Thermal

Diploma in
Automobile Engineering
Thermal Engineering
BASIC NOMENCLATURE FOR ENGINEERING
Symbol Meaning SI Units and/or Value Symbol Meaning SI Units and/or Value
A Area m2 R Electrical resistance Ω (ohms)

BTU British Thermal Unit 1 BTU = 1055 J Re Reynolds number ---
CD Drag coefficient --- r Radius m
CL Lift coefficient --- S Entropy J/ᵒK
CP Specific heat at constant pressure J/kgKᵒ T Temperature ᵒK
CV Specific heat at constant volume J/kgKᵒ T Tension (in a rope or cable) N

c Sound speed m/s t Time s (seconds)
COP Coefficient Of Performance --- U Internal energy J
d Diameter m (meters) u Internal energy per unit mass J/kg
E Energy J (Joules) V Volume m3
E Elastic modulus N/m2 V Voltage Volts
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δ Elongation mm V Shear force N
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F Force N (Newtons) v Velocity m/s
f Friction factor (for pipe flow) --- W Weight N (Newtons)
g
gc
Acceleration of gravity
USCS units conversion factor

m/s2 (earth gravity = 9.81)
32.174 lbm ft/ lbf sec2 = 1

chW
w
Work
Loading (e.g. on a beam)

J
N/m
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H Enthalpy J Z Thermoelectric figure of merit 1/K
h Enthalpy per unit mass J/kg z Elevation m
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Convective heat transfer

h W/m2 K α Thermal diffusivity m2/s
coefficient
I Area moment of inertia m4 γ Gas specific heat ratio ---
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I Electric current A (ampere) η Efficiency ---
k Boltzmann’s constant 1.380622 x 10-23 J/K ε Strain ---

k Thermal conductivity W/mK ε Roughness factor (for pipe flow) ---
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L Length m µ Coefficient of friction ---
ʍ Molecular Mass kg/mole µ Dynamic viscosity Pa-s

M Moment of force N m (Newtons x meters) θ Angle ---
M Mach number --- ν Kinematic viscosity = µ/ρ m2/s
m Mass kg ν Poisson’s ratio ---
m Mass flow rate kg/s ρ Density kg/m3
n Number of moles --- ρ Electrical resistivity ohm m
NA Avogadro’s number 6.0221415 x 1023 σ Normal stress N/m2
P Pressure N/m2 σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
P Point-load force N σ Standard deviation [Same units as sample set]
Q Heat transfer J τ Shear stress N/m2

Q Heat transfer rate W (Watts) τ Thickness (e.g. of a pipe wall) m
THERMAL ENGINEERING
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Department of
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Automobile Engineering
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Prepared and Compiled by

Automobile Department
Disclaimer
This handbook is compiled to provide subject information to the students. Every

effort has been made to avoid errors and ensure accuracy. Any error noted may be
brought to the notice of the compiler, which shall be taken care of in the updated
edition of this handbook. The sources of information/material are provided in the
appendix.
The information contained in this handbook is strictly for education and learning
purposes and not for any commercial use.
Furthermore, University reserves the right to unilaterally and without notice make
changes to this handbook at any time.
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Course
Course / Branch Name Diploma in Automobile Engineering
Subject Thermal Engineering Code 025010204
Subject
HSSC BSC ESC PCC OEC PEC
Type
Legends: HSSC: Humanities and Social Sciences Courses
BSC: Basic Science Courses
ESC: Engineering Science Courses
PCC: Program Core Courses
OEC: Open Elective Courses
PEC: Program Elective Courses
Teaching and Examination Scheme

Examination Scheme
Teaching Hours / Week
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Theory Marks Practical Marks
Total
Total
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L T P ESE CA PA Total EV TW Total Marks
Credit
3 2 0 4 30 20 50 100 - - - 100
Legends: ESE:
CA:
End Semester Exam
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Continuous Assessment (Attendance + Activity)
PA: Progressive Assessment
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EV: External Viva
TW: Term Work
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Suggested Specification Table with Hours

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Distribution of Topics
According to Bloom’s
Unit Teaching
Chapter Name Taxonomy
No. Hours
R U App C E An
% % % % % %
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1. Principles of Thermodynamics 08 40 40 0 0 20 0
2. First Law of Thermodynamics 12 30 35 15 0 20 0
3. Second Law of Thermodynamics 13 35 40 15 0 10 0
4. Properties of Gases and Mixtures 05 50 50 0 0 0 0
5. Heat Transfer 04 40 50 10 0 0 0
Legends: R: Remembering
U: Understanding
App: Applying
C: Creating
E: Evaluating
An: Analyzing
Introduction
Thermal engineering is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical engineering that deals with the
movement of heat energy and transfer. The energy can be transferred between two mediums or
transformed into other forms of energy. A thermal engineer will have knowledge of
thermodynamics and the process to convert generated energy from thermal sources into chemical,
mechanical, or electrical energy. Many process plants use a wide variety of machines that utilize
components that use heat transfer in some way. Many plants use heat exchangers in their
operations. A thermal engineer must allow the proper amount of energy to be transferred for
correct use. Too much and the components could fail, too little and the system will not function at
all. Thermal engineers must understand economics and the components that they will be servicing
or interacting with. Some components that a thermal engineer could work with include heat
exchangers, heat sinks, bi-metals strips, radiators and many more. Some systems that require a
thermal engineer include; Boilers, heat pumps, water pumps, engines, and more.
Objectives
✓ Understand the energy conversion processes involving heat, work and energy storage.
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✓ The application of thermodynamic principles to the propulsion of land, sea and air transport
and in the generation of power.
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✓ Analysis various thermal processes and plant.
✓ Identify information requirements and sources for analysis and evaluation
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✓ Synthesize information and ideas for use in the evaluation process.
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Subject’s Learning Outcomes
✓ Students can describe basic concepts of Thermodynamics
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✓ Students can calculate absolute and gage pressure, and absolute temperature, changes in
kinetic, potential, enthalpy and internal energy.
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✓ Distinguish heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation and calculated the amount
of heat energy transferred.
✓ Apply first law of thermodynamics for closed systems and construct conservation of mass and
energy equations.
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✓ Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the open systems.

