavement cracking. Where gabion walls are used to support a sealed road, care should be
taken to locate the base of the wall on a good foundation, in order to reduce the potential for
movement.
Gabion walls have the following advantages:
• Gabions can be easily stacked in different ways, with internal or external indentation to
improve the stability of the wall;
• They can accommodate some movement without rupture;
• They allow free drainage through the wall;
• The cross section can be varied to suit site conditions;
• They can take limited tensile stress to resist differential horizontal movement.
Their disadvantages include:
• Gabion walls need large spaces to fit the wall base (this base width normally occupies about
40% to 60% of the height of the wall);
• The high degree of permeability can result in a loss of fines through the wall;
• For road support retaining walls this can result in potentially problematic settlement behind
the wall, although this can be prevented by the use of a geo-textile (filter fabric) between the
wall and the backfill.
10.7 Bio-engineering
10.7.1 General
Bio-engineering can be broadly defined as the use of vegetation, either alone or in conjunction with
engineering structures, and non-living plant material, to reduce erosion and shallow-seated instability
on slopes. Table 10.8 contains key primary references on which this section is based and are which
are accessible for detailed guidance derived from recent research and practical application.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.8 Primary Bioengineering References
Reference Description
TRL 1997. ‘Principles of low-cost road engineering in Contain basic outline designs on bioengineering and
mountainous regions, with special reference to the associated “hard” engineering options.
Nepal Himalaya’, Overseas Road Note 16, Crowthorne:
Transport.
Howell, J. 1999. Roadside Bio-engineering: Site A comprehensive study of bio-engineering options in

Handbook and Reference Manual. Department of Roads, mountainous terrain Nepal
Kathmandu
SEACAP, 2008. Scott-Wilson for DFID and Ministry of A collection of manuals, documents and training materials
Public Works, Laos based on a DFID-funded South East Asian Community Access
Programme (SEACAP)
ADB, 2017. A series of documents prepared by ICEM ADB These include: Detailed design of bio-engineering options;
and for the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural guidance on their use; relative costs outline BoQ and a Final
Development (Vietnam) Report
In bio-engineering applications there is an element of slope stabilisation as well as slope protection in

which the principal advantages are:
§ Vegetation cover protects the soil against rain splash and erosion, and prevents the movement of
soil particles down slope under the action of gravity;
§ Vegetation increases the soil infiltration capacity, helping to reduce the volume of runoff;.
§ Plant roots bind the soil and can increase resistance to failure, especially in the case of loose,
disturbed soils and fills;
§ Plants transpire considerable quantities of water, reducing soil moisture and increasing soil
suction;
§ The root cylinder of trees holds up the slope above through buttressing and arching;
§ Tap roots or near vertical roots penetrate into the firmer stratum below and pin down the
overlying materials;
§ Surface run-off is slowed by stems and grass leaves.
In summary, vegetation is important in the control of erosion and shallow forms of instability (1-3m
depth at most). It is also important to appreciate that the beneficial effects may be insignificant under
extreme conditions of rainfall or drought.
10.7.2 Key factors

The main factors to be addressed when selecting the particular species for use in bio-engineering
works are as summarized as:
1. The plant must be of the right type to undertake the bio-engineering technique that is required.
The possible categories include:
- A grass that forms large clumps;

- A shrub or small tree that can be grown from woody cuttings;
- A shrub or small tree that can grow from seed in rocky sites;
- A tree that can be grown from a potted seedling;
- A large bamboo that forms clumps.

SECTION B: DESIGN
2. The plant must be capable of growing in the location of the site.
3. There is no single species or technique that can resolve all slope protection problems.
4. It is always advisable to use local species which don’t invade and harm the environment, and were
able to protect the slope from sliding in the past.
5. Large trees are suitable on slopes of less than 3H:2V or in the bottom 2m of slopes steeper than
3H:2V -maintaining a line of large trees at the base of a slope can help to buttress the slope and reduce
undercutting by streams.
6. Grasses that form dense clumps generally provide robust slope protection in areas where rainfall is
intense. They are usually best for erosion control, although most grasses cannot grow under the shade
of a tree canopy.
7. Shrubs (i.e. woody plants with multiple stems) can often grow from cuttings taken from their
branches; plants propagated by this method tend to produce a mass of fine, strong roots. These are
often better for soil reinforcement than the natural rooting systems developed from a seedling of the
same plant.
8. In most cases the establishment of full vegetation cover on unconsolidated fill slopes may take one
to two rainy seasons. Likewise, the establishment of full vegetation on undisturbed cut slopes in
residual soils and colluvial deposits may need 3 to 5 rainy periods. Less stony and more permeable
soils have faster plant growth rates, and drier locations have slower rates.
9. Plant roots cannot be expected to contribute to soil reinforcement below a depth of 500mm.
10. Plants cannot be expected to reduce soil moisture significantly at critical periods of intense and
prolonged rainfall.
11. Grazing by domestic animals can destroy plants if it occurs before they are properly grown. Once
established, plants are flexible and robust. They can recover from significant levels of damage (eg
flooding and debris deposition).
10.7.3 Preparation
Before bio-engineering treatments are applied, the site must be properly prepared. The surface should
be clean and firm, with no loose debris. It must be trimmed to a smooth profile, with no vertical or
overhanging areas. The object of trimming is to create a semi-stable slope with an even surface, as a
suitable foundation for subsequent works.
Trim soil and debris slopes to the final desired profile, with a slope angle of between 30° and 60°. (In
certain cases the angle will be steeper, but review this carefully in each case). Trim off excessively
steep sections of slope, whether at the top or bottom. In particular, avoid slopes with an over-steep
lower section, since a small failure at the toe can destabilise the whole slope above.
Remove all small protrusions and unstable large rocks. Eradicate indentations that make the
surrounding material unstable by trimming back the whole slope around them. If removing
indentations would cause an unacceptably large amount of work, excavate them carefully and build a
buttress wall. Remove all debris from the slope surface and toe to an approved tipping site. If there is
no toe wall, the entire finished slope must consist of undisturbed material.

SECTION B: DESIGN
10.7.4 Recommended techniques

Table 10.9 (ADB, 2017) provides the different types of bio-engineering techniques recommended for
various kinds of slopes and soil materials for both cut and fill situations. Particular plants species must
be selected that are compatible with the specific Myanmar environment.
The combination of “hard” low-cost engineering solutions and “soft” bioengineering options has been
recognised as an effective and sustainable means of slope protection and shallow failure stabilisation,
(TRL 1997), Figure 10.9.
Figure 10.9 Typical Combinations of Geotechnical and Bio-engineering Options (ADB, 2017)
a. Combined shrub line, fascine and grass protection b. Combined rip-rap and brush vegetation
combined with stone and gabion drainage. protection of roadside river embankment.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 10.9 Recommended general bio-engineering procedures
Slope Slope Material Moisture Existing/Potential

Mitigation Action Primary Techniques - Protection Secondary Techniques - Resilience
Angle Length Drainage Condition Problems
Armour, reinforce,
Damp Erosion, slumping Diagonal lines of grass planting Diagonal lines of grass planting
Good drain
Dry Erosion Armour, reinforce Contour lines of grass planting Contour lines of grass planting
>15m Surface slumping, Drain, armour, 1. Downslope grasslines & vegetated stone pitch rills or, None available – consider engineering
Damp
erosion reinforce 2. Chevron grass lines and vegetated stone pitched rills. options with good drainage.
Poor
Erosion, surface Armour, reinforce,
Dry Diagonal lines of grass planting Diagonal palisades at wide spacing
slumping drain
>400 1.Diagonal lines of grass planting, or
Good Any Erosion Armour, reinforce Diagonal palisades at wide spacing
2.Bamboo mesh and planted grass
None available – consider hard
Surface slumping, Drain, armour, 1.Downslope lines of large grass planting, or
Damp engineering options with good
<15m erosion reinforce 2. Diagonal lines of large or short grass planting
drainage.
Poor
1.Bamboo mesh and short grass, or
Erosion and Armour, reinforce,
Dry 2.Contour lines of large grass planting or Contour lines
surface slumping drain
3.Diagonal lines of large grass planting
Armour, reinforce, 1.Downslope grass lines & vegetated stone pitch rills, or
Good Any Erosion Live poles or truncheons
catch 2.Site planted grass, mulch and jute or bamboo mesh
>15m
Surface slumping, Drain, armour,
Poor Any Site-specific drainage and shrub/tree planting Nothing further required
erosion reinforce
1.Brush layers of wood cuttings, or Short grass planting between brush
300-450 Armour, reinforce, 2.Contour lines of grass planting, or layers and facines.
Good Any Erosion
catch 3.Contour facines, or 4.Palisades of wood cuttings, or
<15m 5.Large grass planting and jut or bamboo mesh Live poles between grass lines.
1.Diagonal large grass lines, or
Surface slumping, Drain, armour,
Poor Any 2.Diagonal brush layers, or Shrub or tree planting
erosion reinforce
3.Site-specific drainage and shrub/tree planting
Shrub or tree planting
Good Any Erosion Armour, catch Contour lines of large grass planting
Live poles or truncheons
<300 Any
Surface slumping, Shrub or tree planting
Poor Any Drain, armour, catch Diagonal lines of large grass planting
erosion Live poles or truncheons
Any Loose sand Good Any Erosion Armour Bamboo mesh and planted grass Live poles, truncheons
Erosion, surface
Any Laterite Poor Any Armour, drain Diagonal lines of grass and shrub/tree planting Nothing else
slumping
Armour, reinforce,
Any gully <450 Erosion 1. Live check dams or 2. vegetated stone pitching Nothing else
drain

SECTION B: DESIGN
References
Sudan.
Agostini R, 1987. Flexible Gabion Structures in Earth Retaining Works. Maccaferri, Bologna, Italy
Cook J R, Beaven P, & Rachlan A. 1992. Indonesian slope inventory studies. Proceedings of the 7th
Conference. Road Engineering Association. of Asia & Australasia, Singapore, 1992
Cruden D M, & Varnes D J, 1996. Landslides Types and Processes. Turner & Schuster: Landslides;
DoR, Nepal. 2007. Roadside Geotechnical Problems: A Practical Guide to their Solution. Dept of Roads, Gov.
of Nepal.
Fookes, P.G., Sweeney, M., Manby, C.N.D. & Martin, R.P. 1985. Geological and geotechnical engineering
aspects of low-cost roads in mountainous terrain. Engineering Geology, 21, 1–152.
GEO, Hong Kong, 2000. Highway Slope Manual. Geotechnical Control Office, Gov. of Hong Kong.
Geological Society, London, 2011 Slope. Engineering for Mountain Roads. Engineering Geology Special
Publications 24. Hearn G, Ed.
Harber A J, Nettleton I M, Matheson G D, McMillan P, & Butler A J, 2011. Rock Engineering Guides to Good
Practice: Road Rock Slope Excavation. TRL Project Report, PPR556. TRL Ltd for Transport Scotland.
ICIMOD, 1991. Mountain Risk Engineering Handbook. II Application. International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development, Nepal.
Ingles O. 1985. Translation of Japanese highway design manual, part 1: earthworks. ARRB Research Report
51.
Investigation and Mitigation, Special Report 247, TRB, Washington
Mott MacDonald, 2017. Ground Improvement for Khulna Soft Clay Soil. Final Report. Research for
Community Access (ReCAP) report. Reference BAN2083A, for UKAID-DFID
Parsons A W, 1992. Compaction of Soils and Granular Materials, A Review of Research at the Transport
Research Laboratory. HMSO.
Parsons, A.W. (1992) Compaction of soils and granular materials, TRL State of the Art Review, London: H.M.
Stationery Office.
Pettifer G S and Fookes P, 1994. A revision of the graphical method for assessing the excavatability of rock.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 27, 145-164,
Rolt J, Gourley C S, Hayes J P, 2002. Rational drainage of road pavements. TRL Report for DFID
PR/INT/244/2002.
Roughton International, 2000. Guidelines on borrow pit management for low cost roads. DFID KaR Project
Report (Ref. R6852).
SEACAP, 2008. Slope Maintenance Site Handbook. SEACAP 21 Report to Ministry of Public Work and
Transport, Lao PDR.
TRL (1997) ‘Principles of low cost road engineering in mountainous regions, with special reference to the
Nepal Himalaya’, Overseas Road Note 16, Crowthorne: Transport.
U.S. Dept of Interior (UDSI), 1998. Earth Manual, 3Rd Edn. Bureau of Reclamation
WSPI, 2002. Indonesian, 1. Road Embankments on Soft Soils Geoguide 1, Occurrence & General Nature of
Soft Soils. For Institute of Road Engineering, Government of Indonesia.

SECTION B: DESIGN
11 Design Process
11.1 Introduction
Previous chapters in this manual have presented guidance on the detail of design processes and procedures;
this chapter aims to place these actions in the context of the Project Cycle. These actions are described in a
series of diagrams and check lists that provide a clear pathway for road engineers at central, state, region
and township to follow. The flowcharts and check lists are linked to specific sections in the previous chapters.
11.2 The Project Cycle for LVRRs

Most of the features of a LVRR project can be related to the need to take a series of important decisions and
consequent actions during the life of the project. These decisions must be taken in a particular sequence.
The result of each decision has a major influence on the form of the next part of the project preparation
process.
The increasing cost of each successive stage of the process means that it is very important to review the
process at each stage and to make a clear decision whether the next stage of the process is justified. Major
decisions on whether, or not, to continue with project preparation is made at the end of each stage. As the
cost of each successive stage is many times greater than that of the previous stage, the importance of the
decision and the amount of information needed to make it, increases at each stage.
11.3 The Pre-feasibility or Planning Stage

In general terms, this is the stage at which the overall project and its strategic objects are determined,
potential budgets are defined, and strategic financial and broad engineering risks are identified. This process
takes into account government policies and programmes that impact on road development which is,
therefore, examined in a very wide socio-economic and policy-orientated context. There will normally be an
initial assessment of the project against previously defined criteria. Projects that do not meet selection
criteria are screened out or modified.
This is the stage when the general road tasks to be met are defined. The identification of whether, or not,
the likely road falls within the LVRR envelope is crucial decision at this stage.
Design, construction and maintenance decisions will impact cross-sectorially and on local communities and
other sector activities, e.g. agriculture, water, health, and education, as well as commercial activities such as
local transporters, suppliers and traders. Consideration of these impacts and consultation with other
ministries and stakeholders at this early stage will help mobilise support and maximise the beneficial impacts
of the road works.
Figure 11.1 presents a general flow chart for this project phase, Figure 11.2 provides a check list of key actions
and Table 11.1 provides cross referencing to the other sections within this Manual.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 11.1 General Pre-Feasibility Flow Chart (Cook et al, 2013)
Initial assessment of
Assessment of budget
available resources and
availability
road environment
Are the budget and

Outline project need Outline general scope of
Potential LVRR other natural and human
interms of road tesk to LVRR requirements to meet
project identified resources compatible
be aimed at. Yes project need
with the general project
requirements ?
No

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 11.2 Check List of Pre-Feasibility Actions and Outputs
Input to Prefeasibility Stage

Project Location defined with possible alternative alignments
Project aim defined. New alignment/Upgrade/rehabilitation/spot improvement
Indicative outline budget
Prefeasibility Stage Actions

Initial visits to alignment
Climate, general character and probable level of resilience
Identify requirement for major bridges
Prefeasibility Stage Outputs

Pre-feasibility Report, highlighting key issues and any potential problems
Location defined with possible alternative alignments
Project aim defined, upgrade/rehabilitation/spot improvement
Identify potential large scale natural hazards or geotechnical/materials issues
Climate: general character and probable level of resilience
Probable pavement styles- unsealed/sealed/spot improvement
Identify major bridge sites
Initial economic assessment
Establish liaison with local communities
Initial listing of Complementary Interventions
Prefeasibility Stage Decisions
Project should proceed to Feasibility Study

Project should proceed Feasibility Study with strategic modifications
Project should not proceed

SECTION B: DESIGN
Table 11.1 Key References in Manual

Pre-feasibility Action Reference
Initial desk study Section 5.3.1, Table 5.2
Road task, classification and general standards Identify the relevant standards and specifications Section 2.4.2
Initial visits to alignment Drive over; Section 5.3.2
Climate character and level of resilience to be designed for Regional climate pattern and identification of data sources
Section 4.2
Identify requirement for major bridges General requirements, Section 9.2
11.4 The Feasibility Stage

In the context of the overall project this is the stage where a more detailed economic and engineering
assessment is made and the main engineering problems and any other issues affecting the route are
identified.
In the context of this manual the feasibility stage of a rural road project assumes that a need has been
identified and that the solution to the need falls within the LVRR envelope. In general terms, the Feasibility
Stage assesses paving, earthwork, drainage and bridge options and identifies those most likely to provide a
sustainable solution within the governing road environment and within the expected budgets. This is
generally seen as a critical stage by road authorities and external funders and donors such as the World Bank,
ADB or JICA. Relevant Ministry or DRRD planners and Consultants are normally closely involved at this stage.
As part of the feasibility study it is important to identify and investigate the major technical, environmental,
financial, economic and social constraints in order to obtain a broad appreciation of the viability of the
competing options. For low volume roads, one of the most important aspects of the feasibility study is
communication with the people who will be affected by the road.
An assessment of available resources is generally required both to confirm the feasibility of a proposed LVRR
and to identify sustainable and appropriate strategic design options within a sustainable framework.
As noted in Chapter 8, the appropriate use of locally available materials is a key issue in cost-effective LVRR
design and construction. Information on the performance of materials from sources which have been used
for existing roads would be very useful at this stage. Particularly important would be knowledge of any
potential problems with existing sources. If there are no existing materials sources then more detailed
materials exploration investigations need to be initiated
At feasibility stage, sufficient data is required to identify the most suitable options appropriate to the
particular road requirements. Data are generally required that are sufficient to obtain likely costs to an
accuracy (of at least) ±25%.
Figure 11.3 presents general flow chart for this project phase, Figure 11.4 summaries check list of key actions
and Table 11.2 provides comment and cross referencing to the other sections within this Manual.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 11.3 General Feasibility Flow Chart (Cooke et al, 2013)
Road Task &

Geometric Yes
Standards Preliminary
Designs
Select short list of Social, environmental,

Existing standard designs for alternative design options climate and economic
Available Whole pavement, earthworks, drainage Ranked Design
No for pavements, assessment of options -
Life Budget and structures are applicable Options
earthworks, drainage and including whole life cost
structures . comparisons
Initial Road
Review Potential Spot
Environment Data
Improvement options Preliminary
sets from
With Spot together with initial Costs
Investigations
Improvement screening for cost and
priority.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 11.4 Check List of Feasibility Actions and Outputs
Input to Feasibility Stage

A decision to proceed with a Feasibility Study for a road project that has been
defined in terms of corridor location and task (or purpose).
Feasibility Stage Actions

Desk study to review available information relevant to preliminary design
Preliminary ground a and materials investigations
Walkover survey of alignment to identify general character, areas of potential
hazard and climate vulnerability
Define the key aspects of the Road Environment
Identify locations for stream and river crossing
Undertake an assessment of traffic in terms of vehicle numbers and type
Detailed economic assessment
Feasibility Stage Outputs

Feasibility Report, preliminary design and costs and ecomomic assessment
Information sources identified and listed
Geotechnical and climate resilience hazards identified
Potential materials resources identified
Environmental issues identified
Potential alignment issues defined
Standards to be used defined
Pavement options identified
Bridge sites defined
Liaison with local communities on safeguard issues
Complimentary Interventions defined and costed
Feasibility Stage Decisions

Project should proceed to Final Design Stage
Project should proceed Final Design Stage only after key amendments
Project should not proceed
Funding sources defined

SECTION B: DESIGN

Feasibility Action Reference
Desk study to review available information relevant to preliminary Section 5.3.1, Table 5.2
design
Preliminary ground a and materials investigations General Table 5.4; Materials, Section 8.3; details Annex IV
Walkover survey of alignment to identify general character, areas Walkover, Section, Table 5.3 and associated forms Annex
of potential hazard and climate vulnerability IV; climate Section 5.3.5,
Define the key aspects of the Road Environment Road environment impacts in general; Chapter 4.
Identify locations for stream and river crossing Structures 5.3.6, Section 9.2, Table 9.5
Undertake an assessment of traffic in terms of vehicle numbers and Initial survey, Section 5.3.3 and detailed procedures and
type forms in Annex I
11.5 The Final Engineering Design (FED) Stage

The FED stage requires sufficient data for preparation of the contract documents including technical
specifications and Bills of Quantities. Final detailed cost estimation is also likely to be required. The FED stage
requires more investigation and considerably more data (than the previous stages, as explained above). The
entire process of project design should now be completed with sufficient accuracy to minimise the risk of
changes being required after the works contract has been awarded.
For the particular case of the pavement and surfacing elements, the FED stage incorporates the Phase I
(Options Selection) outcomes into the Phase II detailed designed procedures. This will include the design and
specification of the pavement structural layers and any overlying surfacings together with associated
shoulders and pavement drainage.
Feasibility assumptions on traffic patterns should be cross-checked and, if required, additional surveys
undertaken aimed specifically at obtaining data for each vehicle category and axle loading for the pavement
layer design. Risks of likely axle-overloading should be pragmatically assessed.
Sources of material should now be defined in terms of location, quality and quantity such that it is clearly
established that the road or roads can be built to the required specification with the available materials.
Source, haulage, processing and placement costs need to be investigated and any inflation factors
considered.
Climatic patterns and the incidence of severe climatic events should be confirmed. The levels of Climate
Resilience that may be required should be defined
Data are generally required that are sufficient to obtain likely costs to an accuracy of better than about ±10%.
Figure 11.5 presents a typical FED flow chart, in this case using pavement design as an example, Figure 11.6
summaries check list of general key actions and Table 11.3 provides comment and cross referencing to the
other sections within this Manual.

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 11.5 Pavement FED General Flow Chart
Detailed traffic Sub-grade strength Final road environment

information data detail
Selected pavement and

surfacing options: Whole Pavement and Final assessment of
Length Design surfacing designs specific technical
specification and materials Contract drawings,
requirements for as- specifications and
designed pavements and Bills of Quantity
surfacing
Selected pavement and Spot definition &
surfacing options: Spot pavement and
Improvement surfacing designs
Detailed traffic Sub-grade strength Spot selection & road

information data environment detail

SECTION B: DESIGN
Figure 11.6 Check List of FED Actions and Outputs
Input to Final Engineering Design

Alignment defined
Funding sources agreed
Preliminary design and BoQ
Final Design Stage Actions

Undertake detailed ground investigations
Undertake detailed materials investigations
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Pavement
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Earthworks
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Drainage
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Structures
Final climate resilience applications
Agree procurement arrangements and draft documents
Finalise quantities and costs
Final Design Stage Outputs

FED and Report, including the following:
Technical specifications
Detailed road designs and drawings including cross and longitudinal sections
Materials usage plan (haul diagrams)
Drawingsl for earthworks protection or stabilisation
Drawings for climate resilience works
BoQ and Engineers Estimate cost
Environmental safeguard plans
Technical Audit procedure agreed
Supervision guidelines
Complimentray Interventions.
FED Stage Decisions
Project should proceed to procurement

Assessment of procurement

SECTION B: DESIGN

Pre-feasibility Action Reference
Undertake detailed ground investigations Chapter 5 with detail in Annex IV. Tables
Undertake detailed materials investigations Chapter 8, laboratory testing Annex II; marginal materials Annex
III
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Pavement Unpaved Section 7.7, sealed Section 7.8 and 7.9, non-
bituminous paved Section 7.10:
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Earthworks Sections 10.2, 10.3, and 10.4, Tables 10.1 and 10.2
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Drainage Earthwork; section 10.5.4;
Final Engineering Designs (FED) Structures Sections 9.2,5, 9.2.6, 9.2.7 and 9.3 in general.
Final climate resilience applications Sections 9.4; 10.6
Agree procurement arrangements and draft documents Section 12.3. Contractors capable of undertaking the works
should be identified and any required training programmes for
local contractors or labour-based organisations must be defined

SECTION B: DESIGN
References
Cook J R, Petts R C, Rolt J. 2013. Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements: A Guide to Good Practice.
Research Report for AfCAP and DFID

SECTION C: IMPLEMENTATION
Contents
SECTION C: IMPLEMENTATION .............................................................................................................................12-1
12 Construction ............................................................................................................................................12-4
12.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 12-4
12.2 General Principles............................................................................................................................................. 12-4
12.3 Documentation................................................................................................................................................. 12-4
12.4 Planning ............................................................................................................................................................ 12-6
12.5 Appropriate Technology ................................................................................................................................... 12-7
12.6 Quality Management........................................................................................................................................ 12-8
12.7 Environmental Management.......................................................................................................................... 12-12
13 Asset Management ................................................................................................................................ 13-14
13.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 13-14
13.2 Management .................................................................................................................................................. 13-16
13.3 Maintenance Operations ................................................................................................................................ 13-21
13.4 Capacity Building ............................................................................................................................................ 13-25
13.5 Data requirements and Analysis Procedures ................................................................................................. 13-25
14 Technical Audit....................................................................................................................................... 14-32
14.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 14-32
14.2 Technical Audit Framework ............................................................................................................................ 14-32
14.3 The Technical Audit Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 14-33
14.4 Key Data ......................................................................................................................................................... 14-36
14.5 Assessment of Audit Results and Compliance ................................................................................................ 14-38
14.6 Audit Reporting .............................................................................................................................................. 14-38
Tables
Table 12.1 Supervision Testing ................................................................................................................................ 12-10
Table 12.2 Typical Supervision Test Spacing ........................................................................................................... 12-11
Table 13.1 Key Questions to Develop & Coordinate Asset Management ............................................................... 13-16
Table 13.2 Maturity Level Description, Asset Management ................................................................................... 13-19
Table 13.3 Maturity Level Description, Asset Management ................................................................................... 13-23
Table 13.4 Typical Data Analyses ............................................................................................................................ 13-27
Table 14.1 Technical Audit Phases .......................................................................................................................... 14-33
Table 14.2 Levels of Post Construction Audit .......................................................................................................... 14-36

Figures
Figure 12.1 Climate Impacts During Construction.................................................................................................. 12-6
Figure 12.2 Locally based Construction Technology .............................................................................................. 12-7
Figure 12.3 Slump and Hammer Testing .............................................................................................................. 12-10
Figure 13.1 Road asset management system – Case Study Thailand ................................................................... 13-21
Figure 13.2 Summary of Overall Planning & Budgeting Framewok ..................................................................... 13-29
Figure 13.3 Main Android App Screen ................................................................................................................. 13-29
Figure 14.1 Test Pit ............................................................................................................................................... 14-37

12 Construction
12.1 Introduction
The construction of a LVRR is the outcome of the planning, investigation and design phases of the project
cycle. The aim is the construction of a road (or roads) as specified in the contract documents with
appropriate levels of supervision and quality control such that the roads are capable of being maintained to
acceptable performance levels throughout their design life (Cook et al, 2013).
This chapter outlines key principles guiding the planning and general implementation of LVRR construction
programmes. It does not provide detailed guidance on the procedures for LVRR construction which should
be contained in a Myanmar LVRR Construction Manual as a complement to this LVRR Design Manual.
Typical examples of detailed construction guidance may be found in SEACAP (2006), SDAC (2003) and
SANRAL (2013a, b, c).
12.2 General Principles

