Çukurova University

Mechanical Engineering Department

ME-311 Fluid Mechanics I

Lectured by
Professor Dr. Beşir Şahin

1
 Reference Books
Reference Books
Fluid Mechanics, Fundamentals and Applications,
Authors:Yunus A. Çengel ve John M. Cimbala,
Publisher:McGraw-Hill Education, Third Edition, 2013

A Brief Introduction to Fluid Mechanics,

Authors: Donald F. Young, Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi,
Wade W. Huebsch,
Publisher: John Wiley and Sons Company, Fifth Edition, 2010

Fluid Mechanics Author:

Author:Frank M. White,
Publisher: McGraw-HILL, Fifth Edition, 2003

2
 Syllabus (Contents)
• 1–1 Introduction
• What Is a Fluid?
• Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
• 1–2 The No-Slip Condition
• 1–3 A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
• 1–4 Classification of Fluid Flows
• Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
• Internal versus External Flow
• Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
• Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
• Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
• Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• 1–5 System and Control Volume
• 1–6 Importance of Dimensions and Units
• Some SI and English Units
• Dimensional Homogeneity
• Unity Conversion Ratios
• 1–7 Mathematical Modeling of Engineering
• 1–8 Problem-Solving Technique
• 1–9 Engineering Software Packages
• Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
• 1–10 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits
3
 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS
OBJECTIVES
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to understand
the basic concepts of fluid mechanics and recognize the various types of fluid
flow problems encountered in practice, model engineering problems and solve
them in a systematic manner, have a working knowledge of accuracy,
precision, and significant digits, and recognize the importance of dimensional
homogeneity in engineering calculations.
In this introductory chapter, the basic concepts are introduced.

4
We also discuss the no-slip condition at solid-fluid interfaces. After presenting the
concepts of system and control volume, we review the unit systems that will be
used. We then discuss how mathematical models for engineering problems are
prepared and how to interpret the results obtained from the analysis of such
models. Finally, we discuss accuracy, precision, and significant digits in
engineering measurements and calculations.

5
 1-1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical science that
deals with both stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in
motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of
fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred
to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest
as a special case of motion with zero velocity.
Fluid mechanics deals with liquids and gases in
motion or at rest.
6
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and
gases at low speeds).

Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid

flows in pipes and open channels.

Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.

Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies
such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.

Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally occurring

flows.
7
 What Is a Fluid?
Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the
application of shear stress. You will recall from physics that
a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid,
and gas.

A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a

fluid. Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the
basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear
(or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.

A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,

whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence of
shear stress, no matter how small it is.

In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress

is proportional to strain rate.
8
FIGURE 1.2:Deformation of a rubber eraser placed between two
parallel plates under the influence of a shear force.

The normal component of the force acting on a

surface per unit area is called the normal stress,
and the tangential component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area is called shear stress (Fig. 1-
3).
In a fluid at rest, the normal stress is called
pressure.

In a liquid, chunks of molecules can move relative

to each other, but the volume remains relatively
constant because of the strong cohesive forces
between the molecules.

9
As seen in the figure 1-4, the difference
between a gas and a liquid in a tank is
shown, where in a liquid free surface
occurs, on the other hand in a gas no free
surface occurs.

10
In a liquid, the intermolecular forces are weaker relative to solids, but still strong
compared with gases. The distances between molecules generally increase
slightly as a solid turns liquid, with water being a notable exception. In the gas
phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and a molecular order is
nonexistent. Therefore, the gas must release a large amount of its energy before
it can condense or freeze.

11
 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of
modern engineering systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft.
Therefore, it is important to develop a good understanding of the basic principles
of fluid mechanics.

Other application areas of fluid mechanics can be classified as human body

blood flow, the piping system of a city such as the clean water piping system,
natural gas, and sewage water piping system.

Knowledge and understanding of the basic principles and concepts of fluid

mechanics are essential to analyse and system in which a fluid is the working
medium. The design virtually all means of transportation requires application of
the principles of fluid mechanics.

12
 Figure 1.7 Piping and plumbing systems

In recent years automobile manufacturers have given more consideration to

aerodynamic design. The design of propulsion systems for space flight as well
as for toy rockets is based on the principles of fluid mechanics. The design of all
types of fluid machinery including pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, and
turbines clearly requires knowledge of the basic principles of fluid mechanics.