✓ Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors,
throttling valves, mixing chambers, heat exchangers, pipe and duct flow
✓ Restate perpetual-motion machines, reversible and irreversible processes.
Evaluation Methodology
Theory Marks
PA: Progressive Assessment
The units’ examinations will be conducted during the semester. Each unit exam is
compulsory. Unit examination may be taken from MCQs, objectives, short questions, long
questions, etc.
Unit-1 Exam: Maximum Marks 10

Total Marks 40
ESE: End Semester Exam
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End semester examination will be conducted from all Five (5) units and it is compulsory. It
may be taken in the form of objectives, short questions, long questions etc.
End Semester Exam: Maximum Marks 50

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CA: Continuous Assessment
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Continuous assessment will be evaluated from the activity assigned in the semester and the
attendance of that particular subject.
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Activity Assessment /Attendance: Maximum Marks 10

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Practical Marks
EV: External Viva
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External viva will be conducted through group task. Thereafter viva will be conducted
individually based on the given task of the concerned subject.
External Viva: Maximum Marks 20
TW: Term Work

Term work will be considered from the assignment and laboratory work done by the student
during the semester of that particular subject.
Term Work: Maximum Marks 30
About Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an
educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated
to include the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning
objectives, lessons, and assessments of your course.
1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term
memory.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and
critiquing.
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6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
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elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
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Contents
Unit Unit Name Page Hours
No. No.
1. Principles of Thermodynamics 1
1.1. Macroscopic vs Microscopic Viewpoint 1 0.25
1.2. Thermodynamic System and Control Volume 1 0.5
1.3. Thermodynamic Properties, Processes and Cycles 2 1
1.4. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems 3 0.5
1.5. Thermodynamic Equilibrium 3 0.25
1.6. Quasi-Static Process 4 1
1.7. Pure Substance 5 0.25
1.8. Concept of Continuum 5 0.5
1.9. Thermodynamic Terminologies 5 0.25
1.10. Work Transfer 7 1
1.11. Heat Transfer 9 1
1.12. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 10 0.5
1.13. Thermodynamic Process 10 1
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Short Questions 11
Long Questions 12
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Activities 12
2. First Law of Thermodynamics
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
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The First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Cycle
First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Change of
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1
1.5
1
State
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2.4. Energy — A Property of the System 15 1
2.5. Control Volume 16 2
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2.6. Steady and Unsteady Flow Process 17 1

2.7. Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E) 17 2
2.8. Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E) 18 2
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2.9. Perpetual Motion Machine of The First Kind–Pmm1 22 0.5

Short Questions 22
Long Questions 23
Activities 23
3. Second Law of Thermodynamics
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3.1. Limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics and 24 0.5

Introduction to Second
Law of Thermodynamics
3.2. Statements of Second Law of Thermodynamics 24 0.25
3.3. Equivalence of Clausius Statement to The Kelvin-Planck 24 0.5
Statement
3.4. Perpetual Motion Machine of The Second Kind 25 0.5
3.5. Heat Engine 26 0.25
3.6. Heat Pump 26 0.25
3.7. Refrigerator 26 0.25
3.8. Performance of Heat Engines and Reversed Heat Engines 26 1
3.9. Thermodynamic Temperature 27 1
3.10. Reversibility and Irreversibility 28 1
3.11. Causes of Irreversibility 29 0.5
3.12. Conditions for Reversibility 30 1
3.13. Carnot Cycle 31 1
3.14. Carnot’s Theorem 33 1.5
3.15. Efficiency of The Reversible Heat Engine 35 0.5
3.16. Entropy 38 1
3.17. Entropy and Irreversibility 40 1
3.18. Clausius Inequality 41 1
Short Questions 43
Long Questions 44
Activities 44
4. Properties of Gases and Mixtures
4.1. Introduction 45 0.5
4.2. Laws of Gases 45 1
4.3. Properties of Ideal Gases 48 0.5
4.4. Equation of Ideal Gas 49 1
4.5. Specific Heats of Ideal Gas 50 1
4.6. Internal Energy and Enthalpy of An Ideal Gas 51 1
4.7. Entropy of An Ideal Gas 52 1
Short Questions 52
Long Questions 53
Activities 54
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5. Heat Transfer
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5.1. Introduction 55 0.5
5.2. Fourier Law of Heat Conduction 55 1
5.3. Convection Heat Transfer 57 1
5.4. Radiation Heat Transfer
Short Questions
Long Questions
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1.5
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Activities 65
Appendix 66
Total Hours: 42
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Principle of Thermodynamics Unit 1
Principle of
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical properties of
substances. It is based upon observations of common experience which have been formulated
into thermodynamic laws. These laws govern the principles of energy conversion. The
applications of the thermodynamic laws and principles are found in all fields of energy
technology, notably in steam and nuclear power plants, internal combustion engines, gas
turbines, air conditioning, refrigeration, gas dynamics, jet propulsion, compressors, chemical
process plants, and direct energy conversion devices.
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1.1 Macroscopic vs Microscopic Viewpoint
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There are two points of view from which the behaviour of matter can be studied: the
macroscopic and the microscopic. In the macroscopic approach, a certain quantity of matter is
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considered, without the events occurring at the molecular level being considered. From the
microscopic point of view, matter is composed of myriads of molecules. If it is a gas, each
molecule at a given instant has a certain position, velocity, and energy, and for each molecule
these change very frequently as a result of collisions. The behaviour of the gas is described by
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summing up the behaviour of each molecule. Such a study is made in microscopic or statistical
thermodynamics. Macroscopic thermodynamics is only concerned with the effects of the action
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of many molecules, and these effects can be perceived by human senses. For example, the
macroscopic quantity, pressure, is the average rate of change of momentum due to all the
molecular collisions made on a unit area. The effects of pressure can be felt. The macroscopic
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point of view is not concerned with the action of individual molecules, and the force on a given
unit area can be measured by using, e.g. a pressure gauge. These macroscopic observations are
completely independent of the assumptions regarding the nature of matter. All the results of
classical or macroscopic thermodynamics can, however, be derived from the microscopic and
statistical study of matter.
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1.2 Thermodynamic System and Control Volume

A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space upon which attention is
concentrated in the analysis of a problem. Everything
external to the system is called the surroundings or the
environment. The system is separated from the
surroundings by the system boundary (Fig. 1.1).
The boundary may be either fixed or moving. A system Fig. 1.1 A Thermodynamic System
and its surroundings together comprises a universe.
There are three classes of systems: (a) closed system, (b) open system and (c)isolated system.
The closed system (Fig. 1.2) is a system of fixed mass. There is no mass transfer across the
system boundary. There may be energy transfer into or out of the system.
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Thermal Engineering
Fig. 1.2 A Closed System Fig. 1.3 An Open System Fig. 1.4 An Isolated System
A certain quantity of fluid in a cylinder bounded by a piston constitutes a closed system. The
open system (Fig. 1.3) is one in which matter crosses the boundary of the system. There may
be energy transfer also. Most of the engineering devices are generally open systems, e.g., an
air compressor in which air enters at low pressure and leaves at high pressure and there are
energy transfers across the system boundary. The isolated system (Fig. 1.4) is one in which
there is no interaction between the system and the surroundings. It is of fixed mass and energy,
and there is no mass or energy transfer across the system boundary.
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If a system is defined as a certain quantity of
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matter, then the system contains the same
matter and there can be no transfer of mass
across its boundary. However, if a system is
defined as a region of space within a
prescribed boundary, then matter can cross
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the system boundary. While the former is
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called a closed system, the latter is an open
system.
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For thermodynamic analysis of an open

system, such as an air compressor (Fig. 1.5),
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attention is focussed on a certain volume in Fig. 1.5 Control Volume and Control Surface
space surrounding the compressor, known as
the control volume, bounded by a surface called the control surface. Matter as well as energy
crosses the control surface.
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A closed system is a system closed to matter flow, though its volume can change against a
flexible boundary. When there is matter flow, then the system is considered to be a volume of
fixed identity, the control volume. There is thus no difference between an open system and a
control volume.
1.3 Thermodynamic Properties, Processes and Cycles

Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical condition may be described, e.g.,
volume, temperature, pressure, etc. Such characteristics are called properties of the system.
These are all macroscopic in nature. When all the properties of a system have definite values,
the system is said to exist at a definite state. Properties are the coordinates to describe the state
of a system. They are the state variables of the system.
Any operation in which one or more of the properties of a system changes is called a change
of state. The succession of states passed through during a change of state is called the path of
the change of state. When the path is completely specified, the change of state is called a
process, e.g., a constant pressure process. A

thermodynamic cycle is defined as a series of state
changes such that the final state is identical with the
initial state (Fig. 1.6).
Properties may be of two types. Intensive properties are

independent of the mass in the system, e.g. pressure,
temperature, etc. Extensive properties are related to
mass, e.g., volume, energy, etc. If mass is increased, the
values of the extensive properties also increase. Specific
extensive properties, i.e., extensive properties per unit Fig. 1.6 A Process and A Cycle
mass, are intensive properties, e.g., specific volume,
specific energy, density, etc.
1.4 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems
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A quantity of matter homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and physical structure
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is called a phase. Every substance can exist in any one of the three phases, viz., solid, liquid
and gas. A system consisting of a single phase is called a homogeneous system, while a system
consisting of more than one phase is known as a heterogeneous system.
1.5 Thermodynamic Equilibrium

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A system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any
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macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
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An isolated system always reaches in course of time a state of thermodynamic equilibrium and
can never depart from it spontaneously.
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Therefore, there can be no spontaneous change in any macroscopic property if the system exists
in an equilibrium state. Thermodynamics studies mainly the properties of physical systems that
are found in equilibrium states.
A system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if the conditions for the following
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three types of equilibrium are satisfied:
(a) Mechanical equilibrium (b) Chemical equilibrium (c) Thermal equilibrium
In the absence of any unbalanced force within the system itself and also between the system
and the surroundings, the system is said to be in a state of mechanical equilibrium.
If an unbalanced force exists, either the system alone or both the system and the surroundings
will undergo a change of state till mechanical equilibrium is attained.
If there is no chemical reaction or transfer of matter from one part of the system to another,
such as diffusion or solution, the system is said to exist in a state of chemical equilibrium.
When a system existing in mechanical and chemical equilibrium is separated from its
surroundings by a diathermic wall (diathermic means which allows heat to flow’) and if there
is no spontaneous change in any property of the system, the system is said to exist in a state of
Thermal Engineering
thermal equilibrium. When this is not satisfied, the system will undergo a change of state till
thermal equilibrium is restored.
When the conditions for any one of the three types of equilibrium are not satisfied, a system is
said to be in a none equilibrium state. If the nonequilibrium of the state is due to an unbalanced
force in the interior of a system or between the system and the surroundings, the pressure varies
from one part of the system to another. There is no single pressure that refers to the system as
a whole. Similarly, if the nonequilibrium is because of the temperature of the system being
different from that of its surroundings, there is a nonuniform temperature distribution set up
within the system and there is no single temperature that stands for the system as a whole. It
can thus be inferred that when the conditions for thermodynamic equilibrium are not satisfied,
the states passed through by a system cannot be described by thermo dynamic properties which
represent the system as a whole.
Thermodynamic properties are the macroscopic coordinates defined for, and significant to,
only thermodynamic equilibrium states. Both classical and statistical thermodynamics study
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mainly the equilibrium states of a system.
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1.6 Quasi-Static Process
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Let us consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder
(Fig. 1.7). The system initially is in an equilibrium state,
represented by the properties p1, υ1, t1. The weight on
the piston just balances the upward force exerted by the
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gas. If the weight is removed, there will be an
unbalanced force between the system and the
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surroundings, and under gas pressure, the piston will

move up till it hits the stops. The system again comes to
an equilibrium state, being described by the properties Fig. 1.7 Transition Between Two
p2, υ2, t2.
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Equilibrium States by an Unbalanced

force
But the intermediate states passed through by the system are nonequilibrium states which
cannot be described by thermodynamic coordinates. Figure 1.8 shows points 1 and 2 as the
initial and final equilibrium states joined by a dotted line, which has got no meaning otherwise.
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Now if the single weight on the piston is made up of

many very small pieces of weights, and these weights
are removed one by one very slowly from the top of the
piston, at any instant of the upward travel of the piston,
if the gas system is isolated, the departure of the state of
the system from the thermodynamic equilibrium state
will be infinitesimally small.
So, every state passed through by the system will be an

equilibrium state. Such a process, which is but a locus
Fig. 1.8 Plot Representing the of all the equilibrium points passed through by the
Transition Between Two Equilibrium system, is known as a quasi-static process, quasi’
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meaning almost’.
Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of a quasi-static process. A quasi-static process is

thus a succession of equilibrium states. A quasi-static process is also called a reversible process.
1.7 Pure Substance

A pure substance is defined as one that is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition
throughout its mass. The relative proportions of the chemical elements constituting the
substance are also constant. Atmospheric air, steam-water mixture and combustion products of
a fuel are regarded as pure substances. But the mixture of air and liquid air is not a pure
substance, since the relative proportions of oxygen and nitrogen differ in the gas and liquid
phases in equilibrium.
The state of a pure substance of given mass can be fixed by specifying two properties, provided
the system is in equilibrium. This is known as the two-property rule’. The state can thus be
represented as a point on thermodynamic property diagrams. Once any two properties of a pure
sub stance are known, other properties can be determined from the available thermodynamic
relations.
1.8 Concept of Continuum
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From the macroscopic viewpoint, we are always concerned with volumes which are very large
compared to molecular dimensions. Even a very small volume of a system is assumed to
contain a large number of molecules so that statistical averaging
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is meaningful and a property value can be assigned to it.
Disregarding the behaviour of individual molecules, matter is

here treated as continuous.
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Let us consider the mass δm in a volume δV surrounding the
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point P. The ratio δm δV is the average mass density of the

Fig. 1.8 Concept of Continuum
system within the volume δV.
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We suppose that at first δV is rather large, and is subsequently shrunk about the point P. If we
plot δm/δV against δV, the average density tends to approach an asymptote as δV increases.
However, when δV becomes so small as to contain relatively few molecules, the average
density fluctuates substantially with time as molecules pass into and out of the volume in
random motion, and so it is impossible to speak of a definite value of δm/δV. The smallest
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volume which may be regarded as continuous is δV. The density ρ of the system at a point is
thus defined as:
Similarly, the fluid velocity at a point P is defined as the instantaneous velocity of the centre
of gravity of the smallest continuous volume δV.
The concept of continuum loses validity when the mean free path of the molecules approaches
the order of magnitude of the dimensions of the vessel, as, for instance, in highly rarefied gases
encountered in high vacuum technology, in rocket flights at high altitudes and in electron tubes.
In most engineering applications, however, the assumption of a continuum is valid and

convenient, and goes hand in hand with the macroscopic point of view.
Thermal Engineering
1.9 Thermodynamic Terminologies