The quality of the road construction process is critical as it can impact directly on the performance and the
subsequent costs of maintaining the road. Whatever construction strategy is adopted, the ultimate goal of
all stakeholders should be to make optimal use of the available resources to meet the prescribed designs in
the most efficient and effective manner. Any apparent savings made during construction through poor
adherence to the specifications are likely to be paid for many times over during the life of the road through
additional maintenance and road user costs (Intech-TRL, 2006a).
Good practice “Fit for Purpose” construction procedures should be compatible with the local road
environment. This may require modification of the conventional construction management techniques, and
engineering procedures normally used for the construction of major, high-volume roads (Intech-TRL,
2006b). Variations can be considerable as regards to the choice of construction method, type of resources
available and type of construction materials being used. Within the context of good construction practice,
technologies for constructing rural roads should in particular:
§ Respond to appropriate contract documentation;

§ Utilise appropriate equipment technology options and reduce reliance on heavy equipment imports
where feasible and cost-effective;
§ Promote road construction technologies that create local employment and enterprise opportunities;
§ Use contract models that support the development of domestic contractors and consultants;
§ Take into account threats posed by climate in construction planning and recognise potential impacts on
construction;
§ Include an as-built survey as part of the completion certification.
12.3 Documentation
12.3.1 Contract Documents

Conventional Bill of Quantities (BoQ) based contracts are likely to be those most applied to LVRR
programmes in Myanmar under DRRD. In this process the contractor prices the tender with the knowledge
of what is required and how to achieve those requirements. The client (DRRD) has systems and resources,
such as consulting engineers, in place to ensure that the contractor achieves these desired requirements
during construction, in the knowledge that if these are achieved, the project will be successful. Core
documentation for these contracts is likely to comprise:

§ Conditions of Contract
§ General Specifications
§ Detailed Technical Specifications
§ An environmental and Social Impact Assessment
§ Bills of Quantity
§ Drawings
Alternative contracting options that could be utilised by DRRD include:

Design and Construct: This involves a contractor employing a designer to design the project to meet the
intended purpose defined by the Client (DRRD). The technical contract documents need only specify the
intended purpose of the project and any related performance requirements. (SANRAL, 2013a) The
contractor’s team then design the asset to suit the contractors own capabilities, and to meet the
performance requirements. This form of contract is unlikely to be suited to small LVRR contractors in
Myanmar, although there are some specialist situations where it could be considered (with experienced
contractors): for example, difficult bridge sites, or road alignments in steep mountainous terrain where
ground conditions are highly unpredictable.
Output and Performance-Based Road Contract: In this model, responsibility for design, initial construction
of the road, together with ongoing maintenance and improvement work is outsourced to the contractor, it
is normally called OPRC (Output and Performance-Based Road Contract). In the OPRC model, the contractor
is responsible for the initial construction or rehabilitation of the road. The contractor has to partly pre-
finance this rehabilitation and he will be paid a monthly sum for the initial rehabilitation and a monthly sum
for maintenance the following years (Gericke et al, 2015). The advantage of the OPRC model is that the
contractor has an incentive to undertake efficient planning and good quality works in the initial work on the
road, since he will have to maintain the road for a number of years, usually 5 years or more. It also reduces
the workload for the road authority, since planning and design responsibility is outsourced to the
contractor. The disadvantages are the need for experienced contractors and Clients and a revised
framework of contract and financial regulation. Although this model is being championed by funding
agencies for larger road projects it, ir carries with it significant challenges unless all contract parties are fully
aware of their responsibilities and their levels of risk (Silva M M et al, 2011).
Lump Sum Contract: Under a lump sum contract, a single ‘lump sum’ price for all the works is agreed before
the works begin. It is defined as a fixed price contract, where the contractors agrees to execute
the works for a stated total sum of money. Lump sum contracts are generally appropriate where
the project scope of works, (and quantities), are well defined when the tenders are sought and significant
changes to requirements are unlikely. This means that the contractor is able to
accurately price the works they are being asked to carry out.
The main advantage to the client is that the overall price is known in advance. However if the contractor
feels that the scope of works provided by the client is not very clear then the contractor may provide a
higher price, to cover any potential risks. Depending on the scope of works and project duration the
agreed payment system could be one payment when the works are completed or staged payments, (say
monthly), based on percentage of work completed against an agreed Implementation programme.
12.3.2 Technical Specifications

Whatever contracting mechanism is employed, appropriate and realistic technical specifications and
construction drawings are an essential pre-requisite for successful construction. Ideally, specifications
should be concise and capable of being clearly understood by the contractors and supervisors alike. LVRR
projects in Myanmar should be able to draw-down from a comprehensive DRRD list of technical
specifications for a wide range of conventional and innovative pavement, earthwork, drainage and
structural operations.
Some new procedural options are likely to be best controlled by a tightly overseen method specification
approach. This is particularly true of operations where control testing may involve significant delays, e.g.
concrete surfaces and lime or cement stabilisation (Intech-TRL, 2006b).

12.4 Planning
12.4.1 Construction Programming

Contractors should be required to prepare a clear programme and related method statement. This
programme as well as defining contract-compliant construction procedures together with necessary plant
and manpower should include statements as to how the potential impacts of climate are to be mitigated. In
contrast, cost savings can be made where timing of the construction operations can be seasonally
programmed to suit favourable weather conditions.
The impact of severe climate events on partially constructed road pavements and earthworks can be
devastating. Key points to note:
§ Major earthworks and pavement compaction/sealing should not be undertaken during monsoon
seasons;
§ Earthwork and pavement drainage must be in place prior to monsoon seasons;
§ Temporary works (bypasses, bridges) must be appropriately climate resilient.
Figure 12.1 Climate Impacts During Construction
Earthworks without drainage or support prior to monsoon Temporary diversion bridge destroyed by tropical storm floods,
season, Vietnam. Laos PDR
One particular point to emphasise when planning material haulage for road pavements intended for only
light commercial traffic is that the movements of heavy construction trucks must be limited and avoided as
much as possible. This can be achieved by “back-dumping” construction materials for each pavement layer
and by being especially cautious when building the capping layer over weak natural subgrades. Back-
dumping is a construction process where heavy construction equipment does not unnecessarily travel on
the uncompleted or unprotected construction layer (Roughton International 2000).
12.4.2 Capacity Building

When using local community or casual labour from the location of the works, it is essential that the
foremen are trained to identify, train-up and mentor the unskilled labour (Bentall et al 1999). This can be
much cheaper than importing and housing experienced labour for the duration of the works.
A number of capacity issues are likely to require attention during the construction phase of the cycle
(Intech-TRL, 2006a):
1. Small scale local contractors are generally not used to following technical specifications closely and may
require a combination of easy-to-follow guidelines, training and initial close supervision, especially for
newly introduced options.
2. There can be a general initial resistance to new procedures, with many contractors tending to use locally
established practice as default procedures without reference to contract specifications.

3. The role of site supervisors in controlling the contractors’ procedures and material usage is not
universally accepted in the rural road sector in S E Asia. Current practice appears to be concerned largely
with observation and reporting of progress rather than technical control.
4. There are potential difficulties with supervisors being unable to exert influence on the contractors to
abide by specifications and the unwillingness of contractors to heed advice from supervisors.
5. Contractor performance and progress may be inhibited by severe cash-flow difficulties, which are not
helped by unrealistic delays in processing agreed payment certificates. This may partly explain the
reluctance to consider the plant-hire and labour based options.
6. Small Scale contractors may be reluctant to invest in supervisor and labour training for new techniques
if there is little prospect of continuity for such works.
The above issues highlight the need for appropriate training and guidance on construction and construction
supervision in conjunction with the implementation of a LVRR Construction Manual.
12.5 Appropriate Technology
12.5.1 Construction Methodology

Road works can be carried out through a range of methods using various mixes of labour and equipment.
These methods can be grouped as follows:
1. Labour-intensive ; use of labour for all activities, including only unpowered hand tools,
2. Labour-based;– use of labour for most activities, but utilising equipment for specific activities where it is
more cost-effective; e.g. haulage and compaction,
3. Intermediate technology; labour based, as above, but supplemented by the use of low capital cost
intermediate equipment such as agricultural tractors and simple locally manufactured equipment.
4. Equipment-based – predominant use of specialised civil engineering equipment designed for high
output, single activity applications (sometimes called ‘equipment-intensive’, ‘heavy equipment’ or
‘capital-intensive’).
Figure 12.2 Locally based Construction Technology
Labour-based construction of cobble road Use of agricultural machinery in mixing of lime

Photo J Cook and local soil for LVRR stabilised base layer.
Photo J Cook
The aim should be to use the most suitable mixture of labour and equipment in a given social, technical and
economic context. An appropriate intermediate technology-based approach is the general model applied
in most regions of Myanmar. A number of activities are well suited to labour-based methods such as site

clearance/bush clearing and ditch excavation while other activities, such as compaction of pavement layers
or haulage of materials over long distances, are not.
12.5.2 Appropriate Equipment

There is now a very viable and effective alternative to having to rely on the use of heavy/expensive
equipment, or solely on labour-based methods. Proven technology and methods designed principally
around affordable agricultural tractors and intermediate equipment ensure that local contractors, with the
right support, can now not only compete for local road construction and maintenance contracts, but also
diversify their operations into supporting agricultural and transport needs in their region. (Petts, 2012). In
this situation both Myanmar in general and local people can benefit through increased employment and
income generation, as well as improved roads and local agricultural efficiency.
12.6 Quality Management
12.6.1 Quality Framework

The construction process in the LVRR sector is frequently not as well-controlled as expected or desired.
Good, cost-effective outcomes from the construction phase require robust quality management.
Road construction must be implemented within a clear quality framework that comprises both and Quality
Control undertaken by the Contractor and Quality Assurance undertaken by Client (DRRD) or their
Consultant (SANRAL, 2013c).
Quality Control (QC) is undertaken by the Contractor in line with his submitted Quality Plan (QP). QC is
generally concerned with measuring properties and checking that specifications have been met consistently
throughout the project. Examples of quality control activities include site inspections, field and laboratory
testing. Such activities are performed after the work has been completed. A good practice for QC is the
development and use of a checklist for monitoring and inspecting the construction of the road. Checklists
must be specific to the project in question, but in general should include the following comparisons against
the Technical Specifications and BoQ.
§ Quality of as-delivered materials;

§ Construction methodology;
§ Asset geometry (eg pavement thickness, earthwork slope angle, bridge deck/supports);
§ In situ testing;
§ Health and Safety issues;
§ Environmental impact.
The Quality Plan (QP) refers to a written plan submitted by the contractor, which is reviewed and approved
by the Client/ supervising engineer as part of the QA process. This document clearly demonstrates how the
contractor will control the processes used during construction in order to meet the requirements set out in
the technical specifications. The QP will typically include the sequence of tests to be performed on the
materials intended for use at a prescribed frequency, with the objective of demonstrating that the intent of
the specification is being satisfied.
Quality Assurance (QA) is the overview and documentation required to show that the contractor is
following the Quality Plan. It incorporates standard procedures and methodologies and applies to all site
activities aimed at significantly reducing or eliminating, non-conformance before it occurs. QA activities are
determined before construction work begins and are performed throughout construction. Components of a
QA system typically include process checklists and construction supervision.
It is important that the supervision organisation is already set up and functional when work is started.
Information on the Quality Plan and associated responsibilities must be available. Preparations should
include a clear organisation plan with lines of command and delineation of responsibilities. The number of
the staff required will depend on the size and complexity of the project.

12.6.2 Key Quality Assurance Decisions

A number of key QA decisions need to be taken during the construction phase; these include:
§ Approval of construction plant;
§ Acceptance of pavement layers;
§ Acceptance of material;
§ Modification in design;
§ Variations in BoQ items.
In reviewing plant resources it has to be acknowledged that small contractors in some regions of Myanmar
may have limited plant resources; for example, they may rely heavily on standard 8-10 tonne, 3-wheel,
static rollers for compaction, which have limitations for certain types of materials.
12.6.3 Materials Approval

Material approvals are an essential element of LVRR QA and in this context QC should be normally
undertaken in two distinct phases:
1. General approval of source materials.
2. Approval of materials as delivered to site.
It is not realistic to force contractors to meet inappropriate or unobtainable material standards. For overall
cost-effectiveness and minimisation of environmental impact, the LVRR road specifications should consider,
where possible, locally available materials. Material approval for use should be accompanied by clear
guidelines laying out the limits within which the approval is valid. These limits may take a number of forms,
namely:
§ Material characteristics after compaction;
§ In situ moisture regime;
§ Subgrade design value and in situ moisture condition;
§ Pavement layer thickness design;
§ Construction methodology;
§ Traffic level, type and loading.
The approval of construction materials must be on the basis of the materials as-delivered on site. It is not
unusual for delivered materials to have significantly different geotechnical characteristics from those
approved at source during planning and design stages (Roughton International, 2000).
Stockpiling forms an important part of materials management by promoting appropriate selection of
materials as well as providing opportunities for blending materials and for testing materials before
transportation to the road. The biggest threat to good materials management occurs when borrow pit
operations are not kept sufficiently ahead of the construction.
12.6.4 Site Supervision

The supervision of construction and its quality control are essential elements in the road cycle and must be
given a high priority. Experience backed by recent research has clearly indicated that poor construction has
major impact on early pavement deterioration (Intech-TRL, 2006).
To guarantee the quality of works, it is necessary to establish control over the contractor’s workmanship
and materials. Quality supervision can be considered as comprising two principal elements.
Site Inspection: The works are inspected visually to detect any deviation from the specified requirements.
Visual assessment is an essential element of pavement layer approval, particularly for example in the
identification of oversize in lower pavement layers or gravel wearing course. Physical measurements of
thickness, widths and crossfall are an essential element of this assessment. This activity is supplemented by
simple in-situ checking of specified procedures; for example, temperature of bitumen and spray rates, and
concrete slump, Table 12.1.

The quantity or spacing of QA testing will be a function of the type and size of the asset; Table 12.2
summarises some typical examples from recent regional LVRR construction projects.
Table 12.1 Supervision Testing

Procedure Description Reference
The DCP test May be used as a control on quality as construction proceeds. It may also be used Intech-TRL, 2006b
as quality check on already constructed layers. The DCP test may be undertaken in
conjunction with in situ density testing and moisture content testing for
correlation purposes.
Sand Replacement This is a common requirement in specifications. It may be replaced in some cases ASTM D1556
Density test for quality control purpose by the DCP test, but only after satisfactory correlations
have been established for the specific constituent materials.
Concrete Slump Test An essential on-site test for supervisors to use as a general control on the ASTM C143
concrete mix actually being produced. Addition of excess water in the concrete
mix is a common malpractice (high slump). Concrete samples should be taken
from the mixer at the specified intervals for slump tests as well as concrete cube
testing. Figure 12.3
Tray Tests These tests for bitumen and chipping spray rates are an essential element in the Roughton, 2012
control of thin bituminous surfacings for either machine or labour based
operations.
Schmidt Rebound A non-destructive index test used to indicate the strength of placed concrete. A ASTM D5873
Hammer1 very useful tool to give an indication of poor-quality concrete in bridges and
culverts. Figure 12.3
Photographs Date and time-stamped photographs are an important part of supervision, Intech-TRL, 2006b
particularly if local (non-professional) community or NGO staff are involved in
supervision
Figure 12.3 Slump and Hammer Testing
Concrete Slump Test equipment. Schmidt Hammer testing
Laboratory and in situ testing: Materials as well as the finished product are subject to laboratory testing for
such characteristics as grading, plasticity, density and strength. Special testing may be required for specific
pavement options; for example, cement or lime content in stabilised materials; crushing strength of bricks
or the compressive strength of stone blocks (see Chapter 8 and Annex II).
On larger projects it may be possible for the contractor to set up and maintain a basic Field Laboratory for
routine tests for quality control required to be conducted on a day to day basis. The Field Laboratory will
1
The Schmidt rebound hammer test is a non-destructive testing method of concrete which provides a rapid indication of the compressive
strength. The Schmidt hammer that consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The rebound value can
then be correlated with concrete properties

normally have test equipment that does not require electric power supply and is relevant to the project
specifications. There are also portable field test kits that have been developed that are very suitable for
testing of LVRRs and provide the simple equipment for basic control tests (ARRB, 2009).
Specifications should include requirements for aftercare, such as curing of concrete or stabilisation layers,
or remedial work on minor defects such as aggregate loss or bleeding of bitumen seals. “Aftercare” issues
are an integral part of the construction process and it is important that supervisors ensure that these
requirements are adhered to.
Table 12.2 Typical Supervision Test Spacing

Construction Activity Typical Frequency
Soil index and grading; MDD, One set per 5,000m3 with a minimum of two analysis per cut or
OMC and CBR borrow area, or at every change of material.
Embankment
In situ density/ set of 3 DCP Minimum one test per 500m.

OMC and CBR borrow area, or at every change of material.
Imported sub-grade

Granular sub-base- OMC and CBR borrow area, or at every change of material.
base
Water absorption, LA, grading One set per 1.0km, more frequently if material character changes.
Surfacing aggregate
Bitumen-stone adhesion One set per source of stone/bitumen.
Concrete/clay bricks Density, compressive strength, Two sets of 5 per material source (more frequently if material
or blocks water absorption character changes) and one per km of road.
Uni-axial compressive strength,
One set per 500m with a minimum of two analysis per quarry area, or
Stone macadam LAA, sodium sulphate
at every change of material.
soundness, grading/max size
Uni-axial compressive strength,
Two sets of 5 per material source (more frequently if material
Stone, cobbles, setts LAA, sodium sulphate
character changes) and one per km of road.
soundness. Size dimensions
Block/brick joint One per material source (more frequently if material character
Grading, sand equivalent
sands changes) and one per km of road.
Aggregate properties, such as
LAA, water absorption, particle One set per 1km or every 1000 m3 or change of quarry (more
size and shape, sodium frequently if material character changes)
sulphate soundness.
Concrete pavement One set of 3 cubes to be crushed at 7 days and one set of 3 cubes to
be crushed at 28 days for mix design per materials source.
Concrete cube strength
One set of 3 cubes to be crushed at 7 days and one set of 3 cubes to
be crushed at 28 days per 500m of pavement
Concrete slump test One test per concrete batch; minimum one test per work shift.

12.7 Environmental Management
12.7.1 Key Issues

It is necessary to ensure the existence of and adherence to the Environmental Management Plan which sets
out the specific undertakings for the necessary environmental protection responsibilities, measures,
monitoring and auditing to be undertaken during construction in order to achieve the environmental
requirements set out in the contract.
The following general procedures should be adopted that:
1. Minimise disturbance to flora and fauna.
2. Minimise sedimentation and erosion by implementing effective drainage/ stormwater control measures
3. Minimise generation of dust and noise.
4. Progressively revegetate disturbed areas during road construction.
5. Minimise visual impacts and environmental disturbance at site camps.
6. Minimise environmental impacts of queries; borrow pits and their stockpiles and storage of materials
(Gourley & Greening., 1999).
7. Minimise construction wastes and dispose at an approved environmentally sustainable location.
8. Provide environmentally sound management for the handling, storage and disposal, if necessary, of fuel,
oil, lubricants, bitumen and chemicals used in the road construction process.

References
ARRB, 2009. Development of a Road Base Test Kit. Australian, Road Research Board.
Bentall P, Beusch A, & deVeen J. 1999. Employment- Intensive Infrastructure Programmes: Capacity
building for contracting in the construction sector. ILO
Cook J, Petts R C and J Rolt (2013). Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements: A Guide to Good
Practice. AFCAP Report GEN/099, Crown Agents, UK
Gericke B, Henning T, and Greewood I. 2014. A Guide to Delivering Good Asset Management in the Road
Sector through Performance Based Contracting. World Bank TP-42B.
Gourley C.S. & Greening P.A.K., 1999. Environmental damage from extraction of road building materials:
Results and recommendations from studies in Southern Africa. TRL Report PR/OSC/169/99 for
DFID, UK
Intech-TRL, 2006. Rural Road Surfacing Research, SEACAP 1. Final Report. DFID for MoT Vietnam.
Intech-TRL, 2006b. Rural Road Surfacing Trials: Construction guidelines. SEACAP 1 Final Report Appendix A.
Report for DfID and Ministry of Transport, Vietnam.
Petts R C. 2012. Handbook of Intermediate equipment for roadworks in emerging economies. First Edition.
Intech Associates.
Roughton International, 2000. Guidelines on borrow pit management for low cost roads. DFID KaR Project
Report (Ref. R6852).
SADC, 2003. Low Volume Sealed Roads Guideline. Chapter 6: Construction and Drainage. SADC-SATCC.
SANRAL, 2013a. South African Pavement Engineering Manual; Chapter 11: Documentation and Tendering.
South African National Road Agency.
SANRAL, 2013b. South African Pavement Engineering Manual; Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and
Method Guidelines. South African National Road Agency.
SANRAL, 2013c. South African Pavement Engineering Manual; Chapter 13: Quality Management. South
African National Road Agency.
Silva M M and Gerard Liautaud G, 2011.Performance-based Road Rehabilitation and Maintenance
Contracts (CREMA) in Argentina A Review of Fifteen Years of Experience (1996-2010). World Bank
Transport Paper TP36.

13 Asset Management
13.1 Introduction
An adequately maintained road infrastructure is essential to preserve and enhance road benefits, whilst
conversely; a backlog of outstanding maintenance can cause irreversible deterioration of the road network
and a decline in road-user benefits. If insufficient maintenance is carried out, roads can need replacing or
major repairs after just a few years. That deterioration spread across a road system very quickly results in
soaring costs and a major financial impact on the economy and rural communities.
To preserve the assets by preventive maintenance and to balance the long-term need, Road Asset
Management programmes or systems can be applied to benefit different road stakeholders. Maintenance
is also recognised as a key element of preventative Disaster Risk Management.
Management of the road asset involves the application of engineering, financial and management practices
to optimise the level-of-service outcome in return for the most cost-effective financial input. The main
objective is simply to apply the right treatment at the right time to achieve the desired level of service,
indicating that the road infrastructure is a financial asset for society and the economy (Harral, & Faiz, 1988).
The rural road asset management should be fully integrated within the road administration’s management
activities and should provide a mechanism for realising the administration’s goals in the context of rural
road infrastructure (PIARC, 2012; Robinson, 2008).
This chapter focusses on the overall organisation and implementation of systematic and effective
management processes for the maintenance of LVRR assets rather than the detailed on-site procedures
which should be the subject of practical guidance, either generic (PIARC, 1994; TRL, 2000) or specific, for
example (AfCAP, 2012; MoT, Vietnam, 2016).
13.1.1 Background
Managing LVRR assets is a challenge for DRRD as for most road organisations. The implementation of asset
management and asset management tools will help the responsible parties to fulfil the correct and future
requirements in a repeatable and sustainable way.
There are different questions to be answered in the different management processes which DRRD and any
roads managing bodies will face and resolve. Typical key questions and challenges in effective management
of assets relate to what is the current state of assets in relation to the present and levels of services and
performance which are required. Further questions relate to the best road maintenance strategy, what are
the required funding strategies, and which are the best disbursement channels to achieve maintenance
goals.
Successful implementation of asset management of any project or program, including management of rural
roads, is strongly dependent on establishing and following goals and objectives which are directly in line
with the vision and expectations, not only of MoC and DRRD but also of the various stakeholders from the
Ministry down to the road users and those individuals and groups who benefit from road use.
Effective implementation of asset management requires self-assessment and gap analysis, but more
importantly by taking steps towards improving the current situation through individual, policy
implementation or through group/team actions (ReCAP/Geddes).
Challenges include increased demand from stakeholders such as road users and rural communities and
reduced budgets which will require a strategy to achieve better value for money in providing sustainable
rural access where needed. As the costs of operating and repairing roads continue to increase and available
funding decreases most road authorities struggle to maintain, upgrade and restructure their road network.
A well-run asset management framework will support DRRD like any other road organisation in effectively
manage its assets. While many would see asset management as a pavement management or bridge

management computer system, this is not correct. An asset management is not a theoretical or rigid
protocol, but a set of business processes for decision making which will support and guide road units to
follow continuous and well planned improvements of its infrastructure and road network. Such
management systems will ultimately improve decision making based on real facts and needs based upon
quality information and decision making (Geddes, 2016).
13.1.2 Purpose of maintenance: Why and who benefits?

The purpose of road maintenance is to ensure that the road remains serviceable and is kept to the specified
standards to provide the access and services required.
§ Maintenance prolongs the life of the road by reducing the rate of deterioration, thereby safeguarding
previous investments in construction and rehabilitation;
§ Lowers the cost of operating vehicles on the road by providing a smooth running surface;
§ Keeps the road open for traffic and contributes to more reliable transport services;
§ Sustains social and economic benefits of improved road access; and
§ The importance of routine maintenance, particularly as regards drainage, cannot be over-stressed with
respect to pre-emptive measures to reduce the likelihood, or impact, of natural disasters (World Bank
2018).
The first purpose mentioned above is primarily in the interest of DRRD and MoC and the regional
authorities. The remaining three are of a more general interest to the regional inhabitants and residents
and the vehicle operators themselves.
The level and scale of the importance of maintaining quality and reliable rural roads in Myanmar is
increasing as the population increases and while the Government is striving to catch up with the backlog of
rural road and infrastructure development. Road preservation and maintenance require adequate and
reliable funding to ensure regular and timely maintenance.
13.1.3 Impact of poor maintenance

The following are six typical categories of impact that will result from poor maintenance of rural roads:
1. Loss of assets: the resulting loss in value of road assets due to neglect in maintenance.
2. Loss of agricultural outputs: Myanmar has a huge land area with wide variety of agricultural
conditions. It has more than 65 million hectares of fertile grounds, which is among the highest in
South East Asia. The country’s rural roads often become impassable due to erosion, flood damage,
slides and structural failures which will block the food chain for long periods. This issue has recently
been addressed in terms of the “First Mile” concept (ReCAP, 2018).
3. Loss of time and access: More working time is lost as a result of poor or inadequate maintenance
which will cause delays or preventing access to work, services like schools, medical facilities, places
of worship, and generally can isolate communities for long periods.
4. Increase rehabilitation cost: A large backlog of deferred maintenance is caused, which will result in
4 to 6 times the cost in restoration and rehabilitation.
5. Dependence on slow vehicles: Due to poor condition, road users are compelled to continue to
depend on slow moving (or non-motorised) vehicles.
6. Vehicle deterioration: Not only roads get deteriorated due to lack of maintenance, also the vehicles
themselves get damaged, break down and often create accidents.

The overall effect of these impacts is a financial burden to the country through increased road repair costs,
increased transport costs, loss of agricultural production and access to services including schools, health
centres, and markets.
13.2 Management
13.2.1 Principles
The various levels and steps to improve and ensure growth of a road organisation’s efforts through a
reliable asset management framework should focus on the following six (6) tasks:
1. Organisational goals and objectives;

2. Inventory of pavements, bridges and other major infrastructure assets;
3. Availability of information to undertake life-cycle cost analysis for all major asset types and classes;
4. Information required to undertake risk management analysis at the project level;
5. Information to develop the organisation’s/Department’s financial plan to support investments;
6. Development of investment and funding distribution strategies to manage the road network for its
whole life.
For Departments which have little experience and/or are at the initial stages of setting up an asset
management system Table 13.1 is a guide with 5 key questions which will be helpful in their plans:
Table 13.1 Key Questions to Develop & Coordinate Asset Management

QUESTION
1. What is the current state of your assets?
What are the owned assets?
Where are they located?
What condition are they in?
What is the estimated remaining life?
What is its remaining economic value?
2. What is the current state of your assets?
What is the stakeholders demand for services?
Are there regulatory requirements which are fulfilled and under control?
What is the actual performance level of each (group of) assets?
3. Which Assets are critical to ensure sustained performance?
How does it fail? How can it fail?
What are the consequences of failure?
What are the costs to repair?
4. What are my best strategies for road operations’ investments?
What alternative management options exist?
What are the most feasible options available for the Department’s road organisation
5. What is the best long-term funding strategy?
What revenues will be acquired?
What is the investment gap (surplus or deficit) to meet the goals of asset management?
What will be the optimum mix of the following:
i) Preservation and routine maintenance
ii) Reactive Maintenance?