Lubrication, heating and ventilating systems, homes, large office buildings,

underground tunnels, and the design of pipeline systems are further examples
of technical problem areas requiring knowledge of fluid mechanics. It is not
surprising that the design of artificial hearts, heart-lung machines, breathing
aids and other such devices must rely on the basic principles of fluid mechanics.
13
On a broader scale, fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and
analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines,
biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic components, and the transportation
of water, crude oil, and natural gas. The rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise of
ground water to the top of trees, winds, ocean waves, and currents in large
water bodies are also governed by the principles of fluid mechanics (Fig. 1-8).

Figure 1.8 Some Applications

of Fluid Mechanics

14
15
16
 Let us give more examples
Fluid dynamics is used extensively in CFD flow modeling (Computational
the design of artificial hearts. Fluid Dynamics)

17
 Human Body Boats Aircraft and spacecraft

Power Plant Cars

Natural Flows and Weather
18
Wind Turbines Piping and Plumbing Systems
Industrial applications

Target Flow meter Centrifugal Pump flow in stall condition 19

 1-2 THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

Figure 1.9. The development of

a velocity profile due to the no-
slip condition as a fluid flows over
a blunt nose.

All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a

complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the
surface. This is known as the no-slip condition.

The no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the velocity

profile.
A consequence of the no-slip condition is that all velocity profiles must have
zero values with respect to the surface at the points of contact between a
fluid and a solid surface.

20
When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface, such as the back side of
a cylinder at sufficiently high velocity, the boundary layer can no longer
remain attached to the surface, and at some point it separates from the
surface, a process called flow separation, it is shown down below (Figure 1-
10).

Figure 1.10. Flow separation

during flow over a curved surface

Figure 1.11. A schematic view of

a fluid flowing over a stationary
surface comes to a complete stop at
the surface because of the no-slip
condition.
21
 Figure 1.12
Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay pipe
section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter.

Above is the city of Hellenistic city Pergamon in present-day Turkey who built
a series of pressurized lead and clay pipelines.

22
 Figure 1.13
A mine hoist powered by a
reversible water wheel.

One of the progress which its creator is unknown, however the

devices themselves were well documented by several technical
writers such as Georgius Agricola.

23
 Figure 1.14
The Wright Brothers take flight at
Kitty Hawk.

Wright Brothers primitive invention containing all the major aspects of modern craft

24
 Figure 1.15. The Oklahoma Wind Power Center near Woodward
consists of 68 turbines, 1.5 MW each

The ability to solve large complex problems such as global climate

modeling or to optimize the design of a turbine blade, has provided a
benefit to our society that the eighteenth century developers of fluid
mechanics could never have imagined. (Figure 1-15)

25
 1-3 Viscosity

All fluids when flowing exhibit a resistance to one layer moving

relative to an adjacent one. This resistance is described to the
fluid viscosity since relative motions imply the presence of shear
force the resisting forces is equal and opposite .

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force
develops between them and the slower layer tries to slow down
the faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is quantified by
the fluid property viscosity. Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in
gases.

26
 Figure 1.16.The flow of an originally
uniform fluid stream over a flat plate,
and the regions of viscous flow (next
to the plate on both sides) and inviscid
flow (away from the plate).

The development of viscous and inviscid

regions of flow as a result of inserting a
flat plate parallel into a fluid stream of
uniform velocity is shown in figure 1-16.

Viscous flow can be defined as the flows that involve the frictional effects.

Figure 1.17.
Definition of viscosity

27
 Newton postulated that, for the straight and parallel motion of a given fluid,
the tangential stress between two adjacent layers is proportional to the
velocity gradient in direction perpendicular to the layers.

Figure 1.18 The velocity

gradient

Where  is the coefficient of the viscosity and has the unit of Ns/m2.Kinematic
viscosity is defined =/. For a constant temperature many fluids exhibit a
constant value of /. These are called Newtonian fluids. There are also several
28
non-Newtonian fluids.
 Viscosity: Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian

Latex
Paint

Corn
Starch

Newtonian Fluids have a Linear Relationships between stress and strain: Most
common fluids are Newtonian.
Non-Newtonian Fluids have a Non-Linearrelationship between stress and strain
29
30
 1-4 Fluid Flow Classification
1-4.1 External and Internal Flow:The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface
such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow (see figure 1.19). The flow in a
pipe or duct is internal flow.

FIGURE 1.19.External flow

over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.