Absolute Zero Temperature
It has been found that a gas will not occupy any volume at a certain temperature. This
temperature is known as absolute zero temperature. This is the lowest temperature that can be
measured by a gas thermometer.
Unit of Heat
Heat is a form of energy. In SI system, unit of heat is taken as joule. Kilojoules (kJ) and Mega
joule (MJ) are recommended larger units of heat.
Calorie (cal.) is also unit of heat. Generally, Kilocalorie (kcal) is quantity of heat required to
raise temperature of unit mass of water through one degree Celsius or Kelvin.
1 kcal = 4186.8 joules = 4.1868 kilojoules
Specific Heat Capacity
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Specific heat capacity is also known as specific heat. The specific heat capacity of a substance
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may be defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the
substance by one degree.
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The unit of specific heat is J/kg °c. This unit is small, so kJ/kg-K or kJ/kg °c is recommended
larger units.
Mathematically, the heat transfer rate Q is written as

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Q = m × c ×△ T
Where, C = specific heat in kJ/kg.K, m = mass of substance in kg, △ T =Temperature difference

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in K.
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The product of mass and specific heat is called the heat capacity of the substance. Specific heat
is function of temperature; hence it is not constant but varies with temperature.
Specific Heats in Thermodynamics

The solids and liquids have only one value of specific heat but a gas is considered to have two
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distinct values of specific heat capacity.

(1) A value when the gas is heated at constant volume, Cv
(2) A value when the gas is heated at constant pressure Cp
The specific heat at constant volume Cv may be defined as the heat required to increase the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.
Same way one can define the specific heat at constant pressure (Cp), here pressure p is
maintained constant.
Internal Energy
In non-flow processes, fluid does not flow and has no kinetic energy. There is very small
amount of change in potential energy because change in centre of gravity is negligible. When
heat (Q) is supplied to a body, some amount of heat is converted into external work (W) due to
expansion of fluid volume and remaining amount of heat causes either to increase its
temperature or to change its state. Internal Energy is one type of energy which is neither heat
nor work; hence it is stored form of energy. It is denoted by U.
Mathematically,
Q=W+U
Where Q is amount of heat, W is work and U is internal energy. The internal energy per unit
mass is called specific internal energy. Above equation is referred as non-flow energy equation.
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. The quantity of enthalpy
equals the total content of heat of a system, equivalent to the system’s internal energy plus the
product of volume and pressure.
Mathematically, it is given as
H = U + pV
Entropy
The entropy is a thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the physical state or
condition of a system. In other words, it is a thermodynamic function used to measure the
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randomness or disorder of a system.
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For example, the entropy of a solid, where the particles are not free to move, is less than the
entropy of a gas, where the particles will fill the container.
1.10 Work Transfer

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Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer. In mechanics, the action of a force on a
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moving body is identified as work. A force is a means of transmitting an effect from one body
to another. But a force itself never produces a physical effect except when coupled with motion
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and hence it is not a form of energy. An effect such as the raising of a weight through a certain
distance can be performed by using a small force through a large distance or a large force
through a small distance. The product of force and distance is the same to accomplish the same
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effect. In mechanics work is defined as:

The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force.
The action of a force through a distance (or of a torque through an angle) is called mechanical
work since other forms of work can be identified, as discussed later. The product of the force
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and the distance moved parallel to the force is the magnitude of mechanical work.
In thermodynamics, work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and the
surroundings. Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on things external to the
system can be reduced to the raising of a weight. The weight may not actually be raised, but
Fig. 1.9 Battery-Motor System Driving a Fan Fig. 1.10 Work Transfer from a System
Thermal Engineering
the net effect external to the system would be

the raising of a weight. Let us consider the
battery and the motor in Fig. 1.9 as a system.
The motor is driving a fan. The system is
doing work upon the surroundings. When the
fan is replaced by a pulley and a weight, as
shown in Fig. 1.10, the weight may be raised
with the pulley driven by the motor. The sole
effect on things external to the system is then
Fig. 1.11 Work Interaction Between a System and
the raising of a weight. When work is done the Surroundings
by a system, it is arbitrarily taken to be
positive, and when work is done on a system, it is taken to be negative (Fig. 1.11). The symbol
W is used for work transfer. The unit of work is N.m or Joule 1 Nm = 1 Joule.
The rate at which work is done by, or upon, the system is known as power. The unit of power
is J/s or watt.
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Work is one of the forms in which a system and its surroundings can interact with each other.
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There are various types of work transfer which can get involved between them.
Path Function and Point Function ch

With reference to Fig. 1.12, it is possible to take a system from state 1 to state 2 along many
quasi-static paths, such as A, B or C. Since the area under each curve represents the work for
each process, the amount of work involved in each
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case is not a function of the end states of the process,
and it depends on the path the system follows in going
from state 1 to state 2. For this reason, work is called
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a path function, and d W is an inexact or imperfect

differential.
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Thermodynamic properties are point functions, since

for a given state, there is a definite value for each
property. The change in a thermodynamic property of
a system in a change of state is independent of the path
Fig. 1.12 Work-a Path Function
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the system follows during the change of state, and

depends only on the initial and final states of the system. The differentials of point functions
are exact or perfect differentials, and the integration is simply
The change in volume thus depends only on the end states of the system irrespective of the
path the system follows.
On the other hand, work done in a quasi-static process between two given states depends on
the path followed.
To distinguish an inexact differential dW from an exact differential dV or dp the differential

sign is being cut by a line at its top.
Here, 1/p is called the integrating factor. Therefore, an inexact differential dW when multiplied
by an integrating factor 1/p becomes an exact differential dV.
For a cyclic process, the initial and final states of the system are the same, and hence, the
change in any property is zero, i.e.
Where the symbol ∮ denotes the cyclic integral for the closed path. Therefore, the cyclic
integral of a property is always zero.
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1.11 Heat Transfer
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Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across a boundary by virtue of a
temperature difference. The temperature difference is the potential’ or force’ and heat transfer
is the flux’. ch
The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact is called conduction. Heat may be
transferred between two bodies separated by empty space or gases by the mechanism of
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radiation through electromagnetic waves. A third method of heat transfer is convection which
refers to the transfer of heat between a wall and a fluid system in motion.
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The direction of heat transfer is taken from the high temperature system to the low temperature
system. Heat flow into a system is taken to be positive, and heat flow out of a system is taken
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as negative (Fig. 1.13). The symbol Q is used for heat transfer, i.e. the quantity of heat
transferred within a certain time.
Heat is a form of energy in transit (like work transfer).