QUESTION
iii) Rehabilitation
iv) Replacement/reconstruction
What is the revenue gap required to keep the assets within an acceptable risk or damage/non-performance level?
13.2.2 Initiation
Regardless of the size or structure of any road organisation, Road Asset Management starts with a base -
level of information on the assets it has to manage. . A three step approach is suggested in order to record
the assets and their location and condition.
Step 1: Establish the asset management goals and objectives which target the desired outcomes and
follow business strategy of the Department
It is important to set goals and strategic targets in order to develop a broader perspective for the various
stakeholders. In order to initiate an asset management system, the following questions should be
answered:
§ What assets does the road organisation (DRRD) have responsibility for; where are they and what
condition are they in?
§ Does the DRRD have an inventory of their assets?
§ Is the inventory is saved in a computerized Management System?
§ Does DRRD know the amount which was invested on assets in the past?
§ What are the top priorities of short term and long term goals and milestones for the road organisation?
§ What are the annual and 5 year goals for the conditions of Low Volume Rural Roads and bridges both
as far as quality and network reach and distribution?
§ Are these goals realistic, or need to be amended?
§ Has the timeline for updating goals been identified?
§ What are the expectations concerning asset conditions by the public on a short term and long term
basis?
§ Have these goals and asset targets been agreed?
Step 2: Undertake a self-assessment and gap analysis to determine DRRD’s current position on the basis of
other asset management practices either followed by national entities or guidelines set by donors or
international organisations.
Based on this comparison establish a set of priorities to meet the road organisations desired goals and
timelines of required assets. The most basic self-assessment analysis can be based on the core questions
above, followed by a systematic and planned set of actions. This information can also be used to prioritize
weak areas or limitations that should be addressed as part of the overall plan of actions.
Step 3: Scope the specific improvement actions required to manage the road organisation’s assets
Take a pragmatic and objective view of how a new or improved asset management policy or guideline
relate to the organisation’s mission and strategy in Low Volume Rural Roads. Key issues to be addressed in
this exercise include: a) identify the scope of assets to be included in DRRD’s Asset Management system, b)
the framework and boundaries of the decision making (e.g. technical, financial, personnel, policy
compliance, contractually), c) internal business processes, d) capabilities, e) data needs and sources and f)
Costs and benefits.

Beyond the day to day activities DRRD needs to look at the “macro” way they do business. This relates in
particular to how, when and through whom they conduct a self-assessment of assets and as a result how
the departments or internal units need to improve managing their network and resources.
This may need additional data in order to enhance internal asset processing within the road unit, which
may need the following questions:
§ Is asset management a way of doing business in this road organisation?

§ What strategies should be applied to reach the organisation’s asset management goals?
§ Should added assets be included to improve the organisation’s operations and functions?
§ Does the road organisation adequately undertake a regular risk analysis?
§ Does the road organisation manage its LVRR related assets on a long term basis and/or through a 5 year
plan?
§ Is a detailed gap analysis study needed?
13.2.3 Maturity Models

The measurements of the degree to which a road organisation, a Ministry or Department has implemented
their asset management principles will support the respective organisation in identifying its strengths and
weaknesses in relation to their intended goals and commitments.
Maturity models can be a valuable tool for this purpose. Such models are simply a set of structured
guidelines that describe how various fields of expertise are able to contribute to a set of pre-determined
organisational or policy set tasks.
Recent work by ReCAP has focussed on the means to achieve economic and social benefits for local
communities as a result of improved performance in LVRR asset management. This project called
“Economic Growth through Effective Road Asset Management” (GEM) has developed a framework for
measuring performance in road asset management appropriate to sub-national rural road networks and
applied it in selected project areas in Africa. It has also developed simple and appropriate tools for
monitoring road condition and applies them in the project areas as well as simple indicators of economic
and social impact of rural roads and monitors them in the project areas (Geddes, 2016, ReCAP 2018).
The approach to the project is intended to foster self-reliance in road agencies and encourage greater
accountability to road users and other sector stakeholders based on the assessment and improvement of 6
key building blocks, which are considered necessary for effective asset management. These are:
§ External factors, including political support for roads;

§ Institutional arrangements for the road sector;
§ Financing of roads;
§ Management arrangements in the roads agencies;
§ Technical aspects of road agency operations; and
§ Operations of the road agencies
The self-assessment of these building blocks drives a process of self-awareness in regional authorities and
provides an impetus to improve local asset management2. Although focussed on the African maintenance
environment, this general approach has valuable lessons to learn for Myanmar.
2
The details of the research and its outcomes may be found under the “Economic Growth through Effective Road Asset
Management, Project ref GEN2018A heading on the ReCAP website

For Myanmar, it is essential that a clear and repeatable definition of its maturity levels is followed for the
whole assessment procedure. Therefore, it is recommended to use a unified scale of categories within each
road organisation. The number of categories which are assessed or measured should coincide with any
existing assessment procedure(s) already in place.
As a starting point it is recommended to use three maturity levels shown in Table 13.2. The maturity model
then works with a matrix of these levels together with four management issues
1. Management (organisation, strategies and performance),

2. Data and modelling (inventory, monitoring, risk and life cycle planning),
3. Planning (management and financial planning, asset evaluation and scheduling) and
4. Application (management tools and communication).
Table 13.2 Maturity Level Description, Asset Management

Data Level Purpose Description
The road organisation at this status or level has only limited experience and resources and is operating at a
“development stage”.
Basic
It largely views its assets as a cost problem and not as a benefit to its operations and functions. No effective
support is provided from strategy, process or tools. In this case there can be lack of motivation to improve.
The road organisation or Department at this level can identify what it does and how it goes about its tasks and
chores.
Proficient An asset management is already clearly defined with process and tools defied and in place.
The focus of asset management at this level should be in terms of reliability of data, asset records and
concentrate on performance increase.
The road organisation or Department at this level can control what it does as far as plan, design, implement
and control outputs both a general level and in aspects of Low Volume Rural Roads.
The operational mode and functions of this Department or organisation specifies its tasks, objectives and
requirements and ensures that such results are provided through regular feedback.
Advanced This road organisation is fully willing and capable of learning and adapting itself. It not only uses national and
international resources and experience to correct any problems but also uses experience through delegated
and direct powers to change the way it operates within accepted and recognized parameters, procedures and
lines of communication.
Asset management strategies, processes and tools are routinely evaluated, approved and implemented
Note: The three maturity levels can be extended easily subject to the availability of necessary input information
13.2.4 Case studies (ReCAP)

Case Study 1: Asset Management gap analysis and self-assessment effort of the US Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA)
The FHWA is assisting State Departments of Transportation (DOT) in conducting and reviewing the results
of an organisational gap analysis, which includes a self-assessment.
The self-assessment considers as a minimum, the adequacy of organisational strategic goals and policies
with respect to asset management, whether asset management is considered in the agency’s planning and
programming of resources. Furthermore, as whether the agency is implementing adequate data collection
and analysis policies, undertaking programmatic risk assessments to support an effective asset
management programme. Based on the results of the self-assessment a gap analysis is undertaken to
determine which areas of the agency’s asset management process requires improvement. The self-
assessment questions are available at: http://www.fhwa.gov/asset/gap/self assessment.pdf.
Note that the FHWA works with state DOTs in USA in undertaking the asset management gap analysis,
which includes the following:

§ Review of asset management material;

§ Undertake and analyse the results of the asset management self-assessment;
§ Interview key personnel from various offices;
§ Conduct In-Person Real-Time asset management self-assessment (group work);
§ Interview State DOT senior personnel;
§ Develop draft implementation plan;
§ Coordinate workshops with DOT to review the draft improvement plan;
§ Produce and implement Final implementation plan.
Case Study 2: Rural Road Asset Management in Thailand
The Department of Rural Roads (DRR) manages approximately 42,000km of paved roads and 5,000km of
unsealed laterite roads. The DRR carry out four types of road maintenance:
§ Routine Maintenance: Remedying the defects that occur on the road from time to time that may cause
the road to fail prematurely;
§ Periodic Maintenance: Road resurfacing programme;
§ Special Maintenance: Rehabilitation;
§ Emergency Maintenance: Remedying the unpredictable defects that occur on the road (e.g. flooding).
In order to manage their road network, DRR developed a comprehensive road asset management system
between 2004 and 2011. The system comprises the following modules:
1. Central Road Database (CRD): This is a centralized database of the rural road network, including
road asset information and social data. It links to other systems for data exchange.
2. Pavement Maintenance Management System (PMMS): This is an engineering database used for
road surface life prediction and strategic planning for road maintenance and financial budgeting.
Data for the PMMS is collected using a dedicated survey car, which includes an asset camera,
pavement camera and GPS antenna and can evaluate pavement damage using image processing
techniques. Further data is collected using Benkelman Beam, Falling Weight Deflect meter and skid
resistance.
3. Flood Management System (FMS): This is used for flood reporting, damage assessment and cost
estimation, budget allocation, project evaluation and repetitive flooding analysis.
4. Bridge Maintenance Management System (BMMS): This involves evaluation by specialists and is
used for damage assessment data, service life prediction, strategic planning of bridge maintenance
and financial budgeting.
5. Routine Maintenance Management System (RMMS): This is used for road condition assessment
and monitoring the rural road network and for financial budgeting.
6. Safety Management System (SMS): This comprises a safety engineering database and an Accident
Report Management System for black-spot analysis, treatment and evaluation.

Figure 13.1 Road asset management system – Case Study Thailand
The DRR road asset management system3 is comprehensive and has sophisticated data collection and
analysis capabilities. While these might not all be appropriate for DRRD at this stage, it is worth noting the
Thailand RAMS was developed and introduced over several years and it provides an insight into how the
RAMS could be introduced in DRRD.
13.3 Maintenance Operations
13.3.1 General
Maintenance of rural roads and their drainage systems is essential for the safe passage of traffic and access
to public and private services by the residents. Maintenance planning must be started immediately after
the completion of construction.
Maintenance operations are generally split into routine maintenance, periodic maintenance, and
emergency repairs, defined as follows.
I. Routine maintenance involves all those tasks carried out regularly to keep the roadway in good
condition, for example, grass cutting, filling of ruts and clearing of the drains.
II. Periodic maintenance covers bigger jobs like re-gravelling sections of the road network and major
repairs to bridges, culverts and drifts. These jobs are normally required at intervals of several years.
III. Emergency repairs are the unplanned repairs that have to be carried out to restore roadworks
after disasters have blocked or damaged roads, for example, land slips or “washaways.”
Maintenance requirements need to be prioritised by economics, level of service, funding, physical

resources and skills available. If smoother running surfaces can be provided by regular maintenance, then it
is likely that savings in fuel consumption and reductions in tyre and parts wear can be achieved. Vehicle
Operating Costs (VOC) of motor vehicles will therefore come down. Roughness quoted as IRI (International
Roughness Index in mm/m) is often used as a guide to pavement condition. Although exact maintenance
3
An overview of the RAMS is available at https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/5-c.Thailand-Koonnamas.pdf.

target figures must be a function of the initial as-constructed road condition and types, IRI roughnesses of
<4 mm/m for sealed road and between 3 and 10 mm/m are commonly used as a guide.
All roads require regular maintenance to ensure that their basic function is fulfilled for the duration of their
design life. Achieving this will depend on the implementation of suitable maintenance strategies, with
operations selected and carried out in a planned manner by qualified engineers and operators. The rural
road maintenance regime in Myanmar in general has up to now been under-funded and below
requirements to ensure a sustainable rural transport infrastructure. This is however changing, with DRRD
giving increased emphasis on the preservation of existing rural road assets.
Routine maintenance of rural roads is currently undertaken by DRRD as well as being carried out through
ad-hoc interventions by district councils, commune councils and local people in direct response to events
that directly disrupt the daily routine of the community.
Periodic maintenance of rural roads is the responsibility of the DRRD; however these offices are invariably
underfunded for the scope of works required. In order to justify the necessary cost estimate for the
application maintenance needs, road data collection must be a key activity.
13.3.2 Key Elements

Adequate maintenance is crucial to sustainably overcoming the challenges of climate impact on LVRRs and
in that context the primary element is the maintenance of adequate drainage. Poor drainage is responsible
for most structural deficiencies, surface erosion and deposition of debris. Concentration of scarce
resources on maintenance of better drainage measures can reduce total road costs.
The management of the maintenance of the Myanmar LVRR network should be based upon a management
system encompassing the following:
§ Inventory of the roads, showing road type, width and average annual daily traffic;
§ Inspection record of condition;
§ Maintenance requirements, derived from the condition records;
§ Available resources;
§ Prioritisation;
§ Work scheduling;
§ Monitoring of quality and effectiveness of the work.
13.3.3 Timing of Rural Road Maintenance

Rural road maintenance is a continuous activity required to address and prevent deterioration of the road
surface and drainage. The timing of maintenance interventions depends on the purpose of each activity. A
typical schedule of maintenance activities is as follows:

Table 13.3 Maturity Level Description, Asset Management
Season Description
Before Clean culverts

Rains Clean mitre drains
Clean side drains
Repair side drain erosion and scour checks
During Inspect and remove obstructions

Rains Clean culverts
Clean mitre drains
Clean side drains
Repair side drain erosion and scour checks
Repair erosion on shoulder
End of Fill potholes and ruts in road

Rains Reshape carriageway
Repair erosion on shoulders, slopes and drains
Reinstate scour checks
Cut grass
Dry Season Clear bush, Repair structures, Reshape carriageway
These are generic timings to be used as a guide and adapted to Myanmar conditions and practices as
government by the differing physical and climatic road environments (Maintenance Contracting Models).
13.3.4 Management of the maintenance process

Records should be kept of the labour, tools, equipment and materials used in the work. Each operation is
best kept separate so that actual costs can be calculated. In this way the efficiency or various operations of
different work groups can be measured and compared. Productivities must be calculated and recorded, and
trends should be plotted.
Good quality and well maintained tools will enhance productivity. On a larger roadworks and maintenance
works full time equipment repair teams and mechanics should be part of the operation.
Equipment operators must be adequately trained not only in correct use and operation of maintenance
tools and equipment but also in service and minor repair works.
Labour based maintenance has been proven cost effective globally for several years. It is suggested that the
Client and the regional authorities take that into account in the most rural areas and in particular on
laterite or gravel roads for routine maintenance, re-gravelling, clearing or upgrading of smaller structures.
Documents and guides produced by ILO as well as the earlier department of ASIST in Africa and Asia are
readily available (Johannessen, 1999; Piarc 2001; Donnges et al 2007):
The order of importance of maintenance activities, per Overseas Road Note 1 (1987):
I) Urgent Work
ü Emergency Repairs to open blocked or impassable roads
ü Stabilisation of dangerous slopes

Note: The nature of emergency work, which demands top priority
II) Drainage
ü Restoring side and mitre drains, river crossings and drainage structures like culverts and minor
bridges
ü Repair eroded areas and build scour checks and retaining walls
ü Repair drainage structures
III) Roadworks
ü Routine maintenance
ü Re-gravelling
ü Side slopes and shoulder repairs
13.3.5 Making roads maintainable

There is a growing recognition that even rural roads must not only be properly designed but also follow a
well-planned maintenance programme to serve their purpose and periods of their life expectancy.
An “Action Plan” or Implementation Programme with associated cost and manpower equipment schedules
should be set up by the Relevant Ministry and Departments. DRRD through the relevant channels would do
well to arrange a realistic assessment of the total funds required and formulate the strategy on a regional
and priority and Phase-Wise basis. It could be a five year maintenance/rehabilitation plan for rural roads.
13.3.6 Maintenance Delivery Models

There are a number of general options for the actual delivery of the maintenance these include
§ Direct public works (Force Account)
§ Large contractor
§ Small local contractor or SME
§ Contracted local groups
§ Village Groups
§ Single contracts (Length-men)
Each of the above has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the physical, climatic and financial
environment (Johannessen, 1999).
Overarching some of the above is a decision on the contracting model to be used; traditional BoQ based or
some form of performance-based contract. This latter option is being increasingly favoured by donors
(Salomonsen & Diachok 2015; Silva et al, 2011).
The contractor in an output or performance-based contract (PBC) for road maintenance is paid on monthly
or quarterly basis for maintaining the road at a specified service standard. The resulting condition of the
road defined by performance criteria rather than on an input basis as occurs under traditional maintenance
contracts where they are paid based on volume of work (Bull et. al 2014). These performance criteria are
basic and easily measurable, targeting the principal defects to be addressed (e.g. maximum number, size
and depth of potholes; maximum height of vegetation; maximum allowable degree of blockage of the
drainage system). This is in contrast to the BoQ-based approach where the contractor is paid strictly in
terms of the time and resources used as per a submitted list of costed items.
Whilst there undoubted advantages for the performance based approach, there remain significant
challenges for its implementation at the LVRR level in terms of Client/Contractor experience, particularly in
terms of appreciation of risk, for example from climate impacts. To be effective a PBC-based LVRR initiative
is only applicable for “maintainable roads”; that is roads that are generally fit for purpose and have only
minor defects which can be rectified using routine or periodic maintenance, without significant
rehabilitation.

13.3.7 Key Challenges

A maintenance issue that should be recognised with respect to rural roads is not merely the shortage of
funds. There are also technical and institutional issues that require careful consideration.
Furthermore, the measures required to improve the situation, both as far as keeping the road structure and
the adjacent areas in good order, are often under estimated. These include the level of support, capacity
development and time required by the Client as well as the lead time required by the Department to
provide regular timely and quality maintenance to the entire road network and plan for the future.
13.4 Capacity Building
13.4.1 Institutional reform and Strengthening Accountability

In order to plan and implement an effective rural road maintenance programme the Departments require
to develop a clear delegation of functions related to policy and planning of maintenance as a part of post
construction follow up in the overall infrastructure development master plan.
The various regional authorities that report to MoC and DRRD should be part of an annual performance
evaluation as far as assessment of annual road maintenance.
Some of the important performance indicators that can be considered for this purpose are:
§ Percentage of Rural Road Network hat received routine maintenance;

§ Percentage of Core Rural Road Network actually subjected to periodic maintenance;
§ Percentage of core Rural Road Network in good condition;
§ Unit cost of routine/periodic maintenance;
§ Percentage of maintenance expenditures compared to the amount required as per norm.
Performance audits should relate financial flows and physical performance indicators to the condition of
the roads. Internal accountability among the technical officers and engineers at various levels will be
responsible for this.
13.4.2 Human Resource Development

Another vital source for planning, implementing and managing any Rural Roads maintenance programmes
is the human source development of the staff at various levels under the Ministerial and Department
levels. Significant efforts and budgets are needed to fully meet those tasks. It recommended to invest
significantly in support training programmes to make this possible. To fully satisfy the needs for present
and future responsibilities within the maintenance management sector, the state may formulate a 5-year
training calendar for Department staff which would include courses in maintenance planning, management,
procurement and supervision of works on the ground.
13.5 Data requirements and Analysis Procedures

Asset management systems generally make use of data from a wide range of sources, both within and
outside a road administration. Typically, a RAMS in use by a road administration will utilise of the following
data:
§ Definition of the network;

§ Definition of the assets on the network (e.g. bridge, pavement);
§ Location of the assets on the network;

§ Condition of the assets;

§ Levels of use (e.g. traffic flows);
§ Policies and standards (e.g. maintenance standards and treatment designs as well as monitoring
information such as performance measures);
§ Budget information (e.g. broken down by asset type, programme level).
13.5.1 Data Administration

The connection between the data, the ownership of the data and a detailed description of the data must be
correctly established and defined at the outset and maintained throughout the life of the system. The
organisation shall promote the importance of effective data administration and ensure that staff are
well-equipped and have an appropriate mandate for the realisation of this task. Particular attention
should be paid on what information is required, which organisations are responsible and what data are to
be supplied. The adoption of a structured approach will identify any gaps in the data and will highlight any
data that are of inadequate quality.
13.5.2 Data Collection and Storage

The accuracy of the data collected, its location and lifetime should be clear. A reliable quality control
procedure for checking these elements is necessary. Typically, a quality control procedure for data
collection should include:
§ A formal quality management procedure (e.g. operating under ISO certification);
§ Pre-defined warning values or historical data that can be used in control procedures;
§ A requirement that all equipment must be calibrated regularly;
§ Reasonable storage mechanisms for raw data (i.e. data used to produce the data in the RAMS).
Once the collected data has been supplied data quality control procedures should be performed. These
include:
§ Data verification (i.e. data should be checked for integrity, location, time, completeness and
accuracy);
§ Application to both incoming data and existing stored data.
13.5.3 Management System

A simple Road Asset Management System (RAMS) should to be introduced by each Region or Province
which is based on the current arrangement of collecting and analysing maintenance data for their
respective roads in the Rural Road Network.
This system should be simple, but also allow ensuring maximising the benefits of the available/allocated
maintenance funds for the particular network within the particular work calendar. Such a system should
also help in assessing impact on deterioration. This will enable the responsible parties, both regional and at
central level, to decide on whether or not it is possible to allocate added funds. The expected output from the
RAMS would be:
§ Road Inventory;
§ Network condition, pavement condition index;
§ Needs – Based Maintenance Plan for a given budget;
§ Annual Maintenance Plan for a given budget;
§ Impact on deterioration of roads due to gaps between funds required vs funds made available;

Asset Management System: Essential Tools (Donnges eta l, 2007)4
§ Means and procedures for establishing and maintaining road inventory, providing detailed information
about the road assets;
§ Established procedures for and logistical means to carry out regular inspection of the network;
§ Road standards to provide guidance on how and when maintenance works should be carried out
including procedures on how priorities are set for selection of where maintenance should first be
carried out;
§ Programming and budgeting procedures for the preparation of master plans, periodic plans and annual
plans;
§ Works implementation procedures: guidelines on choice of technology, use of the private sector and
contracting arrangements;
§ Skilled staff to carry out planning and works supervision;
§ Logistical means to oversee the performance of the network and inspection of works;
§ Financial and administrative support services to ensure effective budgetary and expenditure control.
13.5.4 Data Analysis

Asset management systems generally carry out the following data analyses:
§ Interpretation of the condition data collected on the individual assets;
§ Identification of “optimal” treatments;
§ Calculation of life-cycle costs;
§ Prioritisation of maintenance treatments against budgets
Asset management generally examines such factors as investment levels, maintenance standards and
economic importance.
Table 13.4 Typical Data Analyses

Data Level Analysis
Condition of the asset
Causes of maintenance
Technical
Age and degradation of the asset
Use of the network
Budget required
Budget allocations (e.g. budget breakdown)
Variations in unit prices
Economic
Deviations between out-turns and estimated costs
Maintenance costs of assets
Total costs and budget
Comparison of prioritisation with political preferences
Comparison of detailed and outline technical plans
General
Changes in performance monitoring statistics
Comparison of regional performance monitoring statistics
Source: OECD 2001
4
Source: ILO: Rural Roads Maintenance – Sustaining the Benefits of Improved Access by Chris Donnges, Geoff Edmonds and Bjorn
Johannsen, SETP-19 (2007).

13.5.5 Software
The level of technical expertise, knowledge, data management and funding of the organisation should be
considered for the choice of the appropriate and sustainable software for road data collection system
mainly when it refers to rural or low volume roads.
The majority of the road data collection systems are designed for high volume, national roads, where the
level of data about the road carriageways tends to be much greater, with a complex analysis undertaken
subsequently. This is neither appropriate nor sustainable for rural roads, especially for organisations with
limited technical capacity and funding.
The road asset management software, especially for rural roads, should record and store data about road
network assets in a systematic and inexpensive manner. Some beneficial characteristics are:
§ No complex or expensive specialised equipment
§ Practical, easy use
§ Fast process
§ No internet requirement
§ Remote monitoring
§ Data storing, mapping and reporting
13.5.6 Case study (Shan State)

DRRD Requirements
In developing something appropriate, the following considerations were important:
§ Whilst extensive, the rural road network was poorly defined, with no road numbering or network
referencing system in use. The ability to map the network would therefore be a significant advantage to
road managers.
§ The large size of the rural road network required data collection to be as quick as possible, in order to
minimise its cost.
§ The technical, staffing and financial capabilities of the road agency were very limited, especially at the
local level, through which data collection would be expected to be managed. This precluded the use of
expensive or sophisticated systems, or any that required specialised equipment or high technology.
§ The ability to store and process a large volume of data locally was limited.
§ Most of the areas served by the rural road network had no or very limited mobile phone coverage.
§ Access to the internet was slow, unreliable and/or expensive in many offices in local towns. This meant
that it was not possible to provide remote access to a central server via the internet, and data transfers
had to be kept small.
§ Local security concerns meant that any collected data had to be stored locally and not offshore (thus, a
‘cloud’ based option was not acceptable).
System Overview
In response to these conditions, a system (RoadMark) has been developed and piloted locally. As part of
this project, just over 500km of rural roads were surveyed using a smartphone app.
The data from these surveys was stored in an electronic database. This data was then exported for
subsequent analysis using a simple Excel spreadsheet, from which estimated network needs and budgets

were derived. The data was also mapped using the freely available QGIS software. A summary of the overall
system architecture is shown in Figure 13.2
Figure 13.2 Summary of Overall Planning & Budgeting Framewok
Data Collection
A dedicated application was developed to allow a wide range of road asset data to be collected quickly
using an Android Smartphone. This application was designed to be used by non-technical inspectors, in
areas that have no mobile or internet connections, on poorly defined road networks. The system allows
basic inventory and condition data to be captured for each of the main types of road assets. All data is date
and time stamped and geo-located, allowing the data to be mapped subsequently.
The main screen shown by the Android app during surveying (see Figure 13.3) displays key attributes for
each of the main components of the roadway (with changing colours, depending on condition).
Figure 13.3 Main Android App Screen

Additional options at the bottom of the form allow the surveyor to record extra details about ‘point items’
such as bridges, culverts, street furniture, and intersection. The system can be used on poorly defined road
networks, where no systematic referencing system has been established, (although it can accommodate
this if present). The user can trigger a new section if there is a significant change in the road’s
characteristics, such as a change of surface type, condition and/or administrative data (e.g. district name or
road class).
The desktop application calculates section lengths automatically, based on frequent GPS positions (accurate
to within approximately 3m). It can then create sections within the database. Data is checked for logical
consistency when entered into the system. Additional checks are carried out when the data is electronically
transferred to the desktop application, where additional editing can be undertaken.
Data Storage & Reporting
This application allows all survey data to be stored securely in a relational database, from which a variety of
reports and data exports can be generated. Analysis can also provide administrative information about the
surveys carried out. This can be useful for monitoring progress, identifying problem areas and estimating
how long (and hence the cost) to undertake future surveys.
The analytical process allows basic planning and budgeting estimates to be developed, based directly on
the data collected. These estimates include both carriageway and off-carriageway estimates, as basic
inventory and condition data included for non-carriageway assets, such as longitudinal drainage, bridges
and culverts.