31
Internal flow

Pumps and pipes

Internal flow around in a combustion engine 32

Open channel flow

33
 1-4.2 Compressible and Incompressible Flow
A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the
level of variation of density during flow. Incompressibility is an approximation,
and a flow is said to be incompressible if the density remains nearly
constant throughout.
In fluid mechanics, Mach number (Ma or M) is a dimensionless quantity
representing the speed of an object moving through air or other fluid divided by
the local speed of sound. It is commonly used to represent the speed of an
object when it is traveling close to or above the speed of sound.

Ma = 1 Sonic flow where

Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow

34
High-speed flow around objects Flight can be roughly classified in six
categories:

Regime Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic H-hypersonic

Mach <1.0 0.8–1.2 1.0 1.2–5.0 5.0–10.0 >10.0

(a) (b)

Figure 1.20 Mach number in transonic airflow around an airfoil; M<1 (a)
and M>1 (b).
35
Figure 1.21. Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil at
Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an instantaneous image,
while photo (b) is a long-exposure (time-averaged)
image.

36
 1-4.3 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The
highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called
laminar.
The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and
is characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent (Fig. 1.22).

Figure 1.22 Laminar v.s.

Turbulent Flow
37
Figure 1.23. Photographic view of laminar, transitional and turbulent flows.

38
 Down below, a photograph of washbasin showing the change of laminar flow to
turbulent flow.

Figure 1-24 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is shown. 39

 1-4.4 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external

means such as a pump or a fan.

Forced Flow in Axial Fan

In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means such as the
buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of the warmer (and thus
lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid (Fig. 1-25).

Figure 1.25 Thermal plumes of rising warm air

surrounding the girl.

40
 1-4.5 Steady and Unsteady Flow
The term steady implies no change at a point with time. The opposite of steady
is unsteady.

Unsteady flow past a cylinder Steady flow past in a shower

The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified region.
These meanings are consistent with their everyday use (steady girlfriend,
uniform distribution, etc.).
Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and
they are classified as steady-flow device.

During steady flow, the fluid properties can change from point to point within a
device, but at any fixed point they remain constant. Therefore, the volume, the
mass, and the total energy content of a steady-flow device or flow section
41
remain constant in steady operation.
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry, and the velocity may
vary in all three dimensions, rendering the flow three-dimensional [V (x, y, z) in
rectangular or V (r, Ѳ, z) in cylindrical coordinates.

Developing velocity Fully Developed

ProfileV(r,z) Velocity Profile V(r)

Figure 1.26 The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe.

V = V(r,z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and
becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully develops
and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).

42
A flow may be approximated as two-dimensional when the aspect ratio is large
and the flow does not change appreciably along the longer dimension. For
example, the flow of air over a car antenna can be considered two-dimensional
except near its ends since the antenna’s length is much greater than its
diameter, and the airflow hitting the antenna is fairly uniform (Fig. 1-27).

Figure 1.27. Flow over a car antenna is approximately two-dimensional

except near the top and bottom of the antenna.

43
 Figure 1-28. Axisymmetric flow
over a bullet.

Consider the assumption of no significant wind and the bullet is not spinning is
made. The bullet possesses an axis of symmetry. The airflow upstream of the
bullet is parallel to the axis, and we expect the time averaged airflow to be
rotationally symmetric about the axis-such flows are said to be axisymmetric.
The velocity in the case varies with axial distance z and radial distance r, but
not with the angle Ѳ. Therefore, the time-averaged airflow is axisymmetric,
the instantaneous airflow is not, as illustrated in the Figure 1.28.

44
In general, the fluid flow is three-dimensional in the sense that the properties,
such as the velocity, the pressure and the density may vary in all the mutually
perpendicular directions. Thus, for three-dimensional unsteady flow;

u=u(x,y,z,t), v=v(x,y,z,t), w=w(x,y,z,t), p=p(x,y,z,t), and ρ = ρ(x,y,z,t),

Three dimensional and steady flow

u=u(x,y,z), v=v(x,y,z), w=w(x,y,z), p=p(x,y,z), and ρ = ρ(x,y,z),

Two-dimensional and steady flow

u=u(x,y), v=v(x,y), w=w(x,y), p=p(x,y), and ρ = ρ(x,y),

One-dimensional and steady flow

u=u(x), v=v(x), w=w(x), p=p(x), and ρ = ρ(x),

45
 1-5 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Figure 1-29. System,

surroundings and boundary

Figure 1.30
A control volume may involve fixed, moving, real, and
imaginary boundaries. 46
Closed system with fixed and moving boundary.