It is a boundary phenomenon, since it occurs only at
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the boundary of a system. Energy transfer by virtue of

temperature difference only is called heat transfer. All
other energy interactions may be termed as work
transfer.
Fig. 1.13 Direction of Heat Transfer
Heat is not that which inevitably causes a temperature
rise. When heat is transferred to an ice and water mixture, the temperature does not rise until
all the ice has melted.
When a temperature rise in a system occurs, it may not be due to heat transfer, since a
temperature rise may be caused by work transfer also. Heat, like work, is not a conserved
quantity, and is not a property of a system.
A process in which no heat crosses the boundary of the system is called an adiabatic process.
Thus, an adiabatic process is one in which there is only work interaction between the system
and its surroundings.
Thermal Engineering
A wall which is impermeable to the flow of heat is an adiabatic wall, whereas a wall which
permits the flow of heat is a diathermic wall. The unit of heat is Joule in S.I. units. The rate of
heat transfer or work transfer is given in kW or W.
1.12 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The property which distinguishes thermodynamics from other sciences is temperature. One
might say that temperature bears as important a relation to thermodynamics as force does to
statics or velocity does to dynamics. Temperature is associated with the ability to distinguish
hot from cold. When two bodies at different temperatures are brought into contact, after some
time they attain a common temperature and are then said to exist in thermal equilibrium.
When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also separately with a body C,
then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This is known as the zeroth law of thermodynamics. It is the basis of temperature measurement.
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In order to obtain a quantitative measure of temperature, a reference body is used, and a certain
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physical characteristic of this body which changes with temperature is selected. The changes
in the selected characteristic may be taken as an indication of change in temperature.
ch
The selected characteristic is called the thermometric property, and the reference body which
is used in the determination of temperature is called the thermometer. A very common
thermometer consists of a small amount of mercury in an evacuated capillary tube. In this case
the extension of the mercury in the tube is used as the thermometric property.
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1.13 Thermodynamic Process
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When the system undergoes change from one thermodynamic state to final state due change in
properties like temperature, pressure, volume etc, the system is said to have undergone
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thermodynamic process. Various types of thermodynamic processes are isothermal process,

adiabatic process, isochoric process, isobaric process and reversible process. These have been
described below
Isothermal Process
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When the system undergoes change from one state to the other, but its temperature remains
constant, the system is said to have undergone isothermal process. For instance, in our example
of hot water in thermos flask, if we remove certain quantity of water from the flask, but keep
its temperature constant at 50 degree Celsius, the process is said to be isothermal process.
Another example of isothermal process is latent heat of vaporization of water. When we heat
water to 100 degree Celsius, it will not start boiling instantly. It will keep on absorbing heat at
constant temperature; this heat is called latent heat of vaporization. Only after absorbing this
heat water at constant temperature, water will get converted into steam.
Adiabatic Process
The process, during which the heat content of the system or certain quantity of the matter
remains constant, is called as adiabatic process. Thus, in adiabatic process no transfer of heat
between the system and its surroundings takes place. The wall of the system which does not
allows the flow of heat through it, is called as adiabatic wall, while the wall which allows the
flow of heat is called as diathermic wall.
Isochoric Process
The process, during which the volume of the system remains constant, is called as isochoric
process. Heating of gas in a closed cylinder is an example of isochoric process.
Isobaric Process
The process during which the pressure of the system remains constant is called as isobaric
process. Example: Suppose there is a fuel in piston and cylinder arrangement. When this fuel
is burnt the pressure of the gases is generated inside the engine and as more fuel burns more
pressure is created. But if the gases are allowed to expand by allowing the piston to move
outside, the pressure of the system can be kept constant.
The constant pressure and volume processes are very important. The Otto and diesel cycle,
which are used in the petrol and diesel engine respectively, have constant volume and constant
pressure processes. In practical situations ideal constant pressure and constant pressure
processes cannot be achieved.
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Reversible Process
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In simple words the process which can be revered back completely is called a reversible
process. This means that the final properties of the system can be perfectly reversed back to
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the original properties. The process can be perfectly reversible only if the changes in the process
are infinitesimally small. In practical situations it is not possible to trace these extremely small
changes in extremely small time, hence the reversible process is also an ideal process. The
changes which occur during reversible process are in equilibrium with each other.
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Short Questions
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Bloom’s
Sr. No. Sample Question
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Taxonomy
1 Define the term Thermodynamic. Remember
2 Explain Thermodynamic system, surroundings and universe. Remember
3 Distinguish between closed, open and isolated system with Remember
example.
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4 Differentiate Homogeneous and heterogeneous system. Remember

5 What do you mean by phase of a system? Remember
6 What do you mean by Thermodynamic Equilibrium. Remember
7 Define term Heat and Work. Remember
8 Give any two dissimilarities of Heat and Work. Remember
9 Separate the following into Intensive and Extensive Property: Understand
Mass, Weight, Volume, Pressure, Temperature, Density,
Velocity, Surface Area, Internal Energy and Potential Energy.
10 Choose the open or closed system from the following: Water Understand
Pump, Pressure Cooker, I.C Engine, Air Compressor, Steam
Turbine and Boiler.
11 What do you mean by phase of a system? Remember
12 What do you mean by Thermodynamic Equilibrium? Remember
13 Define term Heat and Work. Remember
Thermal Engineering
Long Questions
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 Explain different types of Thermodynamic System by Remember
representation of system, boundary and surroundings in a single
domain.
2 Explain Intensive and Extensive properties in detail. Understand
3 Explain concept of Control Volume. Understand
4 Explain Microscopic and Macroscopic Approach. Remember
5 Define Phase and Explain Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Remember
system in detail.
6 Explain State and Path. Remember
7 Explain Process and Cycle. Remember
8 Distinguish Intensive and Extensive properties. Understand
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Activity
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Create Practical systems showing example of Open system, Closed system,
Isolated system and Adiabatic system.
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Learning Outcome
1 Students can understand basics of thermodynamic.

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2 Know about thermodynamic terminologies and processes.

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First Law of Thermodynamics Unit 2
First Law of
Thermodynamics
2.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be transferred or changed from
one form to another. For example, turning on a light would seem to produce energy; however,
it is electrical energy that is converted.
A way of expressing the first law of thermodynamics is that any change in the internal energy
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(∆E) of a system is given by the sum of the heat (q) that flows across its boundaries and the
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work (w) done on the system by the surroundings:
ΔE=q+w
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This law says that there are two kinds of processes, heat and work, that can lead to a change in
the internal energy of a system. Since both heat and work can be measured and quantified, this
is the same as saying that any change in the energy of a system must result in a corresponding
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change in the energy of the surroundings outside the system. In other words, energy cannot be
created or destroyed. If heat flows into a system or the surroundings do work on it, the internal
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energy increases and the sign of q and w are positive. Conversely, heat flow out of the system
or work done by the system (on the surroundings) will be at the expense of the internal energy,
and q and w will therefore be negative.
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Energy can be in two forms: (a) energy in transit, like heat and work transfer observed at the
boundaries of a system, and (b) energy in storage, where energy is stored either
macroscopically by virtue of motion, position or configuration of the system, or
microscopically in the molecules or atoms constituting the system.
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2.2 First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Cycle