References
AfCAP, 2012. South Sudan Low Volume Roads Design Manual, Volume 3 Maintenance. DFID for Ministry of
Roads and Bridges, S Sudan.
AfCAP, 2019. Economic Growth through Effective Road Asset Management (GEM). CDS Final Report for
ReCAP-DFID Project No. GEN2018A. .
Donnges C, Edmonds G, & Johannessen B. 2007.Rural Road Maintenance: Sustaining the Benefits of
Improved Access SETP-19, ILO, ASIST AP, Bangkok,
Geddes R, 2016. Economic Growth through Effective Rural Road Asset Management. IRF, Seoul.
Harral, C & Faiz, A (1988): Road deterioration in developing countries, Washington D.C, World Bank.
Johannessen, Bjorn (1999): Rural Road Maintenance Management, Ministry of Rural Development, Royal
Government of Cambodia. IT Transport Ltd. UK.
Silva & Liautaud G, 2011.Performance-based Road Rehabilitation and Maintenance Contracts (CREMA) in
Argentina A Review of Fifteen Years of Experience (1996-2010). World Bank Transport Paper TP36
MoT, Vietnam, 2016. Routine Maintenance Manual for District and Commune Road. Ministry of
Transport/DRVN, Vietnam.
PIARC, 1994, International Road Maintenance Handbooks. World Road Association
PIARC, 2001. Save your country's roads. Piarc-DFID publication.
PIARC, 2012. Best practice for the sustainable maintenance of rural roads in developing countries. Tech
Committee A.4. Rural road systems and accessibility to rural areas.
Salomonsen A and Diachok M. 2015. Operations and Maintenance of Rural Infrastructure in Community-
Driven Development and Community-Based Projects Lessons Learned and Case Studies of Good
Practice. World Bank Social, Urban, Rural & Resilience Global Practice.
Sayers M W, Gillespie T G, and Paterson W, 1986.Guidelines for Conducting and Calibrating Road
Roughness Measurements. World Bank Technical Paper 46.
TRL, 1981. Overseas Road Note 1.Road Maintenance Management for District engineers. TRL ltd fro DFID.
TRL, 2003. Overseas Road Note 20. Management of Rural Road Networks. TRL for DFID.
World Bank, 2018. Second South Asia Regional South-To-South Learning Workshop on Building Resilience
to Landslide and Geohazard Risk in Transport Sector Outputs and Guidance Notes. Kathmandu,
Nepal

14 Technical Audit
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Purpose and Strategy

The purpose of Technical Audits of road projects is to ensure and enhance the quality of road construction
by the addition of a technical oversight layer. A Technical Audit is in addition to the normal quality control
and quality assurance procedure that should be undertaken by the Contractor and the supervising
Consultant or Engineer (MWTC, 2001; SADC, 2003).
The Technical Audit Team (TAT) is appointed by the Client (DRRD), to whom it reports directly. In order to
be completely independent, the TAT should not advise or issue instructions to the contractor or supervising
consultant. Communications should focus on seeking clarifications or information regarding the project and
should avoid any interference with the smooth operation of the project. The consultant, contractor and
Client must make available to the auditor any documents as and when stated in the contract agreement
between the Client and the auditor/audit team.
Prior to embarking on the audit the TAT should have good knowledge of the project in general; contract
documents and also a knowledge of each of the roads which are to be inspected. The technical auditor will
be appointed as early as possible, preferably before the start of the appointment of the contractor. This will
allow the TAT to assess the project documents and evolution of the project. Any deficiencies in the design,
BOQ or tender document might be reviewed by the auditor, if that is permitted at this preliminary level.
14.1.2 The Technical Audit Team

The size and make-up of the TAT will be a function of project size. For single roads or single roads assets
The TAM may comprise just one person, whilst for larger multi-road/asset projects a team of up to three
professionals could be involved. The TAT would normally be expected to include the following expertise:
§ Professional civil engineering covering all phases of a road project from planning design, construction
and contract management;
§ Proven experience in all aspects of LVRR asset construction;
§ Significant knowledge of road construction and audit requirements and procedures;
§ Materials engineering;
§ Experience in drainage, bridges and minor structures (as relevant to the particular project).
14.2 Technical Audit Framework

The technical audit for a typical road construction project should be carried out in four or five stages as
presented in Table 14.1, although, for some LVRR projects a simpler two-stage process might be sufficient.
A logical step by step evaluation procedure will provide an adequate warning where rectifications or
amendments are required that can be completed within the contract completion date. At the completion
of each stage of audit the TAM should submit a comprehensive report of findings and recommendations to
the Client.

Table 14.1 Technical Audit Phases

Technical Audit Timing Aims
Phase
a. Familiarisation Prior to Contractor mobilisation. Site and document review. Background checks on
pricing, work programme, personnel, and construction
plant capacity.
b. Initial Audit As soon as the Contractor is Assess project management, construction resources and
fully mobilised and primary methodologies.
works are under way.
c. Intermediate Audit Mid-point of the project Assess compliance with specifications, quality and
duration. quantity of works, and quality management plans to
ensure that it is running smoothly. Review actual cost vs
contract budget and planned progress vs actual
progress.
d. Final Audit On completion of all the Determine conformance with all aspects of the contract.
required construction works Actions of the Consultant (Engineer) and the
and as-built surveys. Contractors should be assessed.
e. Post Construction Only required if recommended Assess and make comment and recommendations on
by Final Audit. technical issues raised during the Audit process that
have not been adequately dealt with.
Note: Some LVRR projects may only require a combined (a+b) stage and a (d) stage.
14.3 The Technical Audit Procedures
14.3.1 Familiarisation
The TAM should clearly understand the TOR, scope and complexity of the project by reviewing all contract
documents, including drawings, specifications, material reports and conditions of contract. The tender
submitted and awarded to the contractor should be studied as well as undertaking background checks on
pricing, work programme, personnel, and technical proposals.
This stage should be carried out immediately after the Auditor has been appointed by the Client and within
a reasonable time of the TAM contract award.
During this phase, an Audit team member should visit the project site, preferably with the supervising
consultant and the Client to acquaint him or herself with the site conditions prior to start up. During the
project familiarisation phase of the technical audit as much existing information as possible should be
obtained. Sources will include:
§ Design and Drawings;

§ Material Reports;
§ Tender Documents including BER (Bid Evaluation Report);
§ Ownership and location of plant;
§ Contractor’s resources, staff list, work program and cash flow;
§ Site visit prior to work starts on site.
All necessary Information should be made available through the Client (e.g. DRRD or MoC). It is not the
duty of the auditor, however, to determine whether the design is appropriate for the specific
circumstances.

14.3.2 Initial Audit

This phase should be carried out as soon as the contractor is mobilised on site and primary works are under
way, so that correct procedures can be established from the beginning of the project. During the first on-
site audit attention should focus on project management issues and construction methodologies. The
Auditors should also conduct a review of the Resident Engineers/Consultants project management,
supervision, and quality management and approval procedures.
The following is check list of actions:
§ Review qualifications of consultant and contractor staff;
§ Assess site Communication – review adequacy of site instruction, weekly, monthly report formats;
§ Assess knowledge of the Contracts and technical specifications;
§ Ensure Quality Assurance (consultant) and quality control (contractor) procedures in place;
§ Assess general approach to the project;
§ Check that construction methodologies are adequate – including staff and construction plant;
§ Review quality and appropriateness of the plant and equipment;
§ Assess operator skills;
§ Assess adequacy of Material testing facilities including equipment and staff;
§ Ensure materials and water supply secured;
§ Review site organisation and site management;
§ Ensure a satisfactory work programme;
§ Check adequacy of Health and safety management procedures;
§ Ensure environmental management plan in place;
§ Assess construction methodologies; pilot sections, manpower & equipment allocation;
14.3.3 Intermediate Audit

At the intermediate level, the TAT should concentrate on compliance with specifications, and ensure that
the construction plan is running smoothly. Review of project documents such as built drawings, site
reports, measurement of material and equipment on site and review on actual cost vs contract budget and
planned progress vs actual progress are essential tasks at this stage.
On larger projects it may be necessary to conduct more than one intermediate audit. In such cases this
should be specified in the audit TOR.
The following should be addressed during the intermediate audit(s):
§ Review the response to the Initial Audit in terms of actions by Consultant (Engineer) and the
Contractor;
§ Review all as-built documents since the Initial Audit;
§ Inspect and record both the completed work and work in progress;
§ Assess the Consultant’s Quality Assurance policy is working in practice;
§ Review the performance of materials testing recording/reporting procedures;
§ Check out location, quality and quantity of borrow pits and material suppliers;
§ Check materials as delivered field sampling and independent testing;
§ Review actual progress vs planned progress and related contract extensions, Variation orders or
penalties;

§ Check actual contract cost vs budget and Project Management System (Engineer’s and Contractor’s);
§ Check measured quantities vs payments and BOQ;
§ Check Payment Certificates and contract compliance;
14.3.4 Final Audit

The purpose of this final audit is to determine compliance with all aspects of the contract. The principal
sources of information will be the as-built drawings, financial records and payment certificates,
measurements of work done and contractual variations. The actions of the Engineer and the Contractors
should be assessed.
This audit should ideally commence at least four weeks before issuing the substantial completion
certificate, and should completed before the staff is demobilized from site. A principal output from the
Final Audit should be a recommendation for any further testing that is required to assess the quality and
quantity of works completed. A full Final Audit Report on the project should be presented to the Client
summarising any further testing necessary and indicating any contractual obligations that have not been
fulfilled by either the Engineer or the Contractor, or any other outstanding matters.
Action taken as a result of problems discovered during initial and intermediate audits will minimize
problems at the Final Audit stage. In addition to information gained in the intermediate audit(s) audits, the
following should also be evaluated:
§ Consultant’s Construction/Project completion Report;
§ Performance of the road to date (as of Final audit);
§ Pavement deflection and riding quality;
§ Project de-briefing with local residents;
§ The need for post construction audit.
14.3.5 Post Construction Audit

Where there is any doubt as to construction requirements being fulfilled during the project and for which
no remedial action having been taken, the Final Audit should recommend that a Post Construction
Technical Audit be carried out. The required actions include (but are not limited to):
§ The data previously obtained re-assessed to cross-check that works have been constructed according to
contractual requirements;
§ Checking all the pavement layers to be to the specific thickness and compacted strength;
§ Checking all material to meet the specific requirements;
§ Checking all structures built to specification;
§ Assessing that all Contractual Construction standards and specifications have been met and that
records show this.
As a general guide, the post construction audit is classified on a five level scale, Table 14.2.

Table 14.2 Levels of Post Construction Audit

Level Description
1 Assessment and verification of records: none; only minor problems during construction. No variations or claim.
2 Sufficient quality records available. Some issues with construction methodologies. Claims and variations caused
minor extensions.
3 Limited pavement or structures quality issues require investigation, for example by restricted DCP testing or non-
destructive concrete testing required. Reasonable contract variations.
4 Significant pavement or structures quality issues. More DCPs and some trial observation pits; possible concrete
coring. Poor appearance in final product; many variations and disruptions during construction; Excessive claims.
5 Major quality issues require extensive investigation, DCPs, test pits, concrete coring. Poor performance and
results; Unreasonable claims and contract extension.
14.4 Key Data
14.4.1 Background
Tender Documents
The TAT should assess the tender documents very carefully, in particular with regard to the high and low
unit rates, to justify and explain the decision of the award.
Specific note should be addressed with respect to any alternative methods or materials proposed by the
tenderer. It is not within the scope of work of the audit team to evaluate the tender prices or process, but
rather aspects that might influence the quality of construction should be highlighted.
Bill of Quantities
The Bill of Quantities should be assessed by the TAT to identify unusual quantities and largely familiarise it
with the scope and pricing of the project. Aspects which could lead to a future claim should be highlighted
for further reference and attention.
Communication, procedures and chain of command
The availability and quality of documentation (e.g. work programme, laboratory records and recording
systems, control and approval procedures.) and method and frequency of communication, meetings,
reports, memos between the various team players on the project should be assessed An important aspect
to assess from the outset is what role the “Engineer” will play in the management. Supervision and
reporting on the project, i.e. whether he/she is also the Project Manager, the Client’s Representative with
such delegated powers or simply the Engineer with only supervision responsibility.
14.4.2 Laboratories; test records

Only Client and Project approved laboratories should be used on the project. Routine laboratory test
procedures (and subsequently results), frequency, location, timing and record keeping and communication
should be inspected to ensure full compliance with the Contract. The auditor should inspect the
laboratories and their equipment and assess whether added site laboratories can be approved to save time.
Daily/weekly/monthly construction progress should be recorded; frequency, location and standard agenda
should be agreed as early as the kick-off meeting of the project with recorded minutes should be agreed.
The evaluation of material compliance will, in the first instance, be based on the results available from the
consultant and the contractor. The most important parameter is usually the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
or the unconfined compression test (UCS) for stabilized material. Test results should be carefully compared
with the Contract Specifications. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) or concrete cube tests or cylinder tests
should be scrutinised for compliance, in addition to verification of recent and acceptable calibration of the
testing equipment.

14.4.3 Variation order, claims

It is vital that the Engineer and the Client agree prior to the contract award the systems to follow and
responsibilities for processing claims, variations, contract amendments and payments. Such agreements
and responsibilities must be very clear also related to procedures of any applications for extension, timing,
and penalties. The auditor should have access to such procedures at the first session of familiarisation of
the contract.
14.4.4 Pavement and structures

Where doubt exists, quick and non-destructive testing can be performed on most pavements by DCP
(Dynamic Cone Penetrometer) which can give a good indication of the presence of specific layers as well as
both the pavement strength and the pavement thickness.
The most common and reliable pavement density control is the site sand displacement test The TAT must
verify the quality of such tests. The TAT should not only rely on the records from these vital test results but
also witness some tests being taken on site. The post construction audit of asphalt surfacing records is
more difficult as asphalt surfacing often mask any deficiency in the finish of the underlying layers.-Test
pitting may have to be undertaken (Figure 14.1).
Figure 14.1 Test Pit
Test Pit through surfacing and pavement layers to top of DCP and density testing in Test Pit. Photo J Cook
subgrade. Photo J Cook
The TAT should review records of concrete slump and laboratory strength tests for structures and concrete
pavement also witness some of the tests. Use of the Schmidt Hammer may also guide the TAM in checking
structural works.
Post Construction audit procedures
When type 4 or 5 post construction audits are found to be necessary a full range of non-destructive tests
will be required. This should be conducted during the contractual maintenance period and completed
before the official completion and hand over. When type 3 and sometimes type 4 audits are required it
should be noted that condemnation of poor sections of road results could be necessary.
To carry out the audit cost effectively the road should be sub divided into uniform sections. The structural
responses can only be determined for new roads using deflection surveys or DCP testing as visual
characterisation seldom reveals significant flaws.
Although DCP tests are rapid and cheap, it should be remembered however that this test was originally
devised for soft material and results obtained in crushed stone and stabilised material must be interpreted
with caution. In addition, DCP test results are also highly sensitive to moisture and variations in density
(TRL, 2006)

Observation/Test Pits: These are small excavations in the road, mostly used to check the quality and nature
of the material and the thickness of the upper layers. Generally, they should not be used to investigate
deeper than 250-500mm. Observation holes require significant resources and time to excavate and backfill,
but are particularly useful for inspecting the material and thickness of the surfacing, prime and
base/subbase courses. Test pitting is commonly used when serious quality issues are suspected and should
be carefully considered and designed to minimise the cost, disruption to traffic and political
unacceptability. It is usual to excavate test pits adjacent to or around the point that a DCP test was done.
Test pits will also allow in situ density testing to be undertaken..
14.5 Assessment of Audit Results and Compliance

1. In assessing a project through technical audit of rural roads the TAT may be working within the
framework of two contracts: a) Between the Client and the Engineer and b) a contract between the
Client and the Contractor. Key issues to be assessed are: Design compliance: The engineer’s
intentions for the construction of the project are largely conveyed to the contractor by the way of
design drawings. Assessment of compliance by the contractor should in the first instance come
from a review by the engineer’s inspection and records of compliance through as built drawings
and recorded measurements of works done compared to work to be done. The degree of (non-)
compliance will be submitted to the auditor who will include in his records and recommendations
to the Client.
2. Material Compliance: Material compliance will be evaluated using statistical techniques. Although
the strength/stiffness and durability of the rural roads are the primary requirements for pavement
or surface dressing material and the overall functions of the road, a number of other criteria and
properties are typically specified in the contract documents. The technical auditor should bear this
in mind during the audit but should use some discretion with occasional results that are slightly out
of specification criteria. Graphic plotting of test results is a common and useful tool and easily
checked through spreadsheet data, which cover mean-medium-standard deviations and
coefficients of variations should be indicated and explained.
3. Consequences and Implications: A fundamental responsibility of the audit team is to recognise and
report the consequences of construction tolerances or material specifications not being met.
Instead of the road carrying the traffic it was designed for, a poorly constructed road will require
premature maintenance or rehabilitation/strengthening works.
Where the audit leads to the conclusion that either the Engineer or the Contractor has been in breach of
their respective contracts, then the audit report should refer to the relevant clause of the contract. Based
on this the Client can take appropriate action.
The most appropriate method of evaluating the consequences of poor pavement construction or
substandard material is to estimate the remaining structural capacity of the pavement using deflection
measurements and to compare this with the design traffic. If the total cumulative traffic is less than the
design traffic loading the contractual implications will require careful assessment, and a potential
reconstructed road.
14.6 Audit Reporting
14.6.1 General
All aspects of technical audit should be carefully and fully reported. In general, the audit reports tend to
contain large quantities of information but should not repeat the contract data. It is essential that the audit
reports are submitted as soon as possible in order for the Client to take timely and corrective action. All
audit reports should be submitted within 3 weeks of completion of the respective audits.

14.6.2 Familiarisation Phase

A written report is required from the Familiarisation Phase of the audit which should clearly bring out
deficiencies in design, tendering or other documentation. It is also recommended that the technical auditor
prepares notes to assist him with assessment and audit tasks as the project progresses.
14.6.3 Initial audit

The report at the end of the initial audit should include details of any critical issue that the auditor
considers could have possible influence on the successful completion of the project and the actual
functions of the roads. The suggested actions for the Client (e.g. MoC/DRRD) must be clearly highlighted
and prioritised with summaries of the possible implications of the issues not being rectified.
14.6.4 Intermediate Audit

The report produced after the completion of the intermediate audit should be handled in the same manner
as in the previous report. In this case, however, emphasis should be placed on the material and on the
construction techniques, and whether issues in the earlier phases have been addressed.
14.6.5 Final Audit

The report on the final audit session will summarise the total project and make recommendations on any
further investigation (Post Construction Audit) deemed to be necessary by the auditors. It is essential that
the Engineer submits a full completion report as soon as possible after the construction has been
completed and handed over to the Client. This report should contain all the relevant information regarding
the progress of the project including all quality control, test results, and financial records.
The completion report must be carefully evaluated by the audit team, particularly focussing on quality and
financial control and compliance with the contract documents.

References
MWTC, 2001. Technical Auditing of Road Projects. Technical Guideline No.7. Ministry of Works, Transport &
Communications, Botswana
SADC. 2003. Guideline on Low-Volume Sealed Roads; Chapter 6 Construction and Drainage.

ANNEXES
Contents
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................................................ i
ANNEX I. TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................................................... 1
ANNEX II. LABORATORY SOIL AND ROCK TESTING ........................................................................................ 13
ANNEX III. MARGINAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ..................................................................................... 26
ANNEX IV. GROUND INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES ...................................................................................... 41
ANNEX V. DCP DESIGN OPTIONS .................................................................................................................. 51
ANNEX VI. SPOT IMPROVEMENT .................................................................................................................. 58
ANNEX VII. LVRR DESIGN WITH HIGHER VOLUME TRAFFIC ........................................................................... 62
Tables
Table I.1 Typical Equivalent Traffic Conversion for AADTs (TRL,2003, ORN 20) ............................................. 2
Table I.2 PCU values (See Chapter 6) .............................................................................................................. 3
Table I.3 Factors for Distribution of Pavement Traffic Loading TRL, ORN 31 .................................................. 5
Table I.4 Adjustment of Daily Traffic Counts ................................................................................................... 6
Table I.5 Example of Thickness Selection ........................................................................................................ 8
Table II.1 Key References for LVRR Laboratory Testing.................................................................................. 14
Table II.2 Laboratory Physical Condition Index Tests ..................................................................................... 16
Table II.3 Laboratory Physical Condition Index Tests (continued) ................................................................. 17
Table II.4 Laboratory Simulation Tests (continued) ....................................................................................... 18
Table II.8 Soil and Aggregate Chemical Tests ................................................................................................. 22
Table II.9 Petrographic Assessment Procedures ............................................................................................ 23
Table II.10 Standard Materials Tests and Required Sample Sizes .................................................................... 24
Table III.1 Marginal Material Groups .............................................................................................................. 27
Table III.2 Review of Marginal Materials: Group I hard rocks ......................................................................... 28
Table III.3 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IIa Weak or Poorly Consolidated Rocks .............................. 29
Table III.4 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IId Partially Weathered or Highly fractured rocks .............. 30
Table III.5 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IIIa: Transported Soils and Gravels ..................................... 31
Table III.6 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IIIb: Residual Soils and Gravels ........................................... 32
Table III.7 Review of marginal materials: Group IV: Duricrust or Pedogenic Gravels ..................................... 32
Table III.8 Review of Marginal Materials: Group V: Manufactured Materials ................................................ 33
Table III.9 High Plasticity Materials ................................................................................................................. 35
Table III.10 Poorly Graded Materials ................................................................................................................. 36
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar A-ii

Table III.11 Review of Low Particle Strength Marginal Materials...................................................................... 37
Table III.12 Review of Low durability marginal materials ................................................................................. 39
Table IV.1 Typical Augering and Non-Rotary Boring Options .......................................................................... 45
Table IV.2 Typical Rotary Boring Options ........................................................................................................ 46
Table IV.3 Rock Bearing Capacity .................................................................................................................... 48
Table IV.4 Clays and Silts Strength................................................................................................................... 48
Table IV.5 Sands and gravels bearing capacity ................................................................................................ 49
Table VI.1 Typical Spot Improvements ............................................................................................................ 59
Table VI.2 Climate Resilience Spot Improvement Options .............................................................................. 60
Table VI.3 Typical ranked spot selection criteria ............................................................................................. 60
Table VII.1 Recent ReCAP Research on LVRR Design ........................................................................................ 64
Table VII.2 Suitability of LVRR Options for Higher Volume Traffic (1-3Mesa) .................................................. 65
Table VII.3 Thin Bituminous Pavement Design Chart for Structural Layers (mm) up to 3.0 Mesa ................... 66
Table VII.4 Revised Design Table for Thin Sealed LVRRs with axles < 8 tonnes ................................................ 67
Table VII.5 Examples Changes in Traffic ........................................................................................................... 68
Table VII.6 Increased Traffic Implications ......................................................................................................... 69
Figures
Figure I.1 Multiplier for the first year Cesa to calculate the Cesa after a number of years (ReCAP, 2016a) .... 7
Figure I.2 Multipliers for Obtaining Future AADTs for Different Growth Rates (ReCAP, 2016a) ...................... 8
Figure I.3 Typical Traffic Count Form for Low Volume Rural Traffic (Intech-TRL, 2006)................................... 9
Figure I.4 Typical Axle Load Form ................................................................................................................... 10
Figure I.5 Axle configurations to be used in conjunction with Figure I.4 ....................................................... 11
Figure V.1 The Assembled DCP ........................................................................................................................ 52
Figure V.2 Standard DCP Field Sheet .............................................................................................................. 54
Figure V.3 Typical Worked Sheet ..................................................................................................................... 55
Figure V.4 Typical EXCEL Calculation Sheet and Plots for DCP Data ................................................................ 55
Figure V.5 Contents of the UK DCP Manual ..................................................................................................... 56
Figure VII.1 Higher Volume Traffic and the Use of the LVRR Manual ................................................................ 69
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar A-iii

ANNEX I. TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
Traffic Surveys
The guidance in this Annex is derived principally from Overseas Road Note 20 (TRL 2003) and
Overseas Road Note 40 (TRL, 2004) amended for LVRR application on the basis of recommendations
in the ReCAP LVRR Design Manual for Ethiopia (2016) and Tanzania (2016).
In order to prepare geometric and pavement designs, it is necessary to estimate a both equivalent
daily traffic volume or Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and Passenger Car Units (PCUs) for the
design period for the road. Whereas a ‘total vehicle count’ does not differentiate between small and
large vehicles, PCU count takes vehicle type into account and so addresses the extra congestion
caused by large vehicles or IMTs. Traffic surveys are carried out to measure existing traffic flows and
characteristics on a route.
Traffic survey methodology
The following advice for traffic counts is recommended by ORN 40.
On an existing route for higher traffic LVRs (estimated at combined directions flow of >100vpd),
count the traffic in each direction for 7 days and for 24 hours each day. If security for night surveys is
a problem, arrange for security protection personnel, or carry out verbal investigations to determine
the nature and estimated quantities of night traffic.
On lower traffic roads, count traffic in both directions from dawn until dusk for 2 days. If traffic is
known to pass at night, make investigations regarding the nature and flows, or multiply by 1.2 to
estimate the 24 hour count; if no traffic passes at night, the 24 hour count equals the day count.
Avoid market days and intense periods of harvest activity if possible. Single-day counts are too
variable and should not be used.
The counts should be carried out during the dry season. Wet season counts may be very low due to
poor road conditions. A standard traffic count field data sheet is included as Figure I.3.
Calculate the average daily traffic for each vehicle type and then convert the average daily traffic to
an equivalent daily traffic using the factors in Table I.1 for the different vehicle types and then sum
to give the total equivalent daily traffic for pavement design.
For geometric design purposes it is necessary to convert the average daily traffic to equivalent
Passenger Car Units (PCUs) using the factors in Table I.2 for the different vehicle types. These data
are then summed give the total PCUs as an input to geometric design.
Table I.1 Typical Equivalent Traffic Conversion for AADTs (TRL,2003, ORN 20)
Vehicle Type Equivalent traffic factor
Truck and bus 5
Tractor 4
Small bus 2
Pick up 1
Car 0.8
Animal 0.2
Motorcycle 0.1
Bicycle 0.05
Pedestrian 0.02
Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar A-2

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
Table I.2 PCU values (See Chapter 6)

Ref. Vehicle Type PCU
1 Car, Light Van, jeeps and Pick Up 1.0

2 Light Truck up to 2.5 tonnes gross 1.5
3 > 2 axle Truck up to 10 tonnes gross 3.0
4 Truck up to 15 tonnes gross 4.0
5 2 axle tractor towed trailers -standard 3.0
6 Single axle tractor towed trailers -standard 1.5
7 Bus up to 40 passengers 3.0
8 Bus over 40 passengers 4.0
9 Motorcycle or scooter 0.5
10 Bicycle 0.5
11 Rickshaw and Tricycle carrying goods 1.0
12 Auto Rickshaw 0.75
13 Hand Cart 2.0
14 Bullock Cart with Tyre 6.0
15 Bullock Cart with Wooden Wheel 8.0
16 Horse-drawn carts 6.0
17 Pedestrian 0.2
If there is established traffic, but it is impossible to organise a traffic survey, traffic can be estimated
from a moving observer count. The 12 hour count, Q, is estimated as follows:
Q = (x + y) X 720/t
Where x = the number of vehicles passing in the opposite direction.
y = the number of vehicles which overtake minus those which are overtaken
t = the time taken to drive the road minutes.
This calculation should be made for each vehicle type and then night factors and equivalent traffic
factors multiplied as appropriate. Since a moving observer count can be inaccurate, particularly
when traffic volumes are low, it is recommended that a minimum of one count in each direction, and
preferably two in each direction, are made and then averaged.
If the route is impassable or is not yet developed, then traffic estimates will have to be developed
from consideration of the economic potential of the road ‘catchment area’ and socio-economic
needs. This requires very careful consideration of a range of factors, such as local economic
development potential, alternative routes, network connectivity and agricultural development. In
such circumstances the road design strategy should be flexible to allow for ease of upgrading should
the future traffic flows substantially exceed the ‘desk’ assessment of likely traffic.
Axle load surveys
Axle loading data is a vital input to the process of designing the road pavement, particularly for
sealed road options and for bridge design. Axle load data is not generally required for unsealed earth
of gravel road design.
Overloading in parts of Myanmar is reported to be widespread, therefore, axle load surveys or at
least truck loading surveys are strongly recommended. Due to the exponential nature of pavement
damage due to overloaded vehicles, it is important to pragmatically assess the potential axle loading
scenarios as part of the road environment input into design.