As seen in the figure, as the gas in

the cylinder with a moving
boundary is heated, its volume will
increase whereas no mass transfer
occurs to inside or outside, the
mass remains constant.

Figure 1.31 A closed system with a moving boundary.

47
 1-6 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSION AND UNITS

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes

assigned to the dimensions are called units. Some basic dimensions such as mass
m, length L, time t, and temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed
in terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or
derived dimensions.

48
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all

1 J = 1 N∙m branches of engineering.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

49
 Figure 1.32. The SI unit prefixes are used
in all branches of engineering.

Figure 1-33. A force unit is defined as the needed

capability of accelerating 1 kg of mass at an
acceleration of 1 m/s2. Its unit is N(newton).

So;
F= m x a
Where F(N,lbf) shows force, m(kg,slug) shows the mass and a(m/s2,ft/s2)
shows the acceleration.

Another force unit in common use in many European countries is the kilogram-
force (kgf), which is the weight of 1 kg mass at sea level (1 kgf = 9.807 N).

50
The term weight is often incorrectly used to express mass, particularly by the
“weight watchers.” Unlike mass, weight W is a force. It is the gravitational
force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from Newton’s second
law,
W = mg (N)

where m is the mass of the body, and g is the local gravitational acceleration
(g is 9.807 m/s2 at sea level and 45° latitude).

Figure 1.34
The comparison of force units of
newton(N), kilogram-force(kgf) and
pound-force(lbf) is shown in the figure.

51
 Figure 1.35
The comparison of weight of a woman in
different space objects(earth and moon). As
the gravitational acceleration changes
according to the total mass of the space
object, the weight of the woman will change
accordingly.

A mass of 1 kg due to the gravitational

acceleration of earth will have a weight
of 9.807 N which is equal to 9.807
kg.m/s2 (As shown in the left figure).

Figure 1.36
Weight of an unit mass at sea level. 52
However, a mass of 1 lbm due to the gravitational acceleration of earth will
have a weight of 1 lbf which is equal to 32.174 lbm.ft/s2 (As shown in the
figure below).

Figure 1-37
The weight of a substance(1 lbf) on earth
that has a mass of 1 lbm.

53
Figure 1.38
A box of crunch cereal which has a mass of 1
pound(0.4536 kg) will have a weight of 1 lbf
on earth. By using Newton’s second law, its
weight in SI system can be calculated as
follows:
W=mg=(0.4536 kg)*(9.81 m/s2)=4.49 N

54
Example 1-1: What will be the mass of an oil having a volume of 2 m3
and a density of 850 kg/m3 as shown in the figure below?

Figure 1.32
Schematic for Example 1–3.

This question can be considered as figuring out the formula by using the
related dimensions.

So; m= ρ x v m=(850 kg/m3 x 2m3)=1700 kg

Work, which is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times

distance; therefore, it has the unit “newton-meter (N . m),” which is called a
joule (J). That is,

1J=1N•m
55
 Dimensions and Dimensional Homogeneity and Units

Fluid characteristics can be described qualitatively in terms of certain basic

quantities such as length, L, time, T, mass, M. Another primary quantity is
temperature, . These primary quantities can then be used to provide a
qualitative description of any other secondary quantity: for example, area, L2,
velocity, LT-1, density, ML-3 and velocity is V = LT-1 = m/s.

In summary, for a wide variety of problems involving fluid mechanics, only the
three basic dimensions, L, T and M are required.

All theoretically derived quantities are dimensionally homogeneous. As indicated

below the dimensions of the both side of the equation must have the same
dimensions.
V  V0  at
Where Vo is the initial velocity, a is the acceleration, and t is the time interval.
Hence
LT 1  LT 1  LT 1
56
And so, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
Example 1.2 A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate of
flow, Q, of a liquid through an orifice located in the side of a tank is

Q  0.61A 2 gh

A = Area of the orifice h

g = Gravitational acceleration
h = Height of the liquid

C.V.
D A0 Aj
Flow direction

1 2

57
 Solution
Q  m 3 / s  L3T 1 A  m 2  L2 g  m / s 2  LT 2 h  m L
Substitute these terms into the equation

( L3T 1 )  (0.61)( L2 )( 2 )( LT 2 )1/ 2 ( L)1/ 2

( L 3T 1
)  ( 0 . 61 ) 
2 ( L 3T 1
)

The equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

Replace g with its standard value of 9.81 m/s 2 and rewrite the formula as

Q  4.90 A h The dimensions of the formula will become;

L3T 1  (4.90)(L5/ 2 )
This equation can only be dimensionally correct if the number 4.90 has the
dimensions of
.