The transfer of heat and the performance of work may both cause the same effect in a system.
Heat and work are different forms of the same entity, called energy, which is conserved. Energy
which enters a system as heat may leave the system as work, or energy which enters the system
as work may leave as heat.
Let us consider a closed system which consists of a known mass of water contained in an
adiabatic vessel having a thermometer and a paddle wheel, as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let a certain
amount of work W1–2 be done upon the system by the paddle wheel.
The quantity of work can be measured by the fall of weight which drives the paddle wheel
through a pulley. The system was initially at temperature t1, the same as that of atmosphere,
and after work transfer let the temperature rise to t2. The pressure is always 1 atm. The process
1–2 undergone by the system is shown in Fig. 2.2 in generalized thermodynamic coordinates.
Thermal Engineering
Let the insulation now be removed. The system and the surroundings interact by heat transfer
till the system returns to the original temperature t1, attaining the condition of thermal
equilibrium with the atmosphere. The amount of heat transfer Q2 – 1 from the system during this
process, 2–1, shown in Fig. 2.2, can be estimated. The system thus executes a cycle, which
consists of a definite amount of work input W1 – 2 to the system followed by the transfer of an
amount of heat Q2–1 from the system. It has been found that this W1 – 2 is always proportional
to the heat Q2 – 1, and the constant of proportionality is called the Joule’s equivalent or the
mechanical equivalent of heat. In the simple example given here, there are only two energy
transfer quantities as the system performs a thermodynamic cycle. If the cycle involves many
more heat and work quantities, the same result will be found. Expressed algebraically.
(ΣW) cycle = J (ΣQ) cycle
where J is the Joule’s equivalent. This is also expressed in the form ∮dW = J ∮dQ
where the symbol ∮ denotes the cyclic integral for the closed path. This is the first law for a
closed system undergoing a cycle. It is accepted as a general law of nature, since no violation
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of it has ever been demonstrated.
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In the S.I. system of units, both heat and work are measured in the derived unit of energy, the
Joule. The constant of proportionality, J, is therefore unity (J = 1 Nm/J).
ch
The first law of thermodynamics owes much to J.P. Joule who, during the period 1840–1849,
carried out a series of experiments to investigate the equivalence of work and heat. In one of
these experiments, Joule used an apparatus similar to the one shown in Fig. 2.1. Work was
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transferred to the measured mass of water by means of paddle wheel driven by the falling
weight. The rise in the temperature of water was recorded. Joule also used mercury as the fluid
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system, and later a solid system of metal blocks which absorbed work by friction when rubbed
against each other. Other experiments involved the supplying of work in an electric current. In
every case, he found the same ratio (J) between the amount of work and the quantity of heat
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that would produce identical effects in the system.
Prior to Joule, heat was considered to be an invisible fluid flowing from a body of higher calorie
to a body of lower calorie, and this was known as the caloric theory of heat. It was Joule who
first established that heat is a form of energy, and thus laid the foundation of the first law of
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thermodynamics.
2.3 First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Change of State
Fig. 2.1 Adiabatic Work Fig. 2.2 Cycle Completed by a System
The expression (ΣW) cycle = (ΣQ) cycle applies only to systems undergoing cycles, and the
algebraic summation of all energy transfer across system boundaries is zero. But if a system
under goes a change of state during which both heat transfer and work transfer are involved,
the net energy transfer will be stored or accumulated within the system. If Q is the amount of
heat transferred to the system and W is the amount of work transferred from the system during
the process (Fig. 2.3), the net energy transfer (Q – W) will be stored in the system. Energy in
storage is neither heat nor work, and is given the name internal energy or simply, the energy of
the system.
Therefore Q – W = ΔE,
where ΔE is the increase in the energy of the system
or Q = ΔE + W Fig. 2.3 Heat and Work Interactions of a

System with Its Surroundings in a Process
Here Q, W, and ΔE are all expressed in the same units (in joules). If there are more energy
transfer quantities involved in the process, as shown in Fig. 2.4, the first law gives
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(Q2 + Q3 – Q1) = ΔE + (W2 + W3 – W1 – W4)
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Energy is thus conserved in the operation. The first
law is a particular formulation of the principle of the
conservation of energy. Q = ΔE + W may also be ch
considered as the definition of energy. This
definition does not give an absolute value of energy
E, but only the change of energy ΔE for the process.
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It can, however, be shown that the energy has a
definite value at every state of a system and is, Fig. 2.4 System-Surroundings Interaction
in a Process Involving Many Energy Fluxes
therefore, a property of the system.
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2.4 Energy - A Property of the System

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Consider a system which changes its state from state

1 to state 2 by following the path A, and returns from
state 2 to state 1 by following the path B (Fig. 2.5).
So, the system undergoes a cycle. Writing the first
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law for path A QA = ΔEA + WA and for path B QB =

ΔEB + WB
The processes A and B together constitute a cycle,

for which (ΣW) cycle = (ΣQ) cycle
Fig. 2.5 Energy-A Property of the System
or WA + WB = QA + QB
or QA – WA = WB – QB
From above equations, it yields ΔEA = – ΔEB
Similarly, had the system returned from state 2 to state 1 by following the path C instead of
path B ΔEA = – ΔEC
So, from above equation ΔEB = ΔEC
Thermal Engineering
Therefore, it is seen that the change in energy between two states of a system is the same,
whatever path the system may follow in undergoing that change of state. If some arbitrary value
of energy is assigned to state 2, the value of energy at state 1 is fixed independent of the path
the system follows. Therefore, energy has a definite value for every state of the system. Hence,
it is a point function and a property of the system.
The energy E is an extensive property. The specific energy, e = E/m (J/kg), is an intensive
property.
The cyclic integral of any property is zero, because the final state is identical with the initial
state. ∮dE = 0, ∮dV = 0, etc. So, for a cycle, the Q = ΔE+W reduces to (ΣW) cycle = J (ΣQ) cycle
2.5 Control Volume

For any system and in any process, the first law can be written as Q = ΔE + W where E
represents all forms of energy stored in the system.
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For a pure substance E = EK + EP + U
where EK is the K.E., EP the P.E., and U the residual energy stored in the molecular structure
of the substance.
Q = ΔEK + ΔEP + ΔU + W
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When there is mass transfer across the system boundary, the system is called an open system.
Most of the engineering devices are open systems involving the flow of fluids through them.
Q = ΔEK + ΔEP + ΔU + W refers to a system having a particular mass of substance, and is free
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to move from place to place.

