11.

4 Steam Turbine

A complete steam turbine with extraction and/or addition ports is built-up from a basic building block, represented by the
Steam Turbine icon. This icon may represent a single stage, a group of stages between extraction or admission ports, or
an entire steam turbine (provided it has no intermediate ports). Splitter (§9.1) or Mixer (§9.2) components inserted
between turbine groups are used for extractions or admissions, respectively. To define steam leakages from valve stems
or labyrinth seals, the Leakage component (§9.14) may be introduced, connected, and defined by the user, as
appropriate. Thus, an accurate, detailed thermodynamic model may be built by a user possessing the requisite
knowledge to create the model and to define its myriad details.

To help less experienced users, and to save time and effort for all users, the PEACE ST Assembly (§11.8) has been
developed and made available to all users, not just those with a PEACE license. In addition to its engineering and cost
estimation functions, the assembly facilitates development of an accurate thermodynamic model by providing built-in
methods to automatically estimate steam turbine group efficiencies, leakage flow rates and destinations, and exhaust
losses. Since these automatic procedures apply to the steam turbine as a whole, not just to its building blocks, they
cannot be performed until the assembly has been declared, as described in §11.8. The labour-saving automatic methods
used in the ST Assembly are virtually identical to those used in GT PRO & ST PRO, and are recommended for all users.
However, consistent with Thermoflow’s philosophy, all automatically generated inputs may be overridden, as needed, by
knowledgeable and experienced users who wish to have control over all details.
11.4.1 Design Mode (TD and ED) Inputs

When the input menu for the Steam Turbine icon is opened in design mode, whether Thermodynamic Design or
Engineering Design, it appears on two screens as shown and described below.
 11.4.1.1 Main Inputs Tab – Efficiency Definitions

THERMOFLEX allows you a choice of two methods for defining the design point expansion eficiency of each ST icon.
Please realise, however, that if you subsequently declare the icon to be a member of an assembly (§11.8), and select the
assembly’s automatic method of determining ST efficiency, the efficiency defined here will be ignored. Thus, if you are
planning to use the assembly with its default automatic determination of efficiency, you may just as well accept the
defaults here since they will be superseded by the assembly’s logic.

If you select Specify dry step efficiency its input box will be enabled so you can impose its value. This is the efficiency
of a step (or stage) in the expansion path with dry steam, and will be corrected for wet steam as described below. The
input for dry step efficiency is bounded between 10% and 100%. If you select Specify exit enthalpy (before exhaust
loss) a box will be enabled to allow you to declare the steam enthalpy leaving the icon at the design point. This is defined
before any Leaving Loss. With this selection, THERMOFLEX ignores the input value for dry step efficiency and updates it
with the calculated value that corresponds to the user-defined exit enthalpy, after the computations. If the exit enthalpy
you declare corresponds to an absurd efficiency, it will be overridden during computation.

The expansion path within the group of stages represented by the icon is computed in a series of successive steps, each
with the same pressure ratio. The desired pressure ratio of each step (or stage) may be adjusted via the input for
Reference pressure ratio for ST expansion step. Since steps are intended to approximate turbine stages, a value for
the step pressure ratio between 1.2 and 1.5 is reasonable; and THERMOFLEX enforces a minimum value of 1.1. Since
practical steam turbine stages will normally have low pressure ratio stages at the HP section and high pressure ratios at
the LP section, the input for the desired pressure ratio is treated as a reference value (at 150 psia or about 10 bar), and is
adjusted internally by the program according to the mean pressure for the stage group represented by the icon.
Furthermore, when the calculation is run, it may find that to divide the group represented by the icon into an integer
number of steps, a different (lower) value may have to be used for each step (stage). It should be realised that having the
number of computational stages (or steps) approximate the number of physical stages is more of an aesthetic detail, with
very little influence over the results. Thus, most users should be content to leave the default value in place.

Condensation quality (Wilson Line) defines the quality at onset of condensation in the steam turbine. This is bounded
between 0.1 and 1, with a default of 0.97. An efficiency decrement is applied to all steps with steam quality below the
Wilson line:

η = ηDRY - β (1 - xM )

where
η = Corrected step efficiency (-);

ηDRY = Dry step efficiency (-);

xM = Mean step quality (-); and

β = Moisture efficiency penalty (Baumann Coefficient)

If a step is partially above and partially below the Wilson line, the correction is prorated to reflect the proportion below the
Wilson line. The Baumann Coefficient is bounded between 0.1 and 1, with a default of 0.72.
 11.4.1.2 Main Inputs Tab – Input boxes shown on the graphic icon

Design point pressure is defined at the turbine inlet, before any stop or control valves. It is limited to 14,504 psia (1,000
bar), but such high pressures require ASME properties, not STQUIK. In design mode, this pressure is an important
definition, and will propagate to set the downstream pressure of the component preceding the steam turbine icon. If the
ST icon is designated as a "rubber component", this input will be grayed out, and the user should ensure that another
component connected to the ST icon’s inlet must be able to define the pressure at the upstream port of the ST icon.