1/ 2 1
L T 58
Table 1.3
Dimensional Units

59
 Figure 1.41. To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the terms in an equation
must have the same unit.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by
combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently as

unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
terms in an equation
must have the same unit. Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses)
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units. 60
EXAMPLE 1.3. While solving a problem, a person ended up with the following equation
at some stage:
E=25 kJ + 7 kj/kg

where E is the total energy and has the unit of kilojoules. Determine how to
correct the error and discuss what may have caused it.

Solution: During an analysis, a relation with inconsistent units is obtained.

A correction is to be found, and the probable cause of the error is to be
determined.

Analysis: The two terms on the right-hand side do not have the same units, and
therefore they cannot be added to obtain the total energy. Multiplying the last term
by mass will eliminate the kilograms in the denominator, and the whole equation
will become dimensionally homogeneous; that is, every term in the equation will
have the same unit.

Discussion: Obviously this error was caused by forgetting to multiply the last
term by mass at an earlier stage.

61
 EXAMPLE 1–4: A tank is filled with oil whose density is 850 kg/m3. If the
volume of the tank is V= 2 m3, determine the amount of mass m in the
tank.

Solution: The volume of an oil tank is given. The mass of oil is to be determined.

Assumptions: Oil is an incompressible substance and thus its density is constant.

Analysis: Suppose we forgot the formula that relates mass to density and volume.
However, we know that mass has the unit of kilograms. That is, whatever
calculations we do, we should end up with the unit of kilograms. Putting the given
information into perspective, we have

Discussion: Note that this approach may not work for more complicated 62
formulas.
 1-7 Mathematical Modeling and Problem Solving Technique
Figure 1-42 Mathematical
Modeling of Physical Problems
An engineering device or process can be studied
either experimentally (testing and taking
measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).
Very accurate results to meaningful practical
problems can be obtained with relatively little
effort by using a suitable and realistic mathe-
matical model. The preparation of such
models requires an adequate knowledge of
the natural phenomena involved and the
relevant laws, as well as sound judgment. An
unrealistic model will obviously give inaccurate
and thus unacceptable results.
63
Experimental vs. Analytical Analysis
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing
and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).

The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual
physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement,
within the limits of experimental error. However, this approach is expensive,
time-consuming, and often impractical.

The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage
that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the
accuracy of the assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the
analysis.

64
 Complex model
(very accurate )
vs.
Simple model
(not-so-accurate)

Simplified models are often used in fluid

mechanics to obtain approximate solutions
to difficult engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is modeled by a
disk, across which is imposed a sudden
change in pressure. The helicopter's body
is modeled by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the essential
features of the overall air flow field in the
vicinity of the ground.

65
 Figure 1.43
Step by step solving of a problem makes
solving of the problem easier.

When you are solving a problem, it is

recommended you to follow steps shown
below. This will help you to avoid some of
the common pitfalls associated with
problem solving.

• Step 1: Problem Statement

• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
66
Figure 1.37
The assumptions made while solving an
engineering problem must be reasonable
and justifiable.

State any appropriate assumptions and

approximations made to simplify the
problem to make it possible to obtain a
solution. Justify the questionable
assumptions. Assume reasonable values
for missing quantities that are necessary.
For example, in the absence of specific
data for atmospheric pressure, it can be
taken to be 1 atm. However, it should be
noted in the analysis that the atmospheric
pressure decreases with increasing
elevation. For example, it drops to 0.83
atm in Denver at elevation of 1610
m.(Figure 1-44)
67
Figure 1.45
The results obtained from an engineering
analysis must be checked for
reasonableness.

Check to make sure that the results

obtained are reasonable and intuitive, and
verify the validity of the questionable
assumptions. Repeat the calculations that
resulted in unreasonable values.

For example, under the same test

conditions the aerodynamic drag acting on
a car should not increase after streamlining
the shape of the car.(Figure 1-45)

68
 1–9 ENGINEERING SOFTWARE PACKAGES

We should always remember that all the

computing power and the engineering software
packages available today are just tools, and tools
have meaning only in the hands of masters.
Hand calculators did not eliminate the need to
teach our children how to add or subtract, and
sophisticated medical software packages did not
take the place of medical school training.
Neither will engineering software packages
replace the traditional engineering education.
They will simply cause a shift in emphasis in the
courses from mathematics to physics. That is,
more time will be spent in the classroom
discussing the physical aspects of the problems
in greater detail, and less time on the mechanics An excellent word-processing program does
of solution procedures. not make a person a good writer; it simply
makes a good writer a more efficient writer.