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
The aim of an axle load survey is to estimate the number of ‘equivalent standard axles’ currently
using the existing road. To do this, a survey is undertaken to determine an average equivalency
factor for each vehicle type Axle load surveys can be undertaken using fixed or portable
weighbridges, as well as weigh-in-motion equipment. See Figure I.4 for use in axle load surveys.
Evaluating traffic flow volumes for pavement design
Depending on the paving option, the basis for pavement design is either Annual Average Daily Traffic
(AADT) or Equivalent Standard Axles (esa).
Current traffic, as derived from the surveys, will be used as the basis for developing predictions of
traffic for the design period for the road. For impassable or undeveloped routes future traffic should
be estimated on the basis of similar roads in similar environments.
Future traffic growth prediction is developed from.
• Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new
pavement were provided.
• Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road. This will be the principal component of new roads and likely to be
based the results of origin and destination surveys (TRL, 1993)
• Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin
and destination.
Normal traffic
The most common method of forecasting the growth of normal traffic is to extrapolate time series
data on traffic levels and assume that growth will either remain constant in absolute terms (a linear
extrapolation) or constant in relative terms (a constant elasticity extrapolation), i.e. traffic growth
will be a fixed number of vehicles per year or a fixed percentage increase. Data on national or
regional fuel sales can often be used as a guide to country-wide or regional growth in traffic levels
although improvements in fuel economy over time should be considered.
As an alternative to time, growth can be related linearly to GDP (or gross domestic income). This is
normally preferable, since it explicitly takes into account changes in overall Myanmar national
economic activity.
It is likely, however, that LVRRs will be substantially affected by local factors and that the rate of
economic development in Myanmar will vary considerably in localities depending on local projects
and programmes in a range of sectors.
If it is thought that a particular component of the traffic will grow at a different rate to the rest, then
it should be specifically identified and dealt with separately. The opening-up, or even temporary use,
of quarries can significantly impact on the vehicle usage.
Construction traffic can also be a significant proportion of total traffic on LVRRs (sometimes 20 – 40
% of total traffic) and should be taken into account considered in the design of the pavement.
For very low volume roads (traffic <25 vpd), a detailed traffic analysis is seldom warranted because
environmental rather than traffic loading factors generally determine the performance of roads.
Diverted traffic
Where parallel routes exist, traffic will usually travel on the quickest and most economical route,
although this may not necessarily be the shortest. Thus, surfacing an existing road may divert traffic

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
from a parallel and shorter route because higher speeds are possible on the surfaced road. Origin
and destination surveys can be carried out to provide data which can be used to estimate likely
traffic diversions. Assignment of diverted traffic is normally done by an ‘all-or-nothing’ method in
which it is assumed that all vehicles that will save time or money by diverting would do so, and that
vehicles that would lose time or increase costs will not transfer. With such a method, it is important
that all perceived costs are included. Diverted traffic is normally forecast to grow at the same rate as
traffic on the road or mode from which it diverted.
Generated Traffic
Generated traffic arises either because a journey becomes more attractive because of a cost or time
reduction, or because of the increased development that is brought about by a road investment. It is
difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily overestimated. It is only likely to be significant in
those cases where the road investment brings about large reductions in transport costs. For
example, in the case of a small improvement within an already developed highway system,
generated traffic will be small and can normally be ignored. Similarly, for projects involving the
improvement of short lengths of rural roads and tracks, there will usually be little generated traffic.
However, in the case of a new road allowing access to a hitherto undeveloped area, there could be
large reductions in transport costs as a result of changing mode from head loading to motor vehicle
transport and, in this case, generated traffic could be the main component of future traffic flow.
The recommended approach to forecasting generated traffic is to use demand relationships (TRL
1993). The price elasticity of demand for transport measures the responsiveness of traffic to a
change in transport costs following a road investment). On inter-urban roads, a distinction is
normally drawn between passenger and freight traffic and, on roads providing access to rural areas,
a further distinction is usually made between agricultural and non-agricultural freight traffic.
Traffic Lane Distribution
The actual traffic loading impacting the pavement needs to take into account the distribution of
wheel loads across the pavement width, Table I.3.
Table I.3 Factors for Distribution of Pavement Traffic Loading TRL, ORN 31
Cross Section Paved width Correct design traffic Explanatory notes
loading (esa)
Double the sum of the The driving pattern on this cross-
< 3.5m
esas in both directions. section is very channelized.
Min. 3.5m but less The sum of esas in both Traffic in both directions uses the
than 4.5m directions. same lane.
Single Carriageway
Min, 4.5m but less 80% of the esas in both To allow for the overlap in the
than 6m directions. centre section of the road.
Total esas in the heaviest Minimal traffic overlaps in the
6m or wider
loaded direction. centre section of the road.
90% of the total esas in The majority of vehicles use one
More than one lane
the studied direction. lane in each direction.
Traffic Analysis Example

The following example of traffic analysis for pavement design is based on a traffic survey undertaken
as part of the design for the DRRD pavement trials in Taungyii (KfW, 2014). The relevant 3-day traffic
count is presented in Table I.4 along with corrected figure for ADT, PCU and esa.

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
Table I.4 Adjustment of Daily Traffic Counts
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ave. per ADT PCU Axle

ADT PCU esa
day Factor Factor Factor
A Minibuses 10 2.00 20.0 3 30.0 0.30 3

B Light Trucks <5 t 10 2.00 20.0 1.5 15.0 1.50 15
C Heavy Trucks >11t 5 4.00 20.0 4 20.0 4.00 20
D Very Heavy Trucks (13t) 1 4.00 4.0 4 4.0 8.00 8
E Pickups 3 1.00 3.0 1 3.0 0.02 0.06
F SUV/4WD 9 1.00 9.0 1 9.0 0.02 0.18
G Cars/Saloon 4 0.80 3.2 1 4.0 0.01 0.04
H Motorcycle trailers 10 0.50 5.0 1 10.0 0.01 0.1
J Power tillers 50 0.50 25.0 3 150.0 0.01 0.5
K Agriculture tractor 1 0.50 0.5 1.5 1.5 0.01 0.01
L Motorcycles 150 0.10 15.0 0.5 75.0 0.01 1.5
M Total Motorized Vehicles 253 124.7 321.5
N Bicycles 25 0.05 1.3 0.5 12.5
O Ox carts 5 0.10 0.5 8 40.0
P Total Non-motorized Vehicles 30 1.8 52.5
Q TOTAL 283
R Pedestrian 120 0.02 2.4 0.2 24.0
S Total 129 Total 398 Total 48
The adjustment factor for ADT and PCU were obtained from Tables I.2 and I.3. The esa equivalence
factor adjustment factors are estimated (TRL, 1993 ORN 31) but should ideally be based on local axle
load surveys or local knowledge of the vehicle fleet using the road in question.
From Table I.4 we can get the following data:
• Cumulative motorised AADT year 1 125 (cell M3)
• PCU (Motorised Traffic) 322 (cell M5)
• PCU (Non-Motorised Traffic) 53 (cell P5)
• Daily esa (Desa) 48 (cell S7)
For pavement design the figure Desa has to be adjusted to take into account:
• Diverted traffic: this was assumed to be negligible
• Generated traffic; as an existing road in fair condition, this was also assumed to be negligible
• Design life ; this was taken as being 12 years (N)
• Traffic growth for this exercise was estimated as being 6%/year (R=0.06)
• Wheel path adjustment (Table I.3) for a 4.5m wide carriageway is 80% of esa

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
• Design CBR% with pavement on imported fill is taken as 6%

Cumulative esa (Cesa) = Desa x 0.8 x 365 x[(1+R)N – 1]/R Equation 1
Or Using Figure I.1 (ReCAP, 2017) with calculated year multipliers, equation 1 becomes
= Desa x 0.8 x 365 x year multiplier
= 48 x 0.8 x 365 x 16.5
= 238,272.or traffic range LV3 (0.1-0.3 Mesa)
This LV3 figure can then be taken to the design charts in chapter 7 and, for example, for a DBST
sealed road on compacted fill of CBR 6%, the thickness design would be as shown in Table I.7
Figure I.1 Multiplier for the first year Cesa to calculate the Cesa after a number of years (ReCAP, 2016a)

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
Table I.5 Example of Thickness Selection
Base 150 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G80 200 G80
S2 (3-4%) Sub-Base 150 G15 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30 175 G30
Subgrade 130 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15
Base 125 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S3 (5-7%) Sub-Base 150 G15 100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
Subgrade 100 G15 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15
Base 175 G45 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S4 (8-14%)
Sub-Base 120 G30 200 G30 200 G30 200 G30
Base 175 G45 125 G65 175 G65 175 G65 175 G80
S5 (15-29%)
Sub-Base 125 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%) Base 150 G45 150 G65 175 G65 175 G65 200 G80
If, as in this, case the calculated esa is close to a Traffic Group border, it is usual to keep it in the
higher groups. Note that for unsealed roads a similar process can be gone through with AADT using
Figure 7.7 in Chapter 7. In the above example the level of traffic indicates it unsuitable for an
unsealed option. If however the road carried only light traffic (no trucks or busses) then around
AADT 130 would result. With a design life of 8 years this would have indicated a GWC of 175mm
over sub-base of 150mm G25 material, using the multipliers in Figure I.2.
Figure I.2 Multipliers for Obtaining Future AADTs for Different Growth Rates (ReCAP, 2016a)

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
Figure I.3 Typical Traffic Count Form for Low Volume Rural Traffic (Intech-TRL, 2006)
Province SURVEYOR
District LOCATION
Daily 12 hour counts DATE

Traffic Class 0600-0900hrs 0900-1200hrs 1200-1500hrs 1500-1800hrs Option for additional Hours Daily Average
MOTORCYCLE
CAR, 4WD, PICKUP
Tractor
LIGHT TRUCK
=< 5 TONS
GVW
TRUCK
> 5 T (2 axle)
GVW
TRUCK
> 5 T (3 axle +)
GVW
Mini-bus/Bus
PEDESTRIAN,
WALKER
ANIMAL/HAND CART
BICYCLE
TOTALS
Rain This Period?
Daily Survey Period: 6.00 hours to 18.00 hours GVW = Gross Vehicle Weight

ANNEX I
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
Figure I.4 Typical Axle Load Form
AXLE LOAD SURVEY
Road Name/Number: Survey Date:

Province: Time of survey:
Surveyor:
AXIAL AXIAL LOADS (TONNES)

No Comment on vehicle type Type of loading
CONFIG 1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Figure I.5 Axle configurations to be used in conjunction with Figure I.4

References
Intech-TRL, 2006. SEACAP 1 Final Report (3 vols). DFID Report for MoT, Vietnam.
ReCAP, 2016a. Tanzania Low Volume Roads Manual. DFID for President’s Office, Regional Administration and
Local Government (PO-RALG).
ReCAP, 2016b. Ethiopian Manual for Low Volume Roads. Volume B Design. DfID for Ethiopian Roads Authority.
TRL, 2003. Overseas Road Note 20. Management of rural road networks. TRL Ltd for DFID.
TRL, 1993. ORN 31 (4th Edition). A guide to Structural Design of Bitumen Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-
tropical countries. TRL Ltd for DFID, UK.TRL, 2004. Overseas Road Note 40. A guide to axle load
surveys and traffic counts for determining traffic loading on pavements. TRL Ltd for DFID

ANNEX II. LABORATORY SOIL AND ROCK
TESTING

ANNEX II
LABORATORY SOIL AND ROCK TESTING
Objectives
An assessment of the geotechnical properties of the soils and rocks associated with a road project is
a vitally important aspect of its cost-effective design and construction. This assessment may be
concerned with the condition and performance of the soil-rock masses along the route or with the
suitability of various soils and rocks as construction materials. In either case laboratory testing is
likely to form an integral part of this assessment within the overall framework of the geotechnical
and materials investigations (Chapters 5 and 8).
To be effective, laboratory testing programmes should take into account not only the selection of
appropriate tests, but also account for the capacity of the laboratory and staff to undertake the tests
and quality manage the data produced.
This Annex outlines the key issues in the design and undertaking of laboratory test programmes.
Particular emphasis should be placed on the selection of appropriate tests and the need for effective
quality management throughout the whole testing and reporting process. The detail in this Annex is
based largely on the references in Table II.1.
Table II.1 Key References for LVRR Laboratory Testing

Reference Relevance
Cook J R, Gourley C S and Elsworth N E, 2001. Guidelines Chapter 6, in particular provides a guidance on selection of
on the selection and use of road construction materials in tests in the context of LVRRs
Developing Countries.
Roughton International Ltd 2000. Guidelines on Materials A companion publication to Cook et al 2001, it provides
and Borrow Pit Management for Low Cost Roads. guidance on the selection and analysis of LVRR materials
tests with illustrations and examples.
Head K.H., (1992). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol Provides guidance on the soil classification and
1, Soil Classification and Compaction Tests compaction testing as well on the management and QA of
laboratories and their data. Based on British Standard test
methods
Head K.H., (1994). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol 2 Provides guidance on the simple strength testing required
Permeability, Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests for LVRR projects. Based on British Standard test methods
Sabatini P.J, et al .2002. Evaluation of Soil and Rock Provides guidance on the sampling, testing and analysis of
Properties. Report No.FHWA-IF-02-034. soil and rock material based on AASHTO and ASTM
procedures.
Testing Programmes
Laboratory testing programmes vary greatly in size and scope depending on the nature of the road
project and associated works. Testing should not be commissioned on an arbitrary or ad hoc basis
but should be part of a rationally designed programme. Clear objectives should be identified and test
programmes need to be designed with these in mind. The relationships between in situ conditions
and those experienced by the sampled and tested material need to be taken into account when
developing test programmes.
Within an overall aim of assuring that selected materials and designs are capable of carrying out
their function, testing is undertaken for a number of reasons.
§ Characterisation of soil rock masses and materials along the route;
§ Assessment of geotechnical properties influencing earthwork cuts and fills;
§ Assessment of geotechnical properties of natural hazards;
§ Identification of potential material resources;
§ Proving quality and quantity of material reserves or processed materials;

ANNEX II
§ Construction quality assurance;

§ In service monitoring;
It is useful to divide materials test procedures into a number of general categories that reflect the
nature of the test. These general are:
1. Physical: Index Tests associated with defining inherent physical properties or conditions;
2. Simulation: Tests associated with portraying some form of geotechnical or engineering
character either directly or by implication;
3. Chemical: Tests aimed at identifying the occurrence of key chemical compounds;
4. Petrographic: Those tests or assessments associated with analysing or describing fabric or
mineralogy.
Tables II.2 to II.4 list common soil and rock material tests under the above headings, taken largely
from Cook et al, 2001
An understanding of the properties being measured by the individual tests is important in the
selection of appropriate procedures. Simulation testing, in particular, may be based largely on
empirical testing procedures rather than modelling expected service behaviours.
In the majority of cases no single test procedure will satisfy specification requirements and a battery
of test procedures will be needed. An appropriate test programme specification will include a logical
selection and sequence of procedures that is function of material quality, the environment and the
road design.
Final as-built road quality is dependent on the processes of selection, winning, hauling, spreading
and compaction, and attempts need to be made to replicate and to predict their impacts through
pre-treatment programmes prior to testing. For example, by subjecting samples due for particle size
analysis, to a compaction cycle prior to sieving. Aggregate impact testing (e.g. AIV), abrasion,
soaking, drying or slake durability pre-treatments could also be used in appropriate circumstance on
samples prior to a main test.
Table II.5 presents recommendations on sample sizes required for testing.
Application of Testing Standards
The majority of laboratory tests in developing countries are governed by strict procedures that, in
the main, have been originally derived from British (BS), American (AASHTO, ASTM) or French
(AFNOR) Standards. In most cases they have been incorporated into national standards, sometimes,
however, with local amendments. It is understood that AASHTO-ASTM standards are adopted in
Myanmar, with additional supplementary testing to BS where no AASHTO-ASTM equivalent exists.
Standards such as AASHTO-ASTM lay down standards of good practice that are in the main based on
"normal" experience with temperate zone sedimentary soils. When dealing with tropical residually
weathered materials special procedures are often necessary to obtain reliable, relevant and
consistent results. This applies particularly to the handling and treatment of samples before testing
(Head 1992).
The approach to the laboratory investigation of tropical materials in terms of the range of tests
employed, their detailed procedures and their interpretation should derive principally from the
following:
§ Chemically bonded materials (e.g. affects assessment of strength);
§ Mineralogical complexity. (e.g. influences volume change);
§ Fragile relict fabric and texture. (e.g. leads to particle break-down);
§ Moisture susceptibility.

ANNEX II
Table II.2 Laboratory Physical Condition Index Tests
Standard Procedures
Physical Condition Tests Comment on Test Disadvantages and Factors to be Aware of. Alternative/Modified Tests
AASHTO ASTM
Drying at differing temperatures to
D2216 Misleadingly high moisture contents in establish “working” moisture content. Sand
Moisture Content T265 Simple and widely accepted test.
halloysitic and allophane rich soils. bath option available option for granular
materials.
C127 & Simple test with correlations established
Water Absorption T84 Variability in multi-clast type deposits.
C128 with bitumen-bound material design.
Influence of >425µm particles; moisture
condition and mixing time. Correlations Undertake at differing moisture states.
Well established soil index and
Liquid Limit (WL) T89 D4318 between AASHTO/ASTM and BSS Drying at differing temperatures. ASTM
classification test.
procedures require caution. D421 is an air dry option.)
Influence of >425µm particles; moisture Undertake at differing moisture states.

Well established soil index test. Plasticity
condition and mixing time. Poor Drying at differing temperatures. Potential
Plastic Limit (Wp) T90 D4318 index (Ip = WL-Wp) used as a key defining
reproducibility and repeatability. differences in plasticity results between
parameter in many specifications.
Correlations between. ASTM and BS procedures.
Yields index information on volume change Initially intended for undisturbed samples
D427 & D427: Shrinkage factor. D4943 Wax
Shrinkage Limit (Ws) T92 potential, not common,y undertaken for although remoulded material can be used.
D4943 method.
LVRR projects.
Can give an estimate of Ip for soils where
Established relationships between Ls . and
Linear Shrinkage (Ls) T216 (BS1377) WL and Ws are difficult to obtain Better Drying at differing temperatures.
Ip may not hold true for some tropical soils.
repeatability and reproducibility than Ip
A Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar: Annex II 16

ANNEX II
Table II.3 Laboratory Physical Condition Index Tests (continued)
Standard Procedures Disadvantages and Factors to be Aware

Physical Condition Tests Comment on Test Alternative/Modified Tests
AASHTO ASTM of.
Interpretation problems with aggregated Alternative dispersion agents; trisodium

Simple and widely accepted test
particles or weak clasts. Requires particle phosphate; tetrasodium phosphate better
Particle Size Distribution T88 D422 incorporating both sieving and
density values. for some tropical soils. Cohesive soils with
sedimentation.
gravel/cobble; special attention.
A rapid site/lab means of determining Dispersion problem in agglomerated
Sand Equivalent Value T176 D2419 relative fines content. n/a
minerals. Relative proportions only.
Accepted test for aggregate size Dry sieving in materials free from
Aggregate Grading T311 C136 & C117 Wet sieve unless little or no fines.
distribution. agglomerated particles only.
Flakiness Index (If) Standard gauge methods of ascertaining Additional shape test: Average Least
Elongation Index (Ie) particle shape. Parameters incorporated Dimension (ALD): NTRR, 1986. D4791
T27 D4791 Use restricted to coarse aggregate only.
into coarse aggregate specifications. produces estimates of flat, elongated or
flat and elongated particles only.
Rapid indirect method of estimating Can only be valid for strong aggregate
Angularity Number T304 (BS 812:105) Roundness also by observational methods.
roundness based on relative voids. particles.
Some soils influenced by drying
Required for use in analysis of other temperature. Care required in testing of Undertake at natural moisture content.
Soil Particle Density T100 D854 parameters materials with clasts of variable Drying at differing temperatures.
mineralogy
Aggregate Particle Density C127/128 In aggregate the procedure will give an Can be measured for a number of states:
Required in bitumen-bound granular
(Bulk particle or Relative T85 "apparent" rather than an "absolute" saturated surface dried (SSD); wet surface
material design calculations.
Density) value. dried (WSD) or oven dried (OD).
Variety of alternative methods. ASTM test
Bulk Density T19M/T19 C29 & C29M Variety of density definitions. Need to have clarity on density definition.
for aggregate <150mm.

ANNEX II
Table II.4 Laboratory Simulation Tests (continued)
Standard Procedure Disadvantages and Factors to be

Simulation Tests Comment on Test Alternative/Modified Tests
AASHTO ASTM Aware of.
Undertaken on undisturbed or Only measures swelling pressure. Soil or Swell amount test; ASTM D4546. ASTM: D4829 -
Swell Pressure T258 D4546 recompacted material to determine fine aggregate only. To measure swell use of swell index EI. Unconfined swell; ISRM
pressure to minimise swell. amount use BS 1377:5, 4.4. (1981)
Can give good indication of potential Disturbance problems in sensitive fabric Alternatively Collapse Potential Index (CPI) load at
Collapse T258 D4546
for fabric collapse. materials. 200kPa; Jennings and Knight (1975).
Consolidation D2435 Consolidation characteristics of as- Disturbance problems in sensitive For radial drainage consolidation and for
T216 compacted soil-fill or on undisturbed materials. Allows vertical drainage only, undisturbed materials the use of the Rowe cell
(oedometer) samples. unrealistic in structured materials. procedures is recommended
Based on empirical evaluation of D4221 – Double hydrometer test based on
Laboratory assessment of soil material performance, mainly in
Pinhole Test D4647 comparison of gradings before and after artificial
dispersion. temperate materials. dispersion. Needs PI>4.
Based on empirical evaluation of

Laboratory assessment of soil Physical observational tests associated with
Crumb Test D6572 material performance, mainly in
dispersion. chemical tests for sodium cations in pore water.
temperate materials
Simple test. Basis of control on site Zero air voids a function of particle Avoid drying of samples as much as possible and
D698 & compaction of fill and pavement density- highly variable in tropical soils.
Compaction T99 & T180 use fresh sample for each moisture point
D1557 materials. Be aware of relationships between
"laboratory" and 'engineering' moisture.

ANNEX II
Standard Procedure Disadvantages and Factors to be Aware

of.
AASHTO ASTM
Quick and simple to perform. A An empirical test only. Correlations with
convenient and widely established test other parameters may be material- A range of conditions and procedures. ASTM
CBR T193 D1883 for defining material suitability for road specific. Dependant on soil moisture- allows for testing at a range of compactive
construction and subsequent quality density-void ratio conditions. Material efforts.
control. >19mm excluded.
Unconsolidated Undrained Short term Unconsolidated Undrained. . Not strictly

applicable for non-saturated conditions Single point tests at range of moisture contents
Triaxial: UU (soil) T296 D2850 fill analysis and cut-slope during
or for non-cohesive materials. for trafficability.
construction.
Consolidated Undrained (with pore Sophisticated test requiring careful

pressure measurement). Long term May need increased backpressures in some
Triaxial: CU (soil) T297 D4767 supervision of experienced staff. Not
effective stress analysis of cut slopes residual soils.
commonly used in LVRR projects
Consolidated Drained. Enables long-term Time consuming test requiring careful

May need increased backpressures in some
Triaxial: CD (soil) D7181-11 effective stress analysis of fill slopes. supervision of experienced staff. Not
residual soils.
commonly used in LVRR projects
Unconfined Compressive Quick and straightforward method of Material needs to be intact, cohesive
T208 D2166
Strength (Soil) obtaining undrained shear strength. and at least stiff in consistency.
Only of use for soft saturated clays with Can be used on materials in compaction or CBR
Vane Shear (Lab) D4648 Rapid test for undrained shear strength.
no coarse particles. moulds.

ANNEX II
Standard Procedure Disadvantages and Factors to be Aware

of.
AASHTO ASTM
Sensitive to changes in moisture
condition and surface crushing. Requires
Simple test with portable equipment. Tests at soaked, natural and dry moisture
Point Load Strength [ISRM] D5731 identical samples (10 min). Correlations
Correlates with UCS. conditions.
with compressive strength vary with
material types.
Requires regular (core) shaped samples.
Unconfined Compressive Straightforward test for measure Sensitive to changes in sample moisture Tests at soaked, natural and dry moisture
[ISRM] D2938 condition, orientation and end-face
Strength (rock) strength of intact rock samples. conditions.
preparation.
Very simple portable field test modified

Laboratory procedures specify "L" type hammer;
from concrete test. Derived for non- Correlations with strength require
Schmidt Hammer [ISRM] alternative "N" hammer requires separate
destructive concrete testing. Can be confirmation per rock type.
correlation.
used on intact rock.
Flakiness, elongation can influence Soaked/unsoaked tests. AIV(R) value measures
Simple test with inexpensive portable
Aggregate Impact Value results as well as base-floor condition. breakdown from 10-2.36mm (M)AIV limits
[812: 112] equipment giving a basic index
(AIV) Tests limited grading. For limited grading blows for weaker materials. Ethylene glycol
parameter for aggregates.
only soaking may be appropriate for some materials.
Gives basic index parameter for
Aggregate Crushing Value Soaked/unsoaked tests. ACV(R) value measures
[812:110] aggregates commonly used in As for AIV.
(ACV) breakdown from 10-2.36mm.
specifications.
Soaked/unsoaked tests. Ethylene glycol soaking
10% Fines Aggregate Modification of ACV test, particularly for
[812: 111] As for AIV may be appropriate for some materials such as
Crushing Tests weaker materials.
basic igneous rocks.