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Consider a steam turbine (Fig. 2.6) in which steam enters at a high pressure, does work upon
the turbine rotor, and then leaves the turbine at low pressure through the exhaust pipe.
If a certain mass of steam is considered as the thermodynamic system, then the energy equation
becomes
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Q = ΔEK + ΔEP + ΔU + W
and in order to analyze the expansion process in turbine the moving system is to be followed
as it travels through the turbine, considering the work and heat interactions all the way through.
This method of analysis is similar to that of Lagrangian in fluid mechanics.
Although the system approach is quite valid, there is another approach which is found to be
highly convenient. Instead of concentrating attention upon a certain quantity of fluid, which
constitutes a moving system in flow process, attention is focussed upon a certain fixed region
in space called a control volume through which the moving substance flows. This is similar to
the analysis of Euler in fluid mechanics.
To distinguish the two concepts, it may be noted that while the system (closed) boundary
usually changes shape, position and orientation relative to the observer, the control volume
boundary remains fixed and unaltered. Again, while matter usually crosses the control volume
boundary, no such flow occurs across the system boundary.
The broken line in Fig. 2.6 represents the

surface of the control volume which is known
as the control surface. This is the same as the
system boundary of the open system.
The method of analysis is to inspect the control

surface and account for all energy quantities
transferred through this surface. Since there is
mass transfer across the control surface, a mass
balance also has to be made. Sections 1 and 2
Fig. 2.6 Flow Process Involving Work and Heat
allow mass transfer to take place, and Q and W
Interaction
are the heat and work interactions respectively.
2.6 Steady and Unsteady Flow Process

A flow process in which fluid parameters at any point of the control such as velocity, pressure,
c
temperature etc. remain constant and does not change with respect to time is called steady flow
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process.
A flow process in which fluid parameters at any point of the control such as velocity, pressure,
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temperature etc. does not remain constant and change with respect to time is called steady flow
process.
2.7 Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E)

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Assumptions to be considered for the application of Steady Flow Energy Equation.
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▪ The mass flow through the system remains constant.

▪ Fluid is uniform in composition.
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▪ The only interaction between the system and surroundings are work and heat.
▪ The state of fluid at any point remains constant with time.
▪ In the analysis only potential, kinetic and flow energies are considered.
Fig. 2.7 shows a schematic flow process for an open system. An open system is one in which
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both mass and energy may cross the boundaries. A wide interchange of energy may take place
within an open system. Let the system be
an automatic engine with the inlet
manifold at the first state point and
exhaust pipe as the second point. There
would be an interchange of chemical
energy in the fuel, kinetic energy of
moving particles, internal energy of gas
and heat transferred and shaft work
within the system. From Fig. 2.7 it is
obvious that if there is no variation of
flow of mass or energy with time across
the boundaries of the system the steady
flow will prevail. The conditions may
pass through the cyclic or non-cyclic
Fig. 2.7 Open System
changes within the system. As a result,
Thermal Engineering
the mass entering the system equals the mass leaving, also energy entering the system equals
energy leaving.
The steady flow equation can be expressed as follows:
If Z1 and Z2 are neglected, we get
Where,
c
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Q = Heat supplied (or entering the boundary) per kg of fluid,
W = Work done by (or work coming out of the boundary) 1 kg of fluid,
C = Velocity of fluid,
Z = Height above datum,
p = Pressure of the fluid,
u = Internal energy per kg of fluid, and
ch
pv = Energy required for 1 kg of fluid.
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This equation is applicable to any medium in any steady flow. It is applicable not only to rotary
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machines such as centrifugal fans, pumps and compressors but also to reciprocating machines
such as steam engines.
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2.8 Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E)

Water Turbine
In a water turbine, water is supplied from a height. The potential energy of water is converted
into kinetic energy when it enters into the turbine and part of it is converted into useful work
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which is used to generate electricity.
Fig. 2.8 Water Turbine
Considering centre of turbine shaft as datum, the energy equation can be written as follows
In this case Q = 0, u2-u1=0, Z2 = 0, v1=v2 = v
W is positive because work is done by the system (or work comes out of the boundary).
Steam Turbine
In a steam or gas turbine steam or gas is passed through the turbine and part of its energy is
converted into work in the turbine. This output of the turbine runs a generator to produce
electricity as. The steam or gas leaves the turbine at lower pressure or temperature.
Applying energy equation to the system. Here, Z1= Z2 (i.e., ∆Z = 0)
c
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ch
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Fig. 2.10 Centrifugal Water Pump
The sign of Q is negative because heat is rejected (or comes out of the boundary).
The sign of W is positive because work is done by the system (or work comes out of the boundary).
Centrifugal Water Pump

A centrifugal water pump draws water from a lower level and pumps to higher level. Work is
required to run the pump and this may be supplied from an external source such as an electric
motor or a diesel engine.
Here Q = 0 and ∆u = 0 as there is no change in temperature of water; v1 = v2 = v.
Thermal Engineering
Fig. 2.9 Steam Turbine
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Applying the energy equation to the system
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The sign of W is negative because work is done on the system (or work enters the boundary).
Centrifugal Compressor
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A centrifugal compressor compresses air and supplies the same at moderate pressure and in
large quantity.
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Fig. 2.11 Centrifugal Compressor

Applying energy equation to the system of the centrifugal Compressor can be written as
The Q is taken as negative as heat is lost from the system and W is taken as negative as work
is supplied to the system.
Boiler
A boiler transfers heat to the incoming water and generates the steam.
W = 0 since neither any work is developed nor absorbed.
Fig. 2.12 Boiler
Applying energy equation to the system
c
h1 + Q = h2
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Condenser
The condenser is used to condense the steam in case of steam power plant and condense the
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refrigerant vapour in the refrigeration system using water or air as cooling medium.
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Fig. 2.13 Condenser

For this system
∆PE = 0, ∆KE = 0 (as their values are very small compared with enthalpies)
W = 0 (since neither any work is developed nor absorbed)
Using energy equation to steam flow gives h1 – Q = h2

Where Q = Heat lost by 1 kg of steam passing through the condenser.
Assuming there are no other heat interactions except the heat transfer between steam and water,
then
Q = Heat gained by water passing through the condenser
Mw (hw2 – hw1) = Mw Cw (tw2 – tw1)
Substituting this value of Q in equation
Thermal Engineering
h1 – h2 = Mw (hw2 – hw1) = Mw Cw (tw2 – tw1)
Where, mw = Mass of cooling water passing through the condenser,

Cw = Specific heat of water.
2.9 Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind–PMM1

The first law states the general principle of the conservation of energy. Energy is neither created
nor destroyed, but only gets transformed from one form to another. There can be no machine
which would continuously supply mechanical work without some other form of energy
disappearing simultaneously (Fig. 2.14). Such a fictitious machine is called a perpetual motion
machine of the first kind, or in brief, PMM1. A PMM1 is thus impossible.
c
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Fig. 2.14 PMM1
ch Fig. 2.15 The Converse of PMM1
The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be no machine which would
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continuously consume work without some other form of energy appearing simultaneously (Fig.
2.15)
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Short Questions
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Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 State First Law of Thermodynamics. Remember
2 What is steady flow process? Remember
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3 State Law of Conservation of Energy. Remember