69
EES (Engineering Equation Solver)
(Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear algebraic
or differential equations numerically.
It has a large library of built-in thermodynamic property functions
as well as mathematical functions.
Unlike some software packages, EES does not solve engineering
problems; it only solves the equations supplied by the user.

70
EXAMPLE 1–5: The difference of two numbers is 4, and the sum of the squares of
these two numbers is equal to the sum of the numbers plus 20. Determine these two
numbers.

Solution Relations are given for the difference and the sum of the squares of two
numbers. They are to be determined.

Analysis We start the EES program by double-clicking on its icon, open a new file,
and type the following on the blank screen that appears:

which is an exact mathematical expression of the problem statement with x and y

denoting the unknown numbers. The solution to this system of two nonlinear
equations with two unknowns is obtained by a single click on the “calculator” icon
on the taskbar. It gives

71
FlowLab

It is important for beginning students of fluid mechanics to become

familiar with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
FlowLab is a student-oriented CFD software package that utilizes
predesigned templates that enable virtually anyone to run a CFD
code and generate results.
FlowLab is based on the commercial CFD program from ANSYS
called FLUENT; you will see FlowLab end-of-chapter problems
throughout this textbook.

Each problem is designed with two objectives:

(1) Learn or emphasize a fluid mechanics concept
(2) Become familiar with running a user-friendly CFD code

72
1–10 ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Accuracy error (inaccuracy): The value of one reading minus the true Shooter A is more
value. In general, accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the precise, but less
closeness of the average reading to the true value. Accuracy is generally accurate, while
associated with repeatable, fixed errors. shooter B is more
accurate, but less
Precision error: The value of one reading minus the average of precise.
readings. In general, precision of a set of measurements refers to the
fineness of the resolution and the repeatability of the instrument.
Precision is generally associated with unrepeatable, random errors.
Significant digits: Digits that are relevant and meaningful.

A measurement or calculation can be very precise without being very

accurate, and vice versa. For example, suppose the true value of wind
speed is 25.00 m/s. Two anemometers A and B take five wind speed
readings each:

73
 Figure 1.47
The result that have a reasonable number
of digits more than the given values will
show a wrong but high degree of precision
that is not demanded.

A result with more significant

digits than that of given data
falsely implies more precision.

74
Example 1-3

Jennifer is conducting an experiment that uses cooling water from a garden hose.
In order to calculate the volume flow rate of water through the hose, she times
how long it takes to fill a container (Fig. 1-42). The volume of water collected is V
= 4.2 L in time period Δt = 45.62 s, as measured with a stopwatch. Calculate the
volume flow rate of water through the hose in units of cubic meters per minute.

Solution

Volume flow rate is to be determined from measurements of volume and time

period.

Assumptions

1. Jennifer recorded her measurements properly, such that the volume

measurement is precise to two significant digits while the time period is precise
to four significant digits.
2. No water is lost due to splashing out of the container.

75
 . V
V 
t

When the measured values are written to the correct place in the formula, the
volume flow rate can be calculated as follows.

. 4.2 L 1m3 60 s
V ( )( )  5.5 * 10 3 m3 / min
45.62 s 1000 L 1min

Figure 1.42
Schematic for example above for the
measurement of volume flow rate.

76
 Figure 1.49

An instrument with many digits of resolution(stopwatch c) may be less

accurate than an instrument with few digits of resolution(stopwatch a). What
can you say about stopwatches b and d?

77
 Figure 1.50

In the figure comparison of vortex structure created by a water drop after

impacting a pool of water(inverted from Peck and Sigurdson)(a) and an
above-ground nuclear test in Nevada in 1957 is shown(US Department of 78
Energy)(b)
 Summary

• The No-Slip Condition

• A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
• Classification of Fluid Flows
– Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
– Internal versus External Flow
– Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
– Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
– Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
– Steady versus Unsteady Flow
– One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• System and Control Volume
• Importance of Dimensions and Units
• Mathematical Modeling of Engineering Problems
• Problem Solving Technique
• Engineering Software Packages
• Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits
79