ANNEX II
Standard Procedure
A
A Disadvantages and Factors to be
Simulation Tests S Comment on Test Alternative/Modified Tests
ASTM Aware of.
H
T
O
Assesses aggregate durability as a Magnesium sulphate may be preferred to
Sulphate response to repeated crystallisation and Time consuming. Poor repeatability and
sodium sulphate because of greater
T104 C88 rehydration stresses. Incorporated in reproducibility unless great care taken
Soundness penetrating power of the saturated
many specifications. over procedures.
solution.
Use with plasticity index for argillaceous

T210 & Simple assessment of durability of rock- Fragile materials require careful
Slake Durability D4644 materials. D3744: Durability Index-
[ISRM] like material. handling.
separate fine and coarse tests.
For aggregate <37.5mm. Tests a
Standard combined impact and rolling
Los Angeles Abrasion C131/53 specified grading only. Measures
T96 abrasion test. Commonly used as a ASTMC535 for aggregate >19mm.
(LAA) 5 breakdown in terms of material passing
specification parameter.
1.68 mm sieve only.
Measures breakdown in terms of
[NF P Similar to LAA test but is also used to Can be reported “dry” : MD:S or “wet”
Micro-Deval material passing 1.6 mm sieve only.
18-572] define surface aggregate suitability. MD:E.
Smaller equipment than LAA.
Means of assessing the tendency for Difficult and time-consuming test not
D3319. PSV based on accelerated polishing
Accelerating Polishing D3319 aggregate to polish. Polished Stone Value normally carried out in standard
T279 machine. E660 based on small wheel
Test &E303 (PSV) commonly incorporated into laboratories. Selected aggregate pieces
circular track polishing machine.
surfacing aggregate specifications. only.
Observational test only. Takes account of D2849. Degree of particle coating.
Aggregate –Bitumen Tests for assessing adhesion of bitumen to
T182 D1664 stripping only and not prior coating Adhesion may be indirectly assessed by
Adhesion aggregate in water.
difficulties. mineralogical examination.

ANNEX II
Table II.8 Soil and Aggregate Chemical Tests
Standard Procedure Disadvantages and Factors to be Aware Alternative/Modified Tests

Chemical Tests Advantages of Using Test
of.
BS ASTM
Use of Indicator papers - simple and quick,
BS Electrometric: Standard Requires regular cross-checking against
pH 1377:3, 9 E70 approximate values only Colourmetric method
method, accurate to 0.1pH. buffer solutions.
requires comparison with standard charts.
Total sulphate in soils, including If measured sulphate content is >0.5% the Water soluble sulphate in soil and sulphates in
1377:3, 5.2-
Sulphate Content water- soluble calcium sulphate. water soluble sulphates should also be water also by gravimetric (1377:3, 5.6) and ion
5.5
Accurate if performed with care. measured. exchange(1377:3, 5.5) methods.
BS dichromate oxidation method.
Presence of chlorides influences results, a Peroxide oxidation - used to eliminate organic
Organic Content 1377:3, 3 C40 Accurate and suitable for all soils.
correction can be applied. matter for PSD testing.
Fairly rapid test.
Gravimetric 1377 3:6.4. Used for hardened
BS Rapid titration for carbonate
Not suitable for carbonate content <10%. concrete. D4373 solubility in HCL. Calcimeter:
Carbonate Content 1377:3, 6.3 D4373 content greater than 10%, has 1%
ASTM utilises gas pressure method. simple, quick - approximate but adequate for
accuracy.
most engineering purposes.
1377:3, 7.2- BS Silver nitrate method. Designed Water Soluble: 1377 3:7.2; 812.117 BS Acid
7.3 Titration process requires proper chemical
Chloride Content D1411 for concrete aggregate testing Soluble: 3:7.3. D1411, Calcium and magnesium
facilities.
purposes. chloride in graded aggregate.
Destroys all organic matter. High temperature may break down water
Loss on Ignition (LOI) 1377:3, 4 Applicable for sandy soils of crystallisation in some minerals and give
containing little or no clay. misleading results.

ANNEX II
Table II.9 Petrographic Assessment Procedures
Petrographic Procedure Procedure Description Procedure Application

Aggregate: Qualitative Visual Examination Record general character of aggregate sample including A quick and rapid assessment
grading, texture, shape and rock type.
Aggregate: Quantitative Visual Sieve into separate size fractions and examine each fraction in Detailed petrographic procedure for identification of weak and/or
Examination terms of grading, texture, shape, rock type and mineralogy. unsuitable materials and recognition of potentially deleterious
Utilise additional procedures set out below as appropriate. minerals.
Methylene Blue Value Based on absorption of methylene blue by clay minerals. Rapid method of indicating the presence of deleterious clay minerals
Powdered rock or fine soil sample suspended in solution and Does not give any indication of mineral type. May need additional
then titrated with methylene blue. fabric assessment work for more reliable results.
Binocular Microscopy The use of plane light binocular microscope requires little A quick and straightforward method for the examination of soil fabric
sample preparation. Small hand-held microscopes can be used and texture of hand specimens. Photographs can be easily taken to
in the field. support descriptions
Thin Section Microscopy The traditional geological method of examination of mineralogy May be used for the examination of fabric and as a means of
and fabric of thin sub-samples of hand specimens under both establishing mineral composition by point-count techniques. Difficult
plane and polarised light. to make sections in friable materials. Possible to take photographs.

ANNEX II
Table II.10 Standard Materials Tests and Required Sample Sizes
Minimum Sample Required

Test Procedure ASTM
Fine Medium Coarse
Moisture Content D2216 0.05kg 0.35kg 4.00kg
Liquid Limit (Cone /Casagrande)) D4318 0.50kg 1.00kg 2.00kg
Liquid Limit (one point Cone) D4318 0.10kg 0.20kg 0.40kg
Plastic Limit D4318 0.05kg 0.10kg 0.20kg
Shrinkage Limit D427 0.50kg 1.00kg 2.00kg
Linear Shrinkage (BS1377) 0.50kg 0.80kg 1.50kg
Particle Size (Sieve) C136 -117 0.15kg 2.50kg 17.00kg
Particle Size (Hydrometer) 0.25kg
Particle Density D854 0.30kg 0.60kg 0.60kg
Compaction – CBR (Modified) D1883 80.0 kg
Mg/Na Soundness C88 150g 600g 850g
Chemical Tests (Organic, Chloride, C40, 150g 600g 350g
carbonate etc.) D1411,
D4373
Point Load Test (ISRM) Ten identical samples
Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) C131 5.00-10.00kg
Derived Indices
A number of common soil indices are derived from relationships between, Atterberg limits and
particle size and are used to characterise unbound granular materials and soils. These can be useful
for characterising general engineering and geotechnical behaviour. Commonly used grading indices
are defined below:
Fines Ratio (FR) = P 0.075/P 0.425
Grading Coefficient (GC) = (P 26.5 – P 2.00) x P 4.75/100
Grading Modulus (GM) = [300 - (P 2.00 + P 0.425 + P 0.075)]/100
Coarseness Index (IC) = (100 – P 2.36)
Fineness Index (IF) = P 0.075
(Where P 0.425 = percentage of material passing the 0.425mm sieve etc., and P is the percentage
passing the sieve size given)
Parameters defined to evaluate the relationship between plasticity and fines content include:
Plasticity Modulus = Plasticity Index x % passing 0.425 mm sieve
Plasticity Product = Plasticity Index x % passing 0.075 mm sieve
Shrinkage Product = Linear Shrinkage x % passing 0.425 mm sieve

ANNEX II
References
BSS 1980. BS 1377: Methods of Test for Soil for Civil Engineering. British Standards Institution
Cook J R, Gourley C S and Elsworth N E , 2001. Guidelines on the selection and use of road construction
materials in Developing Countries. TRL research Report R6898 for DFID, UK.
Head K H, 1994. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol 2 Permeability, Shear Strength and Compressibility
Tests. John Wiley & Sons 440pp.
Head K H,1992. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing . Vol 1 Soil Classification and Compaction Tests (2nd Edition).
Pentech Press 387
ISRM, 1981. Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring; Suggested Methods. International Society of Rock
Mechanics. Pergamon Press.
Jennings J E & Knight K, 1975. The prediction of total heave from the double oedometer test. Symp. on
Expansive Clays. S. African Inst. Civil Eng.

ANNEX III
MARGINAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ANNEX III. MARGINAL CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS

ANNEX III
Introduction
For the purposes of this Manual the discussion on marginal materials is largely focussed occurring road
construction materials that do not comply with accepted specifications but which can perform adequately in
service for pavements within identifiable limits.
In Chapter 8 it was noted non-standard materials might be used successfully in LVRRs pavements where traffic
is low and the road environment understood and, provided quality control is adequate.
Specifications drawn-up for specific project environments need not be as conservative as overall international
or national specification and hence may allow the use of previously non-conforming or marginal materials. In
effect this means selecting materials on an “appropriateness-for-use” basis.
Details in the Annex are drawn primarily from two documents:
Cook J R, Bishop E C, Gourley C S and Elsworth N E. 2002. Promoting the use of marginal materials TRL Ltd DFID
KaR Project PR/INT/205/2001 R6887.
General characteristics of marginal materials

Marginal materials that could be considered for use in Myanmar in pavement construction can effectively be
grouped within a five tier system as shown in Table III.1.
Table III.1 Marginal Material Groups

Group Sub-Group Examples
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
I Strong Rocks
Crystalline Basic Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks
II Inherently Weak or Poorly Weak Conglomerates &Sandstones
Consolidated Rocks Shale, Siltstone and Mudstone Deposits
II Weak Rocks
II b Weathered and/or Highly Weak Volcanic Agglomerates and Breccias
Fractured Rocks Other partially Weathered Rocks
Alluvial Sand & Gravel Deposits
III a Transported Soils and Alluvial and Aeolian Sand Deposits
Gravels Clayey Sand Deposits
III Natural Granular Colluvial Deposits
Deposits Quartz Gravels
Weathered Granite / Gneiss
III b. Residual Soils and Gravels
Other Residual Gravelly Soils
Clayey Sand Deposits
IV Duricrust Gravels Laterites
Fired Clay Bricks
V Manufactured Demolition Waste (Concrete and Brick)
Materials
Industrial By-products (Plastic) & Waste Material Products
Tables III-2 to III-8 provide a summary review of typical aspects of each group. These tables describe the typical
international and regional examples and identify the properties of the materials which force their
consideration as marginal materials. Within each group consideration is given to the potential use of the
materials in road construction and further considers actions that can be taken to improve the material
standard.

ANNEX III
Table III.2 Review of Marginal Materials: Group I hard rocks
Material Types Material Description Typical Defects Potential Pavement Construction & Performance
Materials with poor particle shape tend not to satisfy

POOR PARTICLE SHAPE. High proportion of laboratory CBR required for “standard” roadbase
flaky particles (If > 40% ) in roadbase materials materials.
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS : will lead to poor particle interlock, compaction
Common Types: difficulties and relatively low in situ dry May be satisfactory for lower standard roadbase design
Strong massive to closely jointed such as CBR 50 or CBR 40% for low volume sealed roads
• Slate densities.
STRONG ROCKS, which may (less than 0.5 – 1.0 Mesa).
• Phyllite produce poorly graded materials HIGH MICA CONTENT. High content of
• Schist on crushing comprising a micaceous minerals can lead to difficulties with Can be improved by mechanical stabilisation – blending
significant proportion of flaky and compaction in the laboratory and on site. May with well-shaped angular materials designed to improve
• Gneiss particle interlock, reduce voids and produce a smooth
elongate particles. also affect liquid limit determination and
• Amphibolite curve within the desired grading envelope.
unrealistically high PI’s that bear little
relationship to field performance. De-densification of compacted layers can occur due to
presence of excess mica, particularly when using
vibratory compaction equipment.
CRYSTALLINE IGNEOUS ROCKS
DECAY IN-SERVICE DUE TO MINERAL Provided that secondary mineralisation is not
Strong massive to closely jointed
1 Special Group: (fine to medium ALERTATION. Apparently sound, but slightly significantly developed then these hard rocks will
STRONG ROCKS which can
grained) Basic Igneous Rocks i.e.: weathered, strong rock aggregate may produce good quality crushed roadbase, sub-base and
typically be processed by
• Basalt deteriorate (decompose) rapidly after sealing aggregate. Susceptible materials can however
crushing and screening to
• Dolerite processing and in the road pavement to deteriorate during pavement design-life and even while
produce desirable grading.
produce plastic fines. stockpiling.
• Gabbro

ANNEX III
Table III.3 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IIa Weak or Poorly Consolidated Rocks
Material Types Material Description Typical Defect Potential Pavement Construction & Performance
• POOR “AS DUG” GRADING. Frequently gap graded with
a high proportion of oversize material.
May comprise poorly consolidated Rarely suitable for use in pavement construction
(rippable) deposits that when • HIGH VARIABILITY WITHIN OUTCROP. Often without some processing to reduce oversize content
WEAK VOLCANIC interbedded with finer ash deposits , which may have high
excavated produce variably graded and improve grading. Cobble and boulder size
AGGLOMERATES AND PI. Near surface deposits may be weathered but with well
silty sandy angular to sub angular fragments are typically strong and may be difficult to
BRECCIAS cemented HARD ROCK appearing at depth.
GRAVEL and COBBLES with some treat with a grid roller or mobile hammer mill.
boulders. • UNSOUND STONE CONTENT. Rippable materials may Crushing and processing is likely to be required.
have undergone significant weathering
• POOR PARTICLE SHAPE. Rounded particles have poor
interlocking properties, hence “as dug” conglomerate Conglomerate gravels will typically require crushing
Weakly cemented rock comprising deposits will tend to be difficult to compact and produce and screening in order to satisfy “standard” roadbase
sand and pebbles that typically low dry densities. specification requirements. Roadbase materials may
produces moderately to well be supplied from well graded or simply screened
WEAK CONGLOMERATES • VARIABLE UNSOUND STONE CONTENT. Conglomerate
graded silty SAND and rounded to gravels can comprise a mix of rock types and may contain a Crushed gravels for use in bituminous surfacing
subangular GRAVEL with a variable significant proportion of weak or weathered particles. should be investigated to determine their unsound
proportion of cobbles (weathered and inherently weak) stone content and
• HIGH PLASTICITY FINES. Some conglomerates may
have a fine matrix producing high plasticity fines. adhesion characteristics.
• LOW PARTICLE STRENGTH.
Weakly cemented rock • POOR AGGREGATE DURABILITY. Particularly associated
Selected deposits may supply roadbase. materials for
predominantly comprising sand with argillaceous (clayey) sandstones.
low volume sealed roads in low rainfall areas e.g.
WEAK SANDSTONES size particles usually dominated by • POOR “AS DUG”GRADING those exhibiting high un-soaked CBR values but poor
quartz although feldspar material
(arkose) also encountered.
• HIGH PERMEABILITY loss of strength on saturation. soaked CBRs.
• HIGH PI in arkose material when feldspars decay .

ANNEX III
Table III.4 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IId Partially Weathered or Highly fractured rocks
• HIGH PI CARBONATE FINES. Typically associated with
weathering along joints and fractures.
• POOR “AS DUG” GRADING with variable proportion of Well graded (suitably processed) clayey materials
FRACTURED/ Fractured and weathered rock
oversize. typically provide high soaked CBR strengths of 60 –
WEATHERED (RIPPABLE) forming clayey slightly sandy
80%. Can supply roadbase aggregates for low volume
LIMESTONES angular GRAVEL and cobbles. • DIFFICULT TO CRUSH with traditional equipment due
sealed roads.
to clogging. Grid roller or mobile hammer mill may be
appropriate.
• LOW PARTICLE STRENGTH. Inherently weak rock
ARGILLACEOUS types.
MATERIALS Fine grained weak rocks that may • AGGREGATE DETERIORATION. Will tend to “slake” Some materials may be suitable for use as sub-base
• Shale be fissile. Typically produce silty to after extraction and in the road to produce plastic in roads up to medium traffic in well drained dry
clayey weak angular or platy fines. conditions. Will tend to soften rapidly in wet
• Siltstone GRAVEL. conditions.
• POOR GRADING
• Mudstone • POOR SHAPE
• VARIABILITY WITHIN OUTCROP. Expect considerable Some rippable partially weathered and fractured rock
Many partially weathered rock and sometimes unpredictable lateral and horizontal types can supply roadbase material for low volume
types (whether sedimentary, variation in aggregate quality.. sealed roads. Aggregate quality will vary according to
igneous or metamorphic) may degree of alteration (i.e. depth below ground).
• PRESENCE OF DELETERIOUS SECONDARY MINERALS Selection and mixing during extraction may be critical
WEATHERED ROCKS produce sandy GRAVEL materials.
Fracture spacing and or bedding • LOW PARTICLE STRENGTH. to obtaining a satisfactory material.
planes facilitate extraction of well • POOR “AS DUG” GRADING A wider range of weathered rock types will be
graded materials by dozer ripping. • HIGH PLASTICITY FINES suitable for supply of sub-base and selected subgrade
aggregates.

ANNEX III
Table III.5 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IIIa: Transported Soils and Gravels
Well graded unstabilised materials may be suitable for

• UNIFORMITY OF PARTICLE SIZE. Poor performance in sub-base construction (soaked CBR 20-30%).
Typically silty non plastic to pavement layers is associated with sand deposits
ALLUVIAL SAND DEPOSITS low plasticity SAND comprising a high proportion of single size particles. Cement or bitumen treated materials can form roadbase,
deposits. • POOR PARTICLE SHAPE. but can exhibit shrinkage cracking with former.
.
• POOR GRADING. By definition these deposits lack gravel
size fraction. Materials with good engineering properties Un-stabilised materials have been used for roadbase
will usually have a wide range of fine grained particle construction for very low volume sealed roads in low
sizes. rainfall areas (< 500 mm/year).
ALLUVIAL CLAYEY SAND Clayey (low to moderate PI)
DEPOSITS silty SAND. • POOR PARTICLE SHAPE. Angular particles provide good
If cement stabilisation is considered for more highly
interlock and improved engineering properties.
trafficked roads these are prone to cracking and preferred
• MODERATE PI FINES. Performance is related to the PIs but use is in sub-base beneath an un-stabilised roadbase.
more significantly related to the volumetric stability
• POOR GRADING. Usually gap graded with a high
Typically coarse angular proportion of oversize material.
SAND and GRAVEL deposits
COLLUVIAL DEPOSITS • VARIABILITY WITHIN THE DEPOSIT. Colluvial deposits The character of these deposits is dependent on the
with a variable cobble and
frequently comprise a variable mix of rock types. nature of the parent rocks and terrain.
boulder content in a matrix
of silty sand or sandy clay. • HIGH PI FINES.
• POOR PARTICLE SHAPE. Rounded particles have poor
interlocking properties, and difficult to compact . Alluvial gravels typically require crushing and screening in
Typically moderately to
well graded silty SAND and • VARIABLE UNSOUND STONE CONTENT. Alluvial deposits order to satisfy “standard” roadbase specification
ALLUVIAL GRAVEL DEPOSITS rounded to subangular comprise a mix of rock types that reflect the geology of requirements. Roadbase materials for low volume sealed
GRAVEL with a variable the drainage catchment. roads may be supplied from well graded or simply
proportion of cobbles and • HIGH PLASTICITY FINES. Some alluvial deposits, screened (i.e. grizzly) subrounded to subangular deposits.
boulders. particularly terrace deposits, may contain an excess of
plastic fines. s.

ANNEX III
Table III.6 Review of Marginal Materials: Group IIIb: Residual Soils and Gravels
• POOR GRADING. By definition these deposits lack Un-stabilised materials have been used as roadbase for low
gravel size fraction. Materials with good engineering volume and very low volume sealed roads.
RESIDUAL CLAYEY SAND Clayey (low to mod PI) silty properties will usually have a wide range of fine
DEPOSITS SAND. grained particle sizes. Problems have been encountered with cement improved/
stabilised lateritic clayey sands. Careful evaluation is required
• POOR PARTICLE SHAPE. if stabilisation is considered.
• POOR GRADING. These deposits tend to be variably “As dug” deposits will rarely be suitable for standard roadbase
graded within the exploitable horizon and are construction, due to inherent variability in terms of grading,
frequently gap graded. particle strength and plasticity.
RESIDUAL GRAVEL Variably graded typically clayey
DEPOSITS sandy angular to subangular • HIGH PLASTICITY FINES. In situ weathering can lead However, this group of deposits has been widely used as a
GRAVEL. to mineralogical decay that produces plastic fines. source of aggregate for lime or cement improved/stabilised
• HIGH UNSOUND STONE CONTENT. High proportion of roadbase material. Also used as roadbase and sub-base in low
partially weathered particles can be present volume sealed roads in arid, semi-arid and seasonally wet
climatic areas.
Table III.7 Review of marginal materials: Group IV: Duricrust or Pedogenic Gravels
In situ varies from moderately • LOW PARTICLE STRENGTH. Particle strength is highly When well compacted these deposits form a dense relatively
strong rock (curasse) to weakly variable but rarely complies with “standard” impervious pavement with good load bearing
cemented or dense clayey pavement materials requirements. characteristics.
Laterite Deposits gravel. • HIGH PLASTICITY FINES. Low plasticity deposits occur Higher plasticity materials can be subject to significant loss
“As dug” materials highly and perform well in road pavements, however many of strength on saturation. Careful laboratory testing is
laterite aggregates contain a high proportion of needed in addition to case study experience from the region
variable but typically clayey to
silty slightly sandy subangular plastic fines that exceeding standard to be confident in using the material as roadbase.
relatively weak GRAVEL. recommendations.

ANNEX III
Table III.8 Review of Marginal Materials: Group V: Manufactured Materials
Whole brick (block) pavements with bitumen surfacing have

been successfully constructed in rural and urban situations. If
adequately supported by underlying layers then such
Bricks with a variety of
strength characteristics may be
• POOR GRADING. Hand knapping of bricks tends to pavements should carry relatively heavy traffic loads.
produce poorly graded aggregates.
produced depending on the Strong (over burnt bricks) can be crushed to produce roadbase
Bricks available raw material source • LOW PARTICLE STRENGTH. Particle strength is material for light to medium trafficked roads (up to 3 M esa).
and quality manufacturing variable but relatively high strength aggregates can 10% to 20% sand may be needed to improve grading and
procedures. Bricks may be be produced from crushed high quality brick. stability of some crushed brick products.
used whole or crushed.
Crushed brick mixed with sand (20%–50%) has been found to
be suitable for use as sub-base material in medium trafficked
roads.
Recycled brick and concrete • VARIABLE PARTICLE STRENGTH. Particle strength will
Demolition Waste waste can be processed to vary in accordance with the variability of the Guidelines for use of crushed brick aggregates will generally be
supply various qualities of materials being recycled. applicable (see above).
(concrete & brick)
graded granular material.
Industrial By-products &
Waste Materials Products Variety of granular materials • LOW PARTICLE STRENGTH may be associated with ash
• Blast Furnace Slag including ash and clinker type and slag materials. Sometimes used in lower pavement layers. Pozzolanic
• Fly Ash waste products from coal • POOR GRADING. Most waste products tend to be materials may be suitable for use as stabilising additives in
• Mine Tailings burning power stations and relatively uniformly graded. upper pavement layers
• Demolished asphalt steelworks.
Pavement

ANNEX III
Problem Definition and Analysis

Key steps in the decision-making process in relation the use of marginal or non-standard materials
may be summarised as follows
§ Defining the material characteristics;
§ Evaluation of the engineering environment;
§ Assessment of engineering risk in the light of above.
In addition, in order to define the limits of use it is necessary to clearly identify the “non-standard”
characteristics of the materials and furthermore to identify and understand the engineering
limitations of the material. This will involve one or more of the following activities:
§ Identification of the standard laboratory-based properties (usually those laid out in the
specification);
§ Detailed examination using special laboratory tests or procedures;
§ Assessment of changes in engineering character during construction operations;
§ Evaluation of in-service performance.
A clear understanding of the above will enable a more confident judgment of the appropriate use of
the material.
Options for Use or Improvement
To compensate for using lower strength materials greater thicknesses of material may be needed in
some circumstances to protect the road from sub-grade deformation. The use of higher compaction
standards for some marginal materials may not possible or appropriate (e.g., foliated materials of
Group 1, weak materials in Groups II, IIIa and IV).
Achieving even higher levels of compaction than those normally specified for sub-base and base
could be a relatively cheap method of increasing the stiffness of the pavement and increasing
performance of harder materials such as:
§ Crystalline materials in Group 1;
§ Some weathered materials (Group IIb);
§ Alluvial or colluvial materials (Group IIIa);
§ Residual gravels (Group IIIb);
§ Highly indurated duricrusts (Group IV).
Groups may be defined according to the non-standard or defective property that will be identified
during laboratory investigations. The “defect groups” considered are:
§ High Plasticity Materials;
§ Poorly Graded Materials;
§ Poorly Shaped Materials;
§ Low Particle Strength Materials;
§ Low Durability Materials.
Tables III-9.to III-13 review each of these “defect groups” and present a summary of geological
material types associated with the non-standard property.

ANNEX III
Table III.9 High Plasticity Materials
Test Methods & Analysis to Pavement Design To

Types of Marginal
Problems Quantify and Limit the Accommodate High Options for Improving Material Quality / Performance
Material
Problem Plasticity Fines
Mechanical Stabilisation
Blend with low plasticity material
Restrict use according to Lime Treatment: typically suitable for base when:
climatic or road Passing 0.425mm min 15%
environment factors. (take Passing 0.075 mm 5-35%
Standard Tests: note of potential flood or PI 10 – 25%
Engineering Properties Liquid Limit (LL), drought risks). Soaked CBR min 20%
Poor soaked CBR results (i.e. Plastic Limit (PL), Restrict use according to Lime Treatment: typically suitable for sub-base when:
Linear Shrinkage (LS),
Laterite Gravels poor load bearing capacity) traffic type & loading, e.g. Passing 0.425mm min 15%
Activity
very low-volume roads Passing 0.075 mm max 40%
Quartz Gravels Compaction problems Hydrometer Grading
only. PI 10 – 30 %
Compaction and CBR
River Terrace Deposits Susceptibility to loss of Cement Treatment: typically suitable for base when:
Grading Modulus Plasticity Ensure protection from
strength on wetting PI max 25%
Colluvial deposits Modulus Plasticity Product pavement saturation:
Good bituminous surface Passing 0.075 mm 5-35%
Pavement Defects Shrinkage Modulus
Clayey Sands seal Soaked CBR min 20%
Potholes Special Tests Cement treatment: typically suitable for sub-base when:
Other Rippable Sealed Shoulders
Mineralogy prevent upward migration Passing 0.075 mm max 40%
Weathered Rocks Rutting Chemical analysis, Volume of moisture (i.e. from PI max 30%
Cracking change
underlying layers). Bitumen Treatment: typically suitable for sand base
when:
Maintenance of
Passing 0.075 mm 10-30%
waterproof seals
LL max 40%
PI max 15%
A-35
ANNEX III
Table III.10 Poorly Graded Materials

Pavement Design To
Types of Marginal Test Methods & Analysis to Quantify Options for Improving Material
Problems Accommodate Poor
Material and Limit the Problem Quality / Performance
Grading
Coarse Gap Graded

Standard Tests:
Compaction Problems ~Particle Size Distribution,
~Sand Equivalence Testing Restrict use according to
High % of voids, will result in high
point loads; break-down of weaker All Materials climatic factors and road Mechanical Stabilisation
particles and high permeability. environment ~ Blend with materials that will
Grading Modulus and improve grading characteristics
Any natural granular Potential for collapse. Restrict use according to
Uniformity Coefficients
deposit (incL. alluvial, traffic type & loading. Screen
Poor load bearing capacity (CBR)
colluvial, residual soils, Curvature Coefficients Removal of oversize usually feasible,
associated with poor particle interlock. Select aggregate grading
duricrust deposits) but removal of sticky excess fines
Reject Index (% retained on 37.5mm specification that allows
Excess Fines Content may be difficult when materials
Weak or poorly cemented sieve) optimum use of available
materials (e.g. laterite Compaction Problems damp.
Coarseness Index material. For example,
curasse, weak consider: Crush and screen
conglomerate) Poor internal friction characteristics
Fineness Index To create desirable grading, using
with poor interlock between larger
(% passing 0.075mm sieve) one or more material sources.
Highly fractured particles (ie they “float”) resulting in Water bound macadam
competent rocks low CBR. b) Fine Materials Dry bound Macadam Lime or cement treatment: typically
If fines are plastic the material will Void ratio Telford base suitable for improving materials with
prone to weakening on saturation (low excess fines.
Permeability Ensure protection from
soaked CBR). pavement saturation if
Level of compaction and air voids excess plastic fines.
Uniformly graded
Relationship between Compaction,
Poor compaction, low density & high
Moisture Content and CBR
permeability.
A-36
ANNEX III
Table III.11 Review of Low Particle Strength Marginal Materials
Pavement Design To
Types of Marginal Test Methods & Analysis to Quantify Options for Improving Material
Problems Accommodate Poor Particle
Material and Limit the Problem Quality / Performance
Shape
Mechanical Stabilisation
Blend with suitably graded
materials that have good (cubical)
• Standard Tests:
particle shape.
Flakiness Index,
Elongation Index, Crush
Particle Size Distribution,
¨ Compaction Problems. Rounded materials will be
¨ Foliated Metamorphic % Crushed Particles
improved by crushing.
rocks (flaky ¨
and High % of voids, will result in high Crushing Coefficient Crushing Ratio
point loads that will cause break-down Average Least Dimension Restrict use according to
elongated). Improve crushing procedures (flaky
of weaker particles and high traffic type and loading.
¨ Alluvial Gravels and Visual inspection materials)
permeability.
Sands (rounded to Flakiness Restrict use according to The type of crushing apparatus (ie
subrounded). ¨ May give poor CBR results (ie poor Elongation climatic and road whether toggle jaw crusher or cone
load bearing capacity) associated with ALD Value
¨ Conglomerates (rounded environment factors. crusher etc) may significantly
poor particle interlock and internal
to subrounded) Grading Modulus influence the proportion of flaky
friction.
Well graded materials are better able to particles produced during
tolerate poor shaped particles due to aggregate processing.
reduced point load contacts, % voids and
permeability. Select compaction plant that will
Level of Compaction limit break-down of (carefully
processed) aggregate during
pavement laying.
Inherently weak rocks Change in grading characteristics Standard Tests: Mechanical Stabilisation
Restrict use according to
Marls & Limestones, during compaction. Including Aggregate Crushing Value Blend with stronger materials that
traffic type and loading.
Mudstone & Siltstones, generation of excess fines. (ACV) will
Weak Sandstones, Los Angeles Abrasion Restrict use according to improve grading characteristics.
Difficulty in identifying MDD and OMC.
Weak Tuffs (LAA) Value climatic factors – do not use
Crushing and Screening
Compaction Problems. Difficulty in Aggregate Impact Value in environments that will
Partially Weathered Removal of weaker particles in a
achieving required field density. (AIV) induce aggregate
Rocks (all types) mixed strength material.
10 % FACT deterioration.
Low density will be linked to low CBR
Weak Natural Gravels Water Absorption Test Lime or cement treatment may
strength.
Some calcretes significantly improve material
A-37
ANNEX III
Some laterites Recommended Test for Low Strength performance.