Inlet pressure drop is used to model the loss in a stop valve or crossover pipe preceding the expansion within the ST
icon. It is used by the design point calculation to find performance, as well as to initialise the stop valve’s or crossover’s
flow resistance coefficient, used for calculating off-design pressure drop.

Inlet pressure control allows one to select from amongst five types of inlet pressure controls. Although this selection
primarily affects off-design behaviour, it also impacts design-point control valve losses and estimated ST dimensions and
costs, hence its inclusion in design mode. The control options are:

0 - Sliding (no off-design pressure control)

1 – Throttle Control (single valve)

2 – Nozzle Control (nozzle area smoothly adjustable)

3 – LVP (multi-valve steam chest, Locus of Valve Points model)

4 - MVL (multi-valve steam chest, Mean of Valve Loops model)

The ST model in general, and the control mechanisms in particular, follow the methodology used in GT PRO/MASTER
(and STEAM PRO/MASTER). Thus, the control model descriptions are not repeated here. Please refer to §5.1 of the GT
MASTER manual (Tab I in this binder).

If any controlled inlet pressure mode is selected (any mode except "0 – Sliding"), the
turbine icon will appear on the main flow sheet embellished with a "bow tie", as shown to
the right, to remind you that it has a control device at its inlet. Also, the appearance of the
input screen will illustrate the presence of a control device by an X across the turbine group’
s inlet, as shown below, and the input box for Control pressure drop will become enabled
to allow you to edit the pressure drop due to the control valve(s) when wide open.

Sizing flow / design point flow allows one to create a turbine with a flow-passing capacity different from the design-point
flow. For example, entering 1.05 would create a turbine with nozzle areas 5% greater than implied by the design-point
flow and inlet pressure. This would mean that at off-design, a flow rate 5% greater than the design value would
correspond to the design-point inlet pressure if the inlet pressure were sliding, or if it were controlled with valves wide open.
 11.4.1.4 Exhaust Loss & Miscellaneous Tab

The table allows the user to define the shape of the group’s exhaust loss curve, on a non-dimensional basis, and the Plot
button allows one to see it graphically. The exhaust loss itself is defined in the input box below the table, and should
typically be zero except for an icon representing the last group of stages before final exhaust to a condenser. The Design
point dry exhaust loss is the dimensional value in BTU/lb or kJ/kg at the point on the curve representing 100% of design
point exhaust volume flow rate. After the design point calculation is run, the Design point exhaust volume flow rate is
found, in ft3/s or m3/s, and is displayed in its input box. This input box, as well as that for Choke exhaust volume flow
are grayed out in design mode and only available for editing at off-design.

If you are planning to declare a steam turbine assembly (§11.8), the exhaust loss curve defined in the assembly manager
will supersede any definitions made for the icon representing the last group of stages in the assembly. Thus, it would be a
waste of time to edit the exhaust loss parameters at the icon level.

The selections at the bottom allow various formulas to be applied for exhaust loss moisture correction: either none,
Method 1 (GE), or Method 2 (Westinghouse).
 11.4.1.5 Type of Performance

Under normal conditions, steam flow to the turbine is set by the network. Typically in power generation applications, boiler
steam generation rate, or process steam demand, or some other flow dictator determines the steam flow at the turbine
inlet. However, in cases where the turbine is mechanically or electrically coupled to an auxiliary device such as a pump,
or compressor, it is desirable to let the power required by the coupled device dictate the flow to the turbine to balance the
auxiliary load. Inputs on the Type of Performance panel provide ability to implement this sort of control mode. Three
modes exist and are selected using the pulldown list shown below and associated inputs described below.

Normal - flow set by network: This is the default selection. It is used when the steam flow to the turbine is set by the
network. That includes cases where the steam turbine is out-of service in off-design. In this mode, the other inputs on
this panel are disabled.

Shaft drive - flow set by shaft load: This mode is used to model situations where the turbine is mechanically coupled to
the driven load. The program adjusts the inlet steam flow so as to achieve a balance between the shaft power required by
the driven load and that produced by the turbine. The flow priority assigned to the inlet flow is relatively high, in the top
third of the list shown in §6.1. All devices on the same shaft as the steam turbine collectively represent the mechanical
load. A warning message will result if no devices are on the same shaft as the steam turbine.

The inputs Minimum inlet steam flow and Maximum inlet steam flow limit the range of steam flows allowed. If the
required steam flow is outside the specified range, THERMOFLEX generates an error and either imports the additional
shaft power required, or exports the excess mechanical power.