Some silcretes Aggregates
Match construction plant and
Most volcanic scoria 10% FACT Wet and Dry
construction procedures with
cinders) Modified AIV procedures
material characteristics.
Volcanic ash &
pumice
Weak Manufactured
Materials
Weak Bricks
Weak Demolition
Waste
Weak Industrial
Wastes
A-38
ANNEX III
Table III.12 Review of Low durability marginal materials
Test Methods & Analysis to Pavement Design To

Types of Marginal
Problems Quantify and Limit the Accommodate Poor Options for Improving Material Quality / Performance
Material
Problem Durability
Argillaceous Rock types:

Marl
Limestone Restrict use according to
Mudstone, shale climatic or road
Argillaceous sandstone Apparently strong pavement environments factors – do
aggregates decompose in- not use in environments
Poorly Cemented Rock
service or during that will induce aggregate
Types: Standard Tests:
construction/stockpiling deterioration. Mechanical Stabilisation
Weak Tuffs Sodium Sulphate &
procedures (climatic Blend with materials that will diminish overall degradation
Weak Sandstones Magnesium Sulphate Ensure protection from
influences important).
Soundness Tests LAA pavement saturation. Lime or cement treatment may inhibit durability problems
Partially Weathered
Decomposition may generate Slake durability Good bituminous surface but will require detailed investigation and possibly long
Rocks (all types)
plastic fines that are seal. term field trails.
Mineralogical Analysis
Some basic to susceptible to softening and Sealed Shoulders.
intermediate igneous volumetric change on wetting Prevent upward migration
rock or drying. of moisture (i.e. from
Basalt underlying layers).
Dolerite Maintenance of waterproof
Gabbro seals.
Andesite etc.
A-39
ANNEX III
References
Austroads, (1998). Guide to stabilisation in roadworks. National Association of Australian State Road
Authorities.
Cook J R, Bishop E C, Gourley C S and Elsworth N E. 2002. Promoting the use of marginal materials TRL Ltd DFID
KaR Project PR/INT/205/2001 R6887.
Sherwood P.T. (1993). Soil Stabilisation with Cement and Lime. TRL State-of the Art Review.
A-40
ANNEX IV. GROUND INVESTIGATION
TECHNIQUES
A-41
ANNEX IV
GROUND INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES
Introduction
The following sections provide in some detail the principal Ground Investigation measures that are
likely to be used for the assessment of ground conditions and materials for LVRR design in Myanmar.
Form IV.1 is a typical walkover survey sheet that incorporates aspects of climate vulnerability.
Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Tests

The DCP test is an effective method for obtaining sub-surface information for LVRR design to a depth
of approximately 0.8m (1.40-1.60m with extension rod). The use of the DCP helps to delineate
homogenous subgrade sections along the road and to identify soft spots of the subgrade for further
investigation using pits and trenches. Using this test, strength characteristics of the subsurface soils
at field moisture and density conditions can be obtained directly. The equipment is light and
portable and is also useful for investigating the characteristics of pavement layers of existing roads
for rehabilitation projects. In addition, DCP tests can also be used for quality control during
construction and near surface estimations of strength and bearing capacity for shallow slope failure
assessment and small structure foundation design.
Annex V DCP Options presents in more detail the procedures for incorporating DCP surveys into
pavement design.
The In Situ Field Vane Shear Test

The vane shear test involves the use of a simple rotated blade to evaluate the undrained and
remoulded shear strength in soft to stiff clays and silts. The use of the vane shear test should be
limited to soils in which slow (6o / min) rotation of the blade will lead to undrained shearing. Vane
sizes range from a diameter of 38 to 92 mm, a height of 76 to 184 mm, a blade thickness between
1.6 and 3.2 mm, and are attached to a 12.7-mm diameter rod.
Vane size selection is a function of the anticipated strength of the soil and accuracy of the torque
wrench. Larger vanes are typically used in soft soils and smaller vanes used in stiffer soils. While a
large vane will provide better resolution than a smaller vane, it may cause more disturbance during
insertion, be more difficult to rotate and thus lead to additional disturbance, or result in loads that
overstress the capacity of the torque wrench.
Three parameters can be obtained from the vane shear test:
§ Undrained shear strength;
§ Remoulded undrained shear strength;
§ Sensitivity (the ratio of 1 to 2 above).
For detailed information on in situ vane shear equipment and its use see ASTM D2573 and for
analysis see Sabatini P.J, et al, 2002, Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties.
Cone Penetration Testing

The cone penetration test (CPT) involves the hydraulic or mechanical push of an instrumented steel
probe at constant rate to obtain continuous vertical profiles of stress, pressures, and/or other
measurements (ASTM D5778). No borehole, cuttings, or spoil are produced by this test. Cone
resistance and side friction are measured as the standard parameters for correlation with the
geotechnical properties of soil. Empirical correlations are widely used to obtain estimates of relative
density, effective angle of shearing resistance (φ'), and stiffness. It should be borne in mind that
empirical correlations are soil-type dependent, and therefore may be of limited accuracy unless
backed with more direct information from testing of borehole samples or cores.
A-42
ANNEX IV
The measurement of pore water pressure during cone testing is possible with appropriate set-ups
where a porous element is included in the apparatus, with an electronic pore pressure transducer
mounted in a cavity behind it. There is now an awareness of the tremendous potential of this tool,
especially when testing in soft, primarily cohesive, deposits.
CPT devices can range from small 1-2Tonne machines to 20Tonne truck mounted machines.
Recording of data can vary from visual reading of dials on the simplest and lightest machines to the
automatic electronic downloading and interpretation in the most up-to-date machines. Small light
CPT machines are ideal for remote or difficult access sites. For larger projects extending over wide
areas of soft ground the use of more sophisticated CPT machines can be of significant cost-benefit in
terms of the quality and usefulness of the data recovered for bridge or high embankment foundation
investigations. For detailed information on Cone Penetration Testing and its use see ASTM D5778
and for analysis see Sabatini P.J, et al, 2002, Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties.
Form IV.1 Typical Walkover Sheet

ROAD CONDITION ASSESSMENT FORM
PROVINCE: ROAD NAME: TRAFFIC
DISTRICT: ROAD CODE: INSPECTOR: DATE: PAGE: 01
STRIP MAP 3 4 5 6 7. PROFILE
Village / urban area: Stream F: FLAT IRR: IRRIGATED LAND RO: ROCK A 0 -2% 1 5
8
Rock Outcrop: ♯ River R: ROLLING DRY: DRY FARMLAND ST: STONE B 2 - 6% 2
6
Road: Gully H: HILLY FOR: FOREST GR: GRAVEL C 6 -8%
3
Path/Track: Culvert: M: MOUNTAIN SHR SHRUB BO: BOG / PEAT D 8 - 10% 9
7
Quarry Bridge: RES: RESIDENTIAL CL: CLAY E 10 - 15% 4
Gravel pit: Outlet: SA: SANDY F >15%
Strip Map
Chainage (m) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
1. WAYPOINT NUMBER
2. PICTURE REFERENCE No
3. TOPOGRAPHY (F / R / H / M)
4. LANDUSE / VEGETATION (IRR / DRY / FOR / SHR / RES)
5. ROAD SURFACE (CL / SA / GR / LA / BIT / CO)
6. ROAD GRADIENT
7. PROFILE
8. CARRIAGEWAY PROBLEMS
9. ROAD CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH (M)
10. OVERALL ROAD DRAINAGE CONDITION
11. MISSING SIDE DRAIN(S) IF REQUIRED ? (L, R, L+R)
12. MISSING OR DAMAGED CULVERT (MC/DC)
13. CUT (C) OR FILL (F) SLIPS; (S,M,L)
14. FLOOD VULNERABILITY (1-5)
8. Carriageway Problems 10. Road Drainage Condition 13. Cut or Fill Slips 14. Flood Vulnerability
1 Poor shape a Minor DR 1: 'Good': No water on the road during rain, no erosion, no silt, good working drainage system C/F 1 No slips 1. No risk to access
2 Rutting b Moderate DR 2: 'Fair': Some water on the road during rain, some erosion in side drains or half silted C/F 2 Minor slips < 3Cu M 2. Slight risk, little impact on access
3 Erosion c Severe DR 3: 'Poor': Much water on the road during rain, severe erosion/siltation of side drains C/F 3 Moderate;3-10 CuM up to 25% carriageway 3. Moderate risk -
4 Potholes DR 4: 'Bad': Non existing / non functioning drainage system C/F 4 Significant, up to 50% carriageway impacted 4. High risk of access being compromised
5 Low alignment C/F 5 Major 50-100% carriageway impact 5. Very high risk - severe engineering issue
Test Pits and Trenches

Test pits and trenches are used to provide access for visual in situ examination and taking samples
for testing of surface soil and rock masses.
The location, frequency and depth of pits and trenches depend on the aspect of a road being
investigated and the general characteristics of the project area (the soil type and variability). The
DCP testing surveys can be used to target areas for pitting and trenching.
The depth of pits and trenches is determined by the nature of the subsurface. In pavement design,
the depth of influence is related to the magnitude and distribution of traffic loads. Current AASHTO
and many other standards limit this depth to 1.5m below the proposed subgrade level. For the
A-43
ANNEX IV
purpose of sampling and description, pits should be dug to at least 0.5 m below the expected natural
subgrade level. In cut sections, the depth can be reduced to 0.3 m. For upgrading and rehabilitation
projects there is usually vehicular access hence pits can be excavated using a backhoe through all the
existing pavement layers. In these circumstances the depth could be increased to 1.5 m below the
subgrade if required, but this will rarely be necessary for such projects.
For a new alignment, the depth of any pit should not be less than 2m unless a rock stratum is
encountered. Some problem conditions may require deeper exploration. Greater depths may also be
needed for high embankment design. A limited number of deep pits may also be needed to ascertain
groundwater influence and irregular bedrock. Great care needs to be taken in entering pits >1.0m in
terms of providing adequate safety measures. These measures must be in line Myanmar or specific
project Health and Safety regulations
The location of each test pit should be precisely determined on the preliminary route alignment and
all layers, including topsoil, should be accurately described and their thicknesses measured. All
horizons, below the topsoil should be sampled. This will promote a proper assessment of the
materials excavated in cuts to be used in embankments. The samples should be taken over the full
depth of the layer by taking vertical slices of materials.
It is vitally important that entrance into pits or trenches is governed by considerations of Health and
Safety. It is normal practice that any pit or trench greater than 0.5-1.0m must be adequately shored
or braced to prevent collapse before any person is allowed into it for inspection and sampling. Exact
procedures will be governed by the Myanmar Health and Safety regulations at the time of survey.
Auguring and Boring

It is may be impossible to dig trial pits to the depth of all layers of soil or weathered rocks affected
by foundation loads, such as bridge sites. Borings could also be necessary to investigate the
potentially weak materials that lie below pavement layers. This is especially true in areas where thick
problem soils and soft deposits exist, and when the road alignment passes through landslide zones,
solution cavities, and unconsolidated soils. Geotechnical borings are then a critical component of
subsurface exploration programmes. They are performed for.
§ Identification of the subsurface distribution of materials with distinctive properties, including the
presence and geometry of distinct layers;
§ Determination of data on the characteristics of each layer by retrieving samples for use in
evaluating engineering properties;
§ Acquisition of groundwater data;
§ Providing access for introduction of in-situ testing tools.
There is a wide range of augering or boring methods; those most likely to be used for LVRR
investigations are summarised in Tables IV-1 and IV-2.
A-44
ANNEX IV
Table IV.1 Typical Augering and Non-Rotary Boring Options

Method Procedure Applications Limitations / Remarks
Auger boring Dry hole drilled with hand or power auger; In soil and soft rock; to identify geologic units Soil and rock stratification destroyed; sample
samples recovered from auger flights. above water table. mixed with water below the water table.
Hollow-stem Hole advanced by hollow-stem auger; soil Used in soils that would require casing to Sample limited by larger gravel; maintaining
auger boring sampled below auger. maintain an open hole for sampling. water balance below water table is difficult.
Coarse material tends to settle to bottom of

Light chopping and strong jetting of soil; cuttings Soft to stiff cohesive materials and fine to coarse
Wash-type boring hole; Should not be where undisturbed samples
removed by circulating fluid. granular soils.
are desired.
A 600 to 1200-mm diameter drilling bucket with Most soils above water table; can dig harder soils
Bucket Auger Not applicable in running sands; used for
cutting teeth is rotated and advanced. The than above types and can penetrate soils with
boring obtaining large volumes of disturbed samples.
bucket is retrieved and soil examined. cobbles and boulders.
Light rigs that may easily towed and manhandled

The borehole is formed using a ‘clay cutter’ for to most road side sites. The casing is used to
cohesive soils or a ‘shell’ (or bailer) for non- support the borehole sides to allow in-situ Difficult to obtain satisfactory undisturbed
Light cable
cohesive materials. A chiselling tool can be samples Not to be used where good quality
percussive or testing and sampling. In situ testing can used eg
employed to penetrate very hard ground or vane shear and SPT. samples required for strength or consolidation
“Shell & Auger”
obstructions. The sides of the borehole are testing unless used in conjunction with thin-
boring Usable in most clay, sand and gravel materials.
supported using steel casing which is lowered walled or piston samplers
Rotary attachment can be used for short sections
into the ground as the boring proceeds.
of rock.
A-45
ANNEX IV
Table IV.2 Typical Rotary Boring Options
Method Procedure Type of sample Applications Limitations / Remarks
Outer tube with diamond (or tungsten To obtain continuous core in sound
Rotary coring Rock cylinder 22 to 100 mm wide and Core lost in fractured or variable
carbide) bit on lower end rotated to rock (percent of core recovered
of rock as long as 3 m, depending on rock rock; blockage prevents drilling in
cut annular hole in rock; core depends on fractures, rock
soundness. Standard coring size is 54 badly fractured rock; dip of bedding
protected by stationary inner tube; variability, equipment, and driller
mm diameter. and joint evident but not strike.
cuttings flushed upward by drill fluid. skill).
Stationary inner tube retrieved from Core lost in fracture or variable rock;
outer core barrel by lifting device or blockage prevents drilling in badly
Rotary coring To recover core better in fractured
“overshot” suspended on thin cable Rock cylinder 28 to 85 mm wide and fractured rock;
of rock, wire rock which has less tendency for
(wire line) through special large- 1.5 to 3 m long.
line caving during core removal; dip of bedding and joint evident but
diameter drill rods and outer core
barrel. not strike.
Rotary coring Similar to rotary coring of rock; Soil cylinder 28.5 to 53.2 mm wide In soils and soft rocks that swell or Sample smaller; equipment more
of swelling swelling core retained by third inner and 600 to 1500 mm long encased in disintegrate rapidly in complex than other soil sampling
clay, soft rock plastic liner. plastic tube. air (protected by plastic tube) techniques.
A-46
ANNEX IV
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Standard Penetration Test (SPT) procedures are normally used in conjunction with augering or boring
operations and consist of repeatedly dropping a 63.5-kg hammer from a height of 760 mm to drive a split-
barrel sampler (or solid cone) three successive 150-mm long increments. The number of blows required to
drive the sampler is recorded for each 150-mm increment. The initial 150-mm increment is considered a
seating drive. The blows required for the second and third 150-mm increments are totalled to provide
blows/300 mm. This total is referred to as the as the SPT resistance or “N-value”.
The SPT is highly dependent upon the equipment and operator performing the test, and it is often difficult
to obtain repeatable results. Nevertheless, long-standing correlations have been established between the
“N” value and the engineering properties of solid and weak rocks and it is a commonly used tool for
determining in situ ground conditions when used in appropriate conditions.. For LVRR investigation it most
likely that ground investigations using SPTs would be used in bridge site investigations or in areas of deep
cut or high embankment.
For detailed information on Standard Penetration Testing and its use see ASTM D6338, Weltman and Head,
1980 and for analysis see Sabatini P.J, et al, 2002,Weltman and Head, 1983.
Geophysics: Seismic Refraction

Geophysical testing is often used as part of the initial site exploration phase of a project and/or to provide
supplementary information collected by widely-spaced observations (i.e., borings, test pits, outcrops).
Geophysical testing can be used for establishing stratification of subsurface materials, the profile of the top
of bedrock, depth to groundwater, limits of types of soil deposits, rippability of hard soil and rock, and the
presence of voids, buried pipes, and depths of existing foundations. Data from geophysical testing should
always be correlated with information from direct methods of exploration.
In the seismic refraction method an impact load is applied to the ground surface by either a small explosive
charge or use of large hammer impacting on a steel plate. Seismic energy refracts off soil/rock layer
interfaces and is recorded on the ground surface using several dozen geophones positioned along a line or
performing repeated events using a single geophone.
Seismic refraction provide very useful information for LVRRs at low cost on:
§ Depth to bedrock;
§ Depth to water table;
§ Thickness and relative stiffness soil/rock layers.
The procedure does not work if strength or stiffness decreases with depth or if soft layer underlies a
stronger layer. It works best when there is sharp difference between layers, for example soft clay over
strong bedrock.
Visual Descriptions and Estimations

Systematic visual descriptions of soil and rock materials are an essential part of any LVRR ground or
materials investigation. Accurate descriptions are vitally important in low-cost investigations in the
assessment of soil-rock characteristics and extrapolation of engineering properties and performance from
previous experience.
If soil-rock testing facilities are not available estimations of geotechnical properties can be made, based on
visual description. Tables IV.3, IV.4 and IV.5 may be used for determining approximate characteristics of in
situ rock or soil material.
A-47
ANNEX IV
Detailed procedures for undertaking and presenting visual descriptions and assessments are contained in
ASTM, D 2487 and 2488, Practice for Classification, Description and Identification of Soils, Norbury (2010)
provides comprehensive guidance on the description and classification of soils and rocks.
Table IV.3 Rock Bearing Capacity
Uniaxial
Allowable bearing
Action on Rock Sample Rock strength compressive
capacity (kN/m2)
strength (MPa)
A hammer blow required to break specimen, can be

Strong 10 000 50 - 100+
scratched with firm pressure from knife
Easily broken with hammer, can be easily scratched

Moderately strong 2000 12.5 - 50
with knife and pick end indents approx. 5mm
Broken in hand by hitting with hammer, can be

Moderately weak 1000 5.0 - 12.5
grooved 2mm deep with a knife
Broken by leaning on sample with a hammer, can be

Weak 750 1.25 - 5.0
grooved or gouged easily with a knife
Can be broken by hand and knife will penetrate

Very weak 250 0.6 - 1.25
approx. 5mm
Table IV.4 Clays and Silts Strength
Allowable bearing Undrained shear

Action on Soil Sample Strength Description
capacity (kN/m2) strength (kN/m2)
A thumb nail will not indent the soil Hard 600 300+
Indented by a thumb nail, penetrated about 15mm

Very stiff 300 150 - 300
with a knife
Indented by a thumb with effort, cannot be moulded

Stiff 150 75 - 150
by fingers
Penetrated by thumb with pressure, moulded with

Firm 75 40 - 75
strong finger pressure
Easily penetrated by thumb, moulded by light finger

Soft 25 20 - 40
pressure
Very soft 0 < 20

Extrudes between fingers when squeezed in hand
Note: Dry weather visual assessment is certainly no indication of likely wet season performance.
A-48
ANNEX IV
Table IV.5 Sands and gravels bearing capacity
Standard
Allowable bearing
Action Strength penetration test N-
capacity (kN/m2)
Value
High resistance to repeated blows with a pick Very dense 500 >50
Requires pick for excavation, a 50mm diameter peg

Dense 300 30 - 50
is hard to drive in
Considerable resistance to penetration by sharp end

Medium dense 100 10 - 30
of pick
Can be excavated by spade, a 50mm peg is easily

Loose 50 5 - 10
driven, can be crushed between fingers
Crumbles very easily when scraped with a pick Very loose Negligible <5
A-49
ANNEX IV
References
ASTM D 2487 Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). American Society for
Testing Materials.
ASTM D2573 Standard Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil., American Society for Testing
Materials..
ASTM D4633 Standard Test Method for Energy Measurement for Dynamic Penetrometers., American Society for
Testing Materials..
ASTM D5778 Standard Test Method for Electronic Friction Cone and Piezocone Penetration., American Society for
Testing Materials.
ASTMD 2488 Practice for Description and Identification of Soils. (Visual-Manual Procedure). American Society for
Testing Materials.
Norbury, D. 2010. Soil and Rock Description in Engineering Practice. CRC Press,London.
Sabatini P.J, Bachus R.C. Mayne P.W,. Schneider J.A, Zettler T.E.2002. Geotechnical Engineering Circular NO. 5.
Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties. Report No.FHWA-IF-02-034. U.S. Department of Transportation.
Federal Highway Administration.
Weltman, A J & Head J M, 1983. Site Investigation Manual. CIRIA Spec. Pub. 25.
A-50
ANNEX V. DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
A-51
ANNEX V
DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
Introduction
The DCP is an instrument designed for the rapid in-situ measurement of the structural properties of existing
road pavements constructed with unbound materials (Figure V.1). Continuous strength measurements can
be made down to a depth of approximately 800mm or, when extension shafts are used to a recommended
maximum depth of around 1.60m metres. Where pavement
layers have different strengths the boundaries can be
identified and the thickness of the layers determined. For
Figure V.1 The Assembled DCP
LVRR alignment subgrade investigations the DCP tests would
normally be taken every 200-250m (2 at each chainage sunk 1. Handle 2. 8kg Hammer
at least 700mm or refusal). This spacing may be increased to 3. Hammer shaft 4. Coupling
500m in cases where there is no change in terrain,
5. Handguard 6. Clamp ring
earthworks or general environment. Samples should be
taken for examination and possible testing at DCP section 7. Standard shaft 8.1m rule
locations.
9. 60 degree cone
Apparatus
Correlations have been established between DCP measurements and CBR (California Bearing Ratio) so that
results can be interpreted and compared with CBR
specifications for pavement design. A typical DCP test takes
1
only a few minutes and therefore the instrument provides a
very efficient method of obtaining information.
The design of the DCP uses an 8Kg weight dropping through
2
a height of 575mm and a 600. cone having a diameter of
20mm.
After assembly, the first task is to record the zero reading of
the instrument. This is done by standing the DCP on a hard 3
surface checking that it is vertical and then entering the
zero reading in the appropriate place on the test sheet
(FigureV.2). 4
The DCP needs three operators, one to hold the instrument,
one to raise and drop the weight and one to record the 5
results. The instrument is held vertically with, the weight
just touching the handle, but not lifting the instrument. The
operator then lets it fall freely. If during the test the DCP 6
leaves the vertical, no attempt should be made to correct
this as contact between the bottom shaft and the sides of
the hole will give rise to erroneous results. 7
It is normal practice to take a reading after a set number of
blows. It is therefore necessary to change the number of
blows between readings according to the strength of the 8
layer being penetrated. For good quality granular bases
readings every 5 or 10 blows are normally satisfactory but
for the weaker sub-base layers and sub-grade readings
every 1 or 2 blows may be appropriate. There is no 9
disadvantage in taking too many readings, but if too few are
taken, weak spots may be missed and it will be more
difficult to identify layer boundaries accurately hence
important information will be lost.
Little difficulty is normally experienced with the penetration
of most types of granular materials. It is more difficult to penetrate granular materials with large particles
and very dense, high quality crushed stone. The instrument has been designed for strong materials and
A-52
ANNEX V
DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
therefore the operator should persevere with the test. Penetration rates as low as 0.5mm/blow are
acceptable but if there is no measurable penetration after 20 consecutive blows it can be assumed that the
DCP will not penetrate the materials. If only occasional difficulties are experienced in penetrating granular
materials it is worthwhile repeating any failed tests a short distance away from the original test point.
If the DCP is used extensively for hard materials, wear on the cone itself will be accelerated. The cone is a
replaceable item and it is recommended by many authorities that replacement be made when the diameter
has reduced by 10 percent. However other causes of wear can also occur hence the cone should be
inspected before every test. Typically, the cone will need replacing after about 10 holes in hard material
and in the absence of damage other than shoulder wear this is the recommended practice
The results of the DCP test are usually recorded on the field test and the results can then either be
interpreted by hand calculator or transferred to a standard EXCEL-type spread-sheet and processed by
computer, Figure V.3. Alternatively, there is available a DFID funded TRL computer programme that can
now be used to calculate not only layer depths and CBRs but other related relationships and plots1
The boundaries between layers are easily identified by the change in the rate of penetration. The thickness
of the layers can usually be obtained to within 10mm except where it is necessary to core (or drill holes)
through materials to obtain access to the lower layers. In these circumstances the top few millimetres of
the underlying layer is often disturbed slightly and appears weaker than normal.
Several similar relationships between the DCP readings and CBR have been obtained; the one currently
used by the TRL is as follows:
TRL, Overseas Road Note 18 (60o cone) Log10 (CBR) = 2.480 – 1.057 Log10 (mm/blow)
Agreement is generally good over most of the range but differences are apparent at low values of CBR,
especially for fine grained materials. It should be remembered that DCP-CBR figure refers to specific index
strength for specific in situ conditions of moisture and density and great care needs to be taken in relating
this to laboratory based CBR values. Therefore, if precise values are needed, it is advisable to calibrate the
DCP for the materials in question. Nevertheless, if the testing is undertaken at worst case soaked (rainy
season) conditions it will give a reasonable representative picture of existing actual pavement or sub-grade
strength conditions.
The DCP-CBR Design Process

Whilst TRL, Overseas Road Note 18 provide guidance on undertaking the test, the UK DCP 3.1 User Manual
(TRL, 2006) provides a comprehensive guide to the application of the UK DCP software in the design of
pavements. The UK-DCP manual provides step-by-step guidance on using the pavement design functions of
the software with the aid of appropriate screen-grabs, Table V.1.
Although this document provides a comprehensive guide to a design process, parts of it may utilised merely
to edit, store and report DCP data for simpler design approaches.
It has to be emphasised that the DCP pavement design approach is not relevant in situations of cut or
embankment greater than about 1.5m deep; that is situations where the tested DCP profile is not within
the proposed pavement’s zone of influence.
1
This programme together with the User Manual may be downloaded via https://www.gov.uk/dfid-research-outputs/uk-dynamic-
cone-penetrometer-dcp-software-version-3-1.
A-53
ANNEX V
DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
Figure V.2 Standard DCP Field Sheet
SITE/ROAD DATE
TEST NO
SECTION NO/CHAINAGE DCP ZERO READING
mm
DIRECTION TEST STARTED AT
WHEEL PATH
No OF TOTAL READING No OF TOTAL READING No OF TOTAL READING

BLOWS BLOWS mm BLOWS BLOWS mm BLOWS BLOWS mm
A-54
ANNEX V
DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
Figure V.3 Typical Worked Sheet
HUE DCP FIELD SHEET

Site/Roa
d Phu Loc Road Date 19/11/2002
Test No. PL.07 Operator Pham Gia Tuan
Site Location Zero Reading (C0) 107.0
Test Location RS Depth of Start 0.0

Total Total Total
No.Blow
Blow Penetration Corrected ΔPen Pen/blow LogP Numeric factor CBR
s
s (mm) Penetration
a b c d e f g h j
107
2 2 174 67 67 33.5 1.5250 0.8680 7.4
3 5 259 152 85 28.33333 1.4523 0.9449 8.8
5 10 406 299 147 29.4 1.4683 0.9280 8.5
5 15 570 463 164 32.8 1.5159 0.8777 7.5
3 18 750 643 180 60.0 1.7782 0.6005 4.0
2 20 890 783 140 70.0 1.8451 0.5297 3.4
Formulas for Excel

a b c d e f g h i
h=2.48-
Input bn=an+an-1 Input dn=cn-c0 en=dn-dn-1 f = e/a g=log10(f) i=10*h
1.057*g
Figure V.4 Typical EXCEL Calculation Sheet and Plots for DCP Data
Blow s CBR %
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 0
100 100
200 200
300 300
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
400 400
500 500
600 600
700 700
800 800
900 900
A-55
ANNEX V
DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
Figure V.5 Contents of the UK DCP Manual
Chapter Content
1. Introduction Installation Obtain and install UK DCP 3.1
2. Start up Run UK DCP 3.1 and open a new or existing project. The term ‘project’ refers to a set of related
sites, at each of which a penetration test has been carried out and which will be analysed together.
In normal use, a project will be a single road or a shorter length of uniform construction.
3. Test data input Input site details and penetration data for the tests within a project
4. Layer analysis Analyse the penetration data from a test to identify and determine the thicknesses of the distinct
Test layers within the pavement .Penetration data can be analysed manually or automatically
5. Structural Number Assign the Test layers to specific pavement layers and calculate the Structural Number of each
calculation pavement layer.
6. Query Produce histograms of strengths and pavement layer thicknesses along the project
7. Sectioning Divide the project into sections which are uniform in thickness and/or strength.
8. Design data input Input road condition, structures condition, surface gravel thickness, crown height details, road
geometry, land use, design standard, costs and traffic details of a project
9. Design Sections Divide the project into sections which are uniform in a variety of characteristics.
10. Pavement Design Design the pavement improvement for a low volume road.
11. Reporting Produce reports of the analysis and design process for printing and/or export.
The DCP-DN Design Process

Within the last decade an alternate design process has been developed using the DCP penetration rate
(blows/mm) as a direct design index without recourse to the laboratory CBR. The procedure is based on
work primarily on the soils of Southern Africa within the context of upgrading gravel roads to sealed roads.
In this context it offers savings in pavement layers thicknesses within defined parameters.
In general, based on assessment of performance information to date (ReCAP, 2019), the DCP-DN method,
within appropriate road environments, is the most cost-effective design option at relatively low traffic, up
to about 0.7 million esa and across all subgrade strengths. However, above 0.7 million esa the method
gradually becomes less cost effective than the other methods, particularly ORN31 (TRL, 1993), which
become more cost-effective in many situations.
The current recommendation from DFID and ReCAP is that this DCP-DN procedure requires further
correlation work with the distinct road environments of Myanmar before it is adopted for LVRR design
work by DRRD.
Recent Design Guidance

Recent ReCAP research has produced additional guidance on selection pavement design options and this
includes the use of the DCP as an aid to the design of LVRRs ranging from earth roads, through gravel to
sealed pavements (ReCAP, 2020).
References
A-56
ANNEX V
DCP DESIGN OPTIONS
ReCAP, 2019. Evaluation of Cost-Effectiveness and Value-for-Money of DCP-DN Pavement Design Method for Low-
Volume Roads in Comparison with Conventional Designs Project Reference Number. RAF 2128A
ASTM D6951-03, Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Shallow Pavement Applications
Kleyn E.G.& van Zyl G.D., 1988. Application of the DCP to Light Pavement Design. 1st Symposium on Penetration
Testing, Orlando USA.
ReCAP, 2020. A Guide on the Application of Pavement Design Methods for Low Volume Rural Roads. Draft Report by
TRL LTd ReCAP ref No. GEN 2166B.
TRL , 2006. UK DCP 3.1 User Manual. Measuring Road Pavement Strength and Designing Low Volume Sealed Roads
using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. Project Report UPR/IE/76/06 Project Record No R7783. https://uk-
dcp.software.informer.com/3.1/
TRL, 1999. ORN 18. A guide to the pavement evaluation and maintenance of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and
sub-tropical countries. TRL Ltd, for DfID, UK.
TRL, 2006. "UK DCP 3.1 User manual. Measuring Road Pavement Strength and Designing Low Volume Sealed Roads
using the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. TRL Ltd, for DFID, UK.
A-57
ANNEX VI. SPOT IMPROVEMENT
A-58
ANNEX VI
SPOT IMPROVEMENT
Introduction
When funds are limited they should be used to improve sites which do not currently provide safe and
reliable access, for example a badly degraded or flooded section. Sites which do provide this level of access
could be left without improvement, for example a length of track which is not eroding, slippery or
damaged, allowing the funds to be used to improve access on other roads. Sites which are improved in such
a way are referred to as ‘spot improvements’.
The spot improvement approach allows more road kilometres to be improved and therefore development
benefits to be spread more effectively to maintain or improve network connectivity as whole than if the
same funds were used for full rehabilitation on a single road.
The spot improvement approach is a very efficient form of engineering design as each section of the road is
designed according to its specific conditions. The road therefore meets the needs of the traffic and the road
environment with minimal wasted effort and cost.
Spot Improvement Selection
The choice of spot improvement should be based on the location features and the materials and skills
available locally. Great care should be used in using gravel as a road surface in some circumstances. It is
unlikely that it will be most suitable option in some locations due to high costs of routine maintenance and
periodic replenishment of the surface material.
Spot Improvement concerns all the road assets and can involve one or of a number of options, Table VI.1.It
is important to note that Spot Improvement differs from periodic maintenance in that it is an engineering
upgrade aimed at addressing the fundamental engineering issues that are causing or likely to cause an
access problem; it is not a rehabilitation or repair aimed restoring the status quo.
Table VI.1 Typical Spot Improvements

Spot Improvement
Pavement Existing pavement sections are upgraded, typically from unsealed to sealed, using the options and
approaches outlined in Chapter 7
Drainage Side drainage may be constructed where there was none before, or improved – for example from un-
lined to lined.
Additional culverts may be constructed where none existed; or enlarged where they are proving
inadequate.
Earthworks Earthwork slopes may be adjusted or their erosion resilience may be upgraded by means of bio-
engineering allied to low cost engineering works.
Bridge/Causeway Spot Improvement of stream or river crossings can be a major contributor to network connectivity
upgrade; for example the upgrade of trail bridges for motor-vehicle access.
Safety Issues Spot Improvement can also be applied to the construction of safety features; for example safety
barriers on mountain roads.
Spot Improvement can be closely linked to the strengthening of LVRR links for increased Climate Resilience,
Table VI.2.
A-59
ANNEX VI
SPOT IMPROVEMENT
Table VI.2 Climate Resilience Spot Improvement Options

Ref. Adaptation Group Comment
1 Pavement Usually required for steep (>8-10%) gradients on unsealed roads, within village area and areas
strengthening subject to erosive flood not mitigated by raised alignment.
2 Pavement and Lined drains likely required where gradients >6%. Additional side drains and associated turn-
earthwork drainage outs may also be recommended. Drainage required above slopes and on earthwork benches.
3 Cross drainage Bridge, causeways and culvert designs adjusted to take account of forecast increased
river/stream flows and storm intensities. Additional cross culverts recommended where
considered essential to improve overall road drainage, as relief culverts for example on steep
sections. Occasional existing fords or low-level bridges might be replaced by climate resilient
structures such as vented fords, or submergible multiple culverts.
4 Alignment Horizontal alignment may be shift to avoid high climate vulnerable sections. Vertical alignment
rising of earth embankments will be recommended where the alignment is too low and is
being impacted by flooding and/or the weakening of the pavement by saturation.
5 Earthwork slope Protection where erosion of exposed soil or rock slopes either in cut or embankment is
protection identified are at significant risk from climate impact.
6 River/stream bank May be recommended where erosion of the alignment by rivers or streams is identified as a
protection significant risk from project future flows and floods.
7 Bioengineering An option group that is cross-cutting over the range vulnerable road network assets
The planning of Spot Improvement, because of its very nature, is closely linked to a process of
prioritisation. The process of identification and prioritisation is outlined in SEACAP (2009) and Table VI.3
presents a typical ranking from this Spot Improvement Manual.
Table VI.3 Typical ranked spot selection criteria
Priority criteria Description

1 Unsafe – high risk Safety concerns put road users or others at high risk of injury or death.
2 Impassable at any time Road users are unable to pass along the road at any time of the year.
3 Impassable in wet season Road users are unable to pass along the road in the wet season, although closures up to 24 hours
only after rainfall are accepted.
4 Unstable slope The slopes above or below the road are unstable and at risk of slipping.
5.Condition likely to Vehicles or rainfall are likely to cause significant deterioration of the road in the next year.
deteriorate
6 Health risk The health of road users and others is at risk, typically due to dust from a gravel road.
7 Drainage in poor condition Drainage capacity or performance is reduced and retained water is likely to damage the road.
8. Unsafe – medium risk Safety concerns put road users or others at medium risk of injury.
9 Environmental concerns Construction or future usage may cause environmental concerns along the road such as erosion
of bare soil, disruption of a water course or contamination of a water supply.
10 Very slow travel Vehicles travel very slowly along the road due to its poor condition.
11 Geometric cross section The width and camber of the carriageway and shoulders do not meet the required standard.
below standard
12 Geometry below standard The curvature, sight distance or gradient of the road do not meet the required standard.
13 Surface below standard The surface is dusty, slippery or gravel on a steep hill.
14 Pavement below standard The pavement although passable does not meet the required design specifications.
A-60
ANNEX VI
SPOT IMPROVEMENT
Implementation Issues
There are some potential challenges to a spot improvement approach which must be addressed.
1. The Spot Improvement approach requires that spot-sites must be identified and prioritised on
rational basis. This may not be an easy task and can require significant engineering judgments as
well as knowledge of local conditions. Appropriate training and guidance will be required if this is to
undertaken by local DRRD staff.
2. Secondly, there may be resistance to the approach from local communities who may regard an
apparently “unfinished” road as a consequence of poor management, bad contracting practice or
corruption. Cooperation with local communities in the selection of spot-sites and on-going
involvement of local stakeholders in the road rehabilitation programme will do much to allay these
fears.
3. There has in some instances been some confusion of Spot Improvement with periodic
maintenance. Spot Improvements must be seen and designed as fully engineered responses to
defined requirements and not as repairs of existing designs that may just perpetuate an underlying
problem.
References
SEACAP, 2009. Low Volume Rural Road Environmentally Optimised Design Manual. SEACAP 3.02 manual for MPWT,
Laos.
A-61
ANNEX VII. LVRR DESIGN WITH HIGHER
VOLUME TRAFFIC
A-62
ANNEX VII
LVRR DESIGN ISSUES WITH HIGHER VOLUME TRAFFIC
Introduction
For pavement design purposes, a low-volume rural road (LVRR) has been defined in this Manual as one
designed to carry a cumulative traffic loading of up to about 1 Mesa (or around 300 AADT). This follows
general regional practice (SEACAP, 2008; 2009b; JKR Malaysia, 2012; Cook et al, 2013) and is line with the
defined requirements of the NSRAA and the 3-fold classification of LVRRs in Myanmar (GoM, 2017).
It is recognised that DRRD may have a responsibility for the design of roads where the traffic is above the
LVRR limit. This Annex presents and discusses the issues that arise when considering roads in the 300-750
AADT/1-3Mesa envelopes. The discussion is focussed on pavement issues, although it is recognised that
other road assets such as bridges, culverts and earthworks may be impacted by a higher level of traffic.
The Rationale for LVRR Limits
The definition of what comprises an upper limit of “Low Volume” traffic varies internationally; some
countries use 200 AADT, others as high as 500 AADT, whilst others consider only “commercial vehicles”.
Giummarra (ARRB, 2001) provides a comparison of AADT and their geometry (Appendix A). This was taken
further forward in SEACAP in their 2009 review of LVRR carriageway geometry, as summarised in Figure 6.2
in Chapter 6 of this Manual (TRL, 2009).
The concept of low volume road pavement design being different from “normal” pavement design
approaches (e.g. TRL, ORN 31) has been driven by the recognition that significant savings could be made in
terms of pavement layer thickness, surfacing type and relaxed material specifications at low traffic volumes
of light traffic. Underpinning this concept was the recognition of the different modes of deterioration
between high and low volume roads as shown in Figure 3.3 in this Manual (this derived from a diagram by
Rolt as shown in Cook, Rolt and Petts, 2013).
They key point from the above is that the division between low volume and high volume roads is
science/engineering based and not administration or management based. On current evidence, although
DRRD on administrative ground may well have to consider design issues for higher volume rural roads, this
is a not valid reason for including them within the LVRR design process without careful consideration. In
general, roads with traffic greater than 1Mesa cannot be adequately dealt within under LVRR guidance as it
stands and the more traditional approach should be considered in line with a guidance given by such
documents as ORN 31 (TRL, 1993).
Recent Research
Recent and ongoing research funded by DFID (Table VII.1) has indicated that in some circumstances,
particularly in drier road environments, the natural materials from which low volume sealed roads are
made can carry well in excess of 3 Mesa and that future adjustments could be made in methods of
pavement layer design and their constituent materials. Outcomes from this work are incorporated in the
following sections of this Annex.
A-63
ANNEX VII
Table VII.1 Recent ReCAP Research on LVRR Design
ReCAP Project Key Objective Outputs

Development of Guidelines and Refine existing catalogues for pavement Draft Report (2019) submitted that
Specifications for Low Volume Sealed design of sealed LVRRs. Provide a base includes deign charts and material
Roads through Back Analysis. ReCAP level for information on material guidance on pavement design up to 3Mesa
Ref. RAF2069A. specifications in comparison with
conventional designs and specifications
for roads carrying >300 ADT.
A Guide on the Application of To provide background and guidance on Draft Report (2020) submitted that
Pavement Design Methods for Low pavement design methods used in the includes advice on application of various
Volume Rural Roads. ReCAP Ref GEN design of LVRRs ranging from earth roads, pavement design methods for LVRR
2166B. through gravel to the various unbound, pavements up to 3Mesa
natural stone, bituminous, cement-based
and clay brick surfacing and pavement
layers.
Implications and Recommendations

For pavement design the implications of traffic being outside the LVRR upper limits are primarily in terms
of:
Carriageway geometry: This Manual works within the existing NSRAA recommendations on carriageway
width; that is single lane with a maximum width of 5.5m. Traffic significantly above 300 AADT/<1Mesa may
require a double lane. In this case the designer should work within Myanmar main in road guidelines (e.g.
MoC, 2015). The general principles of design speed, radii of curvature, and super-elevation, remain as
noted in Chapter 6 of this Manual. However, the detail may need to be reworked for higher volume traffic,
particularly if the design involves a shift to a 2-lane carriageway.
Pavement and surfacing options: A number of the options discussed in Chapter 7 would not be suitable for
higher volume (1-3Mesa) traffic. Table VII.2.
A-64
ANNEX VII
Table VII.2 Suitability of LVRR Options for Higher Volume Traffic (1-3Mesa)
Option Suitability
Yes( Y) Possible (P) No (N)
DBST Y. DBST only
Sand Seal N
Otta Seal Y
Slurry Seal N
Cape Seal Y
Penetration Macadam N
Pre-Mix Y
ENS N
Unsealed gravel N
WBM/DBM P. Under a good seal
Hand Pack Stone N
Block Stone N
Brick/Block N
Laterite P, if good quality
Graded Crushed Stone Y
Stabilised Soil Y
Concrete Slabs Y Reinforced
Concrete Cells P. Unproven
Structural thickness: This design charts in this, and other, LVRR Manuals have a limit of 1 Mesa. An increase
in traffic may require the designer to use alternative design charts for example Table VII.3, based on ORN
31 (TRL 1993). Alternatively, Table VII.4 is based on draft recommendations in ReCAP, 2019.
Material Specifications: Most of the reductions or flexibility in materials specification valid for LVRRs (as
discussed in Annex III) could not be recommended for higher volume roads without detailed investigation.
This includes, for example, the reduction in base aggregate strength below 80% CBR. The designer should
refer to Main Road Specifications.
A-65
ANNEX VII
Table VII.3 Thin Bituminous Pavement Design Chart for Structural Layers (mm) up to 3.0 Mesa
ORN 31 Traffic range (Mesa) T3 T4
Subgrade class (CBR) Layer 0.7 - 1.5 1.5 - 3.0
Base 200 G80 200 G80
S1 (2%) Sub-Base 200 G30 250 G30

Base 200 G80 200. G80
S2 (3-4%) Sub-Base 200.G30 225.G30
Subgrade 200.G15 200.G15
Base 200. G80 200. G80
S3 (5-7%)
Sub-Base 225.G30 275.G30
Base 200. G80 200. G80
S4 (8-14%)
Sub-Base 150.G30 200.G30
Base 175. G80 200. G80
S5 (15-29%)
Sub-Base 100.G30 125.G30
S6 (>30%) Base 175. G80 200. G80
Note: This chart extracted from ORN 31
A-66
ANNEX VII
Table VII.4 Revised Design Table for Thin Sealed LVRRs with axles < 8 tonnes
Traffic (mesa): Axle loads < 8 tonnes
Subgrade Class Layer
<0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-3.0
Base 150 G45 150 G45 150 G60 150 G60 150 G60
S1 and S2 CBR ≤4% Sub-Base 125 G25 125 G25 125 G25 150 G25 150 G25
Subgrade 125 G15 125 G15 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15
Base 125 G45 125 G45 150 G60 150 G60 150 G60
S3 and S4, CBR 5-14% Sub-Base 125 G25 125 G25 125 G25 125 G25 150 G25
Subgrade 125 G15 125 G15 100 G15 100 G15 125 G15
S5 and S6 15-CBR>30% Base 175 G45 175 G45 175 G45 175 G45 200 G45
Note: Extracted from (TRL, 2019, Draft Report)

Increases in Traffic Volume and Types
Traffic may exceed the LVRR limits in a number of ways with correspondingly different design implications.
The following examples are based on the traffic data from the DRRD Taungyi pavement trials and show the
implications of the increase of different types of vehicle on the pavement design.
A. Numbers of vehicles remain roughly similar but there is an increase percentage of heavier vehicles
and/or the loads they carry.
B. General overall rise traffic
C. Large number of light agricultural type vehicles
D. Increase in pedestrians and NMT
An analysis of typical traffic changes (A to D) is summarised in Table VII.5
A-67
ANNEX VII
Table VII.5 Examples Changes in Traffic

3-Day Traffic Counts
Traffic Type Example from Increased Traffic Example Models
Annex I A B C D
A Minibuses 10 10 30 5 10
B Light Trucks <5 t 10 25 40 5 10
C Heavy Trucks >11t 5 35 30 3 5
D Very Heavy Trucks (13t) 1 10 5 0 1
E Pickups 3 3 20 3 3
F SUV/4WD 9 3 30 9 9
G Cars/Saloon 4 2 25 4 4
H Motorcycle trailers 10 10 25 50 10
J Power tillers 50 50 100 200 95
K Agriculture tractor 1 1 10 30 1
L Motorcycles 150 325 500 700 350
M Total Motorized Vehicles 253 474 815 1009 498
N Bicycles 25 25 50 100 1000
O Ox carts 5 5 10 25 75
P Total Non-Motorized Vehicles 30 30 60 125 1075
Q Pedestrian 120 120 250 250 1500
AADT Year 1 129 255 476 276 255

AADT after 8 years 194 383 714 405 383
PCU Year 1 398 580 1110 1396 1957
PCU after 8 years 597 870 1665 2094 2935
Cum esa 12 year design life 238,272 1,315,460 1,772,148 213,452 253,164
To exemplify the impacts of changing traffic Table VII.6 presents the examples of higher traffic models (A to B) in
terms of their implications.
A-68
ANNEX VII
Table VII.6 Increased Traffic Implications

Design Issues Model A Model B Model C Model D
Carriageway geometry A single lane LVRR LVRR single lane Single lane LVRR Single lane LVRR
geometry could be geometry not possible. geometry possible. geometry but requires
possible with passing wide shoulders for
places and climbing NMT
lanes (on steep grades)
Pavement and Limited as per Table Limited as per Table LVRR Manual LVRR Manual
surfacing options. VI.2. VI.2. applicable applicable
Structural thickness Outside LVRR designs – Outside LVRR designs – LVRR Manual LVRR Manual
see ORN 31 and Tables see Tables VI.3 and VI.4 applicable applicable
VI.3 and VI.4
Material specifications No scope for relaxation No scope for relaxation LVRR Manual LVRR Manual
without specific applicable applicable
investigation
Summary
When considering the design of a LVRR pavement carrying traffic greater than the limits defined for the
Manual it is necessary for the designer to consider in detail the traffic types and axle loading and then
decide which, if any, elements of the Manual may be used Figure VII.1.
Some guidance is given in this document on pavement structural design up to 3Mesa, otherwise the
designer may have to reference either the Myanmar main road documentation or ORN 31.
Figure VII.1 Higher Volume Traffic and the Use of the LVRR Manual
Traffic within the LVRR Proceed to LVRR

Traffic counts defined envelope Manual
Traffic and axle Load Traffic outside the LVRR

analysis envelope
Assessment decisions
Axle loads survey or Design options
as per Annex VI
assessment
MoC, 2015
Geometric standards
ORN 31
Pavement options
Tables Annex VI
Structural design
Main LVVR Manual
Materials
A-69
ANNEX VII
References
AfCAP, 2012. South Sudan Low Volume Roads Design Manual. DFID for Ministry of Roads and Bridges, S Sudan.
AfCAP, 2012.Best Practice Manual for Thin Bituminous Surfacings. Roughton International Report No. ETH/076/A.
Cook J, Petts R C and Rolt J. (2013). Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements: A Guide to Good Practice.
AFCAP Report GEN/099, Crown Agents, UK
Giummarra G. 2001. Road Classifications, Geometric Designs and Maintenance of Low Volume Roadsss. ARRB
Research Report 354.
JKR Malaysia, 2012. Design Guide for Alternative Pavement Structures, Low Volume Roads. Road and Geotechnical
Engineering Unit, Public Works Dept, Malaysia
MoC, 2015. Road Design Criteria. Department of Roads, Ministry of Construction, Government of the Union of
Myanmar, Naypyidaw.
SEACAP, 2009. Rural Road Standards and Specifications: Classification, Geometric Standards and Pavement Options.
SEACAP 19.03. Ministry of Rural Development, Cambodia.
SEACAP, 2008. Low Volume Rural Road Standards and Specifications: Part II Pavement Options and Technical
Specifications. TRL-LTEC Report for SEACAP and MPWT, Laos
TRL, 1993. ORN 31 (4th Edition). A guide to Structural Design of Bitumen Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-tropical
countries. TRL Ltd for DFID, UK.
A-70

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Republic of the Union of Myanmar

Low Volume Rural Road

His Excellency Han Zaw

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar i

How To Use This Manual

SECTION A: KEY PRINCIPLES Chapter 1 Introduction

SECTION B: DESIGN Chapter 5 Ground Investigations

SECTION C: IMPLEMENTATION Chapter 12 Construction

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar ii

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar iii

£ GBP – Great Britain Pounds (£ 1.00 ≈ MK 2,024.0)

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar iv

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar v

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar vi

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar vii

Ministry of Construction, Department of Rural Road Development

MANUAL UPDATE To be completed by DRRD

Chapter Change Number

Section Explanation Modification

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar viii

Aggregate (for construction)

Bitumen, Penetration Grade

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar ix

Bitumen Emulsion, Cationic

Bitumen Emulsion Grades

Black Cotton Soil

Brick (fired clay)

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar x

Causeway or Vented Drift

Cement (for construction)

Chip Seal, Single

Chip Seal, Double

Cobble Stone (Dressed stone)

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xi

Debris Rack or Grill

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xii

ENS (Engineered Natural Surface)

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xiii

Hand Packed Stone

Labour Based Construction

Labour Intensive Construction

Low Volume Road

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xiv

Mitre Drain (Turn Out Drain)

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xv

Roadbase and Sub-base

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xvi

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xvii

Turn Out Drain

Underdrainage (Sub-Soil Drainage)

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar xviii

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar ii

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar iii

1.1 Concept Framework

SDG 1 to alleviate poverty;

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 1-1

1.2 Manual Aims and Target Audience

1.3 Structure and Layout of Manual

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 1-2

Table 1.1 Manual Structure and Content

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 1-3

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 1-4

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 1-5

2 Policy, Standards and Specifications

2.2 Classification, Standards and Specifications

Design Manual for Low Volume Rural Roads in Myanmar 2-1

Table 2.1 Typical LVRR Technical Specification Groups