Auxiliary drive – flow set by equipment load: This mode is used to model cases where the electricity generated by the
steam turbine’s generator drives an electric load in the model. It is similar to the mode described above, except that the
power is transferred electrically instead of mechanically which induces losses in the generator and driven motor, if any. In
this mode, the steam turbine can deliver power to one electric load, whereas in the shaft-coupled mode the turbine can
drive multiple mechanical loads. To configure the steam turbine for this mode, it should be alone on a shaft driving a
generator.

The Auxiliary button is used to summon a list of electric loads in the model, from which one may be chosen.
THERMOFLEX adjusts turbine inlet flow to balance the power generated by its generator with that required by the
associated auxiliary load. The input steam flow limits implicitly set the power range allowed. If the driven electric load
exceeds the power generated by the turbine when running at its Maximum inlet steam flow, the balance is considered
part of the plant’s auxiliary load. Likewise, if the steam turbine generator generates too much power when running at
Minimum inlet steam flow, the balance is available as gross generator output to be exported or used for auxiliary plant
loads.
11.4.2 Off-Design (OD) Mode Inputs
 11.4.2.1 Main Inputs Tab – Inlet Pressure Control

The Inlet Pressure Control panel at the top left contains the same pull-down list for selecting the control mechanism, if
any, as described in §11.4.1.2.

Number of inlet valves (sectors) is applicable only for multi-valve steam turbines. THERMOFLEX assumes that all
nozzle sectors are equal. LVP or MVL controls with one valve (one nozzle sector) behave exactly as Throttle Control.
LVP or MVL controls with a large number of valves (nozzle sectors) behave approximately like Nozzle Control. The only
difference is that the Minimum pressure drop across control valve applies when the valves are wide open for the LVP
and MVL models, whereas the Throttle Control and Nozzle Control models do not impose a minimum pressure drop.
Thus, if you wish to use Throttle Control with a minimum VWO pressure drop, you should specify LVP or MVL with one
valve.

The remaining inputs in the Inlet Pressure Control panel describe the valve overlap model for multi-valve controls, and
so apply only for LVP and MVL controls. Please see the description of the model and these inputs in §5.1.4 of the GT
MASTER manual (Tab I in this binder).
 11.4.2.2 Main Inputs Tab – Component Status

This panel allows one to shut down the steam turbine icon. Selecting "Out-of-service" imposes a zero mass flow rate
upon the branch of the network that feeds steam through the icon, albeit with a low/medium flow dictating priority. Thus, if
there is no alternative path, such as a by-pass, steam supply dictated by a medium/high priority component may still go
through the ST icon.
 11.4.2.3 Main Inputs Tab – Turbine Parameters

This panel shows the main data for the thermodynamic model describing the turbine group.

Number of steps or stages is initialised during the design calculation, based on the input for step (stage) pressure ratio
and the total pressure ratio of the steam turbine group at design point, as discussed in §11.4.1.1.

Dry step efficiency at design point flow function is initialised as the design-point dry step efficiency and made available
as an input at off-design to enable fine tuning the model while in off-design mode. This is useful if the assembly’s
automatic efficiency estimate had been used in design mode, and the user has specific performance data he wishes to
duplicate in the model. This efficiency is defined at the Design point flow function (defined in §5.7.6), which is likewise
computed from the design point thermodynamic results. If off-design operating conditions cause the inlet flow function to
deviate from its design point value, the program will use built-in procedures to adjust the efficiency, which will deviate from
its design-point value to the extent that the flow function deviates from its design point value. It should be realised that
with both sliding pressure and throttle control the flow function stays nearly constant, as mass flow rate and pressure at
the nozzle inlet remain essentially proportional. Exceptions to this rule arise if the temperature changes significantly, or
the turbine group has a low pressure ratio and exhausts at a pressure that does not float in proportion to mass flow rate.

Efficiency degradation allows one to alter the effciency to model turbine aging, without losing or forgetting the original
design point value.

Design point inlet nozzle adjusted area is initialised from the design point thermodynamic solution as follows:

where

ANOZZLE = Design-point total inlet nozzle adjusted area (ft2 or m2);

FFDESIGN = Design-point flow function, calculated in design mode based on sizing flow (ft2 or m2);

PI = Pressure at the inlet of the steam turbine group (psia or bar); and

PO = Pressure at the outlet of the steam turbine group (psia or bar).

This establishes an effective inlet area for the steam turbine group. The word ‘adjusted’ refers to the fact that it is adjusted
for group pressure ratio, for consistency with the Stodola’s Ellipse model. The nozzle area is used at off-design to compute
the pressure at the group’s inlet, if it were sliding, from the entering steam mass flow rate and temperature. If the pressure
were controlled by a throttle valve, this would be the pressure downstream of the valve, and the upstream pressure could be
held up to a higher set point by closing the valve. If the pressure were controlled by multiple valves or variable area nozzles,
then the actual operating nozzle area at off design may be reduced from this value to hold up the upstream pressure at its set
point. Please see §5.7.6 and §5.1 of the GT MASTER manual (Tab I in this binder) for additional discussions.
Please note that since off-design stage efficiency is corrected as flow function deviates from its design point value, then
changes of nozzle area without accompanying, proportionate changes in design point flow function may alter computed
efficiency, even if you make no adjustment to the design point efficiency.

Design point pressure ratio for the turbine group is shown in a grayed out box for information purposes.

The last two inputs for Condensation quality (Wilson Line) and Moisture efficiency penalty (Baumann Coefficient) are
carried over from the design inputs, described in §11.4.1.1 and made available for possible modification, if needed, at
off-design.
 11.4.2.4 Main Inputs Tab – Input boxes shown on the graphic icon

Set point pressure: THERMOFLEX will use the selected control method to try to match the set point pressure at the inlet
to the steam turbine group. The set point is initialised by the design point inlet pressure. If the inlet pressure is sliding, it
cannot be controlled and this input is grayed out. Please remember that the pressure upstream of a control valve can be
prevented from falling by shutting the valve, but cannot be prevented from rising if it rises downstream of the valve. Thus,
even with a control device, high steam flow rates entering the turbine nozzles downstream of the valve can force the
pressure to climb above the set point.

Inlet flow resistance coefficient is initialised by the design point calculation. It is used to find the pressure drop due to a
stop valve or crossover at off design. Flow resistance coefficient is described in §5.6.2.
 11.4.2.5 Main Inputs Tab – Mechanical Definitions

The inputs for the Exhaust Loss Curve at Off-design are identical to its design mode conterpart, described in §11.4.1.3,
the only difference being that mechanical losses are given directly in kW at off-design, whereas they are defined as a
percentage of power output in design mode. The off-design loss is, naturally, initialised by the design point result.
 11.4.2.6 The Exhaust Loss & Miscellaneous Tab at Off-design

The inputs for the Exhaust Loss Curve at Off-design are identical to its design mode conterpart, described in §11.4.1.4,
except that the Design point exhaust volume flow rate and the Choke exhaust volume flow are available for editing.
The former defines the physical flow in ft3/s or m3/s at the point of 100% exhaust volume flow rate on the exhaust loss
curve. The latter defines the maximum volume flow rate at the exhaust, set by choking (steam velocity reaching sonic). If
the combination of mass flow rate and exhaust pressure downstream of the icon (typically the condenser) would imply a
volumetric flow rate above choke, then the turbine exhaust pressure would rise, to the value that would reduce the
volumetric flow rate to its maximum, choke value. A shock wave would then stand between this pressure, computed by
the program, and the pressure determined by the next downstream component (typically the condenser). No work is
obtained by this "lost" pressure difference across the shock wave. This input is initialised to an unrealistically high value,
to avoid choke, unless a knowledgeable user inputs a realistic value, based on actual equipment specs.

The Type of Performance feature is described above in §11.4.1.5. It works the same in off-design as it does in design
mode.

The other available frame in this Tab is the methods of dry step efficiency estimation at off-design. See §11.4.2.7 and
§11.4.2.8 for detail descriptions.
 11.4.2.7 Automatic Dry Step Efficiency Estimation at Off-design

There are two methods, automatic and user-defined, to model turbine dry step efficiency at off-design. The automatic
method is used by default in THERMOFLEX. The model used is in the form

η = ηo − f(φ/φ0) − ∆η
where
η is the dry stage efficiency at off-design

ηo is the dry stage efficiency at the design point flow function

f is the variation of efficiency, with a functional dependence upon variaton of flow function
φ = m is the flow function at off-design
φ0 is the design-point value of the flow function

∆η is the user-defined efficiency degradation, editable in the Main Inputs tab (§11.4.2.3)

This method is described in more detail in §5.1.2 of GT MASTER manual (Tab I in this binder).
 11.4.2.8 User-defined Dry Step Efficiency at Off-design

The alternative method is the user-defined dry step efficiency correction curve

η = ηo + f(m/ m 0) − ∆η
where
η is the dry stage efficiency at off-design

ηo is the design point dry stage efficiency

f is the dry step efficiency change, dependent upon flow rate and determined from the curve
m is the inlet mass flow rate at off-design

m 0 is the design-point inlet mass flow rate

∆η is the user-defined efficiency degradation, editable in the Main Inputs tab (§11.4.2.3)
The functional dependence of f upon flow rate is established by the user’s entries in the table, where all values
have been initialized to zero.