4 What is unsteady flow process? Remember
5 Define Non-flow Process. Remember
6 Define Flow Process. Remember
7 Write down general Steady Flow Energy Equation. Remember
8 State First Law of Thermodynamics. Remember
9 What is steady flow process? Remember
10 State Law of Conservation of Energy. Remember
11 What is unsteady flow process? Remember
12 Define Non-flow Process. Remember
Long Questions
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 Prove that ∫δW = J ∫δW with help of Joule's Experiment. Understand
2 Explain First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system Understand
undergoing a cycle.
3 Explain First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system Understand
undergoing a change of state.
4 Derive General Energy Equation for Steady flow process. Understand
5 Obtain the steady flow Energy Equation for Nozzle and Understand
Diffuser.
6 Obtain the steady flow Energy Equation for Boiler and Understand
Compressor.
7 Obtain the steady flow Energy Equation for Centrifugal Water Understand
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Pump and Turbine.
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8 Give the characteristics of Steady flow process. Understand
9 Explain Internal Energy-A property of a system with P-V Remember
Diagram.
10
11
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What are requirements of Steady Flow process?
Explain the difference between nonflow and steady flow
process.
Remember
Remember
12 Give the limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics. Remember

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13 In a cyclic process following amount of heat transfer occurs Evaluate
during cycle comprising of Four process. Determine the
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amount and type of work done by the system. Process 01: -

(+100KJ), Process 02: (-10KJ), Process 03: (18KJ), Process 04:
(22KJ).
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14 A tank containing liquid is stirred by a paddle wheel. The work Evaluate

input to paddle wheel 2000KJ and heat transferred to
surrounding from tank is 800 KJ. Calculate change in internal
Energy of Liquid.
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Activity
1 Check PMM-1, i.e., if work and heat are fully and mutually convertible or not.
Learning Outcome
1 Students can understand & apply first law of thermodynamics & PPM 1.
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Second Law of Thermodynamics Unit 3
Second Law of
Thermodynamics
3.1 Limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics and Introduction to Second
Law of Thermodynamics
It has been observed that energy can flow from a system in the form of heat or work. The first
law of thermodynamics sets no limit to the amount of the total energy of a system which can
be caused to flow out as work. A limit is imposed, however, as a result of the principle
enunciated in the second law of thermodynamics which states that heat will flow naturally from
one energy reservoir to another at a lower temperature, but not in opposite direction without
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assistance. This is very important because a heat engine operates between two energy reservoirs
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at different temperatures.
Further the first law of thermodynamics establishes equivalence between the quantity of heat
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used and the mechanical work but does not specify the conditions under which conversion of
heat into work is possible, neither the direction in which heat transfer can take place. This gap
has been bridged by the second law of thermodynamics.
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3.2 Statements of Second Law of Thermodynamics
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The second law of thermodynamics has been enunciated meticulously by Clausius, Kelvin and
Planck in slightly different words although both statements are basically identical. Each
statement is based on an irreversible process. The first considers transformation of heat
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between two thermal reservoirs while the second considers the transformation of heat into
work.
Clausius Statement
“It is impossible for a self-acting machine working in a cyclic process unaided by any external
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agency, to convey heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature”.
In other words, heat of, itself, cannot flow from a colder to a hotter body.
Kelvin-Planck Statement
“It is impossible to construct an engine, which while operating in a cycle produces no other
effect except to extract heat from a single reservoir and do equivalent amount of work”.
Although the Clausius and Kelvin-Planck statements appear to be different, they are really
equivalent in the sense that a violation of either statement implies violation of other.
3.3 Equivalence of Clausius Statement to The Kelvin-Planck Statement

Refer Fig. 3.1. Consider a higher temperature reservoir T1 and low temperature reservoir T2.
Fig. 3.1 shows a heat pump which requires no work and transfers an amount of Q2 from a low
Thermal Engineering
temperature to a higher temperature reservoir (in violation of the Clausius statement). Let an
amount of heat Q1 (greater than Q2) be transferred from high temperature reservoir to heat
engine which develops a net-work, W = Q1 – Q2 and rejects Q2 to the low temperature reservoir.
Since there is no heat interaction with the low temperature, it can be eliminated. The combined
system of the heat engine and heat pump acts then like a heat engine exchanging heat with a
single reservoir, which is the violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement.
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ni
ch
Fig. 3.1 Equivalence of Clausius Statement to Kelvin-Planck Statement.
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3.4 Perpetual Motion Machine of Second Kind
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A machine which violates the first law of thermodynamics is called the perpetual motion
machine of the first kind (PMM1). Such a machine creates its own energy from nothing and
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does not exist.

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Fig. 3.2 Perpetual Motion Machine of Second Kind (PMM2).
Without violating the first law, a machine can be imagined which would continuously absorb
heat from a single thermal reservoir and would convert this heat completely into work. The
efficiency of such a machine would be 100 per cent. This machine is called the perpetual
motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).
Fig. 3.2 shows the perpetual motion machine of the second kind. A machine of this kind will
evidently violate the second law of thermodynamics.
3.5 Heat Engine

A heat engine is used to produce the maximum work transfer from a given positive heat
transfer. Therefore, Thermal Efficiency of Heat Engine is
𝑊
ηth =
𝑄1
where, W = Net work transfer from the engine,

and Q1 = Heat transfer to engine.
3.6 Heat Pump
c
A heat pump is used to transfer the heat from low temperature region to high temperature
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region.
3.7 Refrigerator
ch
The purpose of refrigerator is to achieve the maximum heat transfer from the cold reservoir,
the measure of success is called the co-efficient of performance (C.O.P.).
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3.8 Performance of Heat Engines and Reversed Heat Engines
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Refer Fig. 3.3 (a). A heat engine is used to produce the maximum work transfer from a given
positive heat transfer. The measure of success is called the thermal efficiency of the engine and
is defined by the ratio:
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𝑊
Thermal efficiency, ηth = (1)
𝑄1
where, W = Net work transfer from the engine, and

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Q1 = Heat transfer to engine.
For a reversed heat engine [Fig. 3.3 (b)] acting as a refrigerator when the purpose is to achieve
the maximum heat transfer from the cold reservoir, the measure of success is called the co-
efficient of performance (C.O.P.). It is defined by the ratio:
𝑄2
Co-efficient of performance, (C.O.P.) ref. = (2)
𝑊
where, Q2 = Heat transfer from cold reservoir, and

W = The net-work transfer to the refrigerator.
For a reversed heat engine [Fig. 3.1 (b)] acting as a heat pump, the measure of success is
again, called the co-efficient of performance. It is defined by the ratio:
𝑄1
Co-efficient of performance, (C.O.P.) heat pump = (3)
𝑊
Thermal Engineering
where, Q1 = Heat transfer to hot reservoir, and

W = Net work transfer to the heat pump.
c
ni
ch
Fig. 3.3 Heat Engines and Reversed Heat Engines
In all the above three cases application of the first law gives the relation Q1 – Q2 = W, and this
te
can be used to rewrite the expressions for thermal efficiency and co-efficient of performance
solely in terms of the heat transfers.
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𝑄1 −𝑄2
ηth = (4)
𝑄1
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𝑄2
(C.O.P.) ref = (5)
𝑄1 −𝑄2
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𝑄1
(C.O.P.) heat pump = (6)
𝑄1 −𝑄2
It may be seen that ηth is always less than unity and (C.O.P.) heat pump is always greater than
unity.
3.9 Thermodynamic Temperature

Take the case of reversible heat engine operating between two reservoirs. Its thermal efficiency
is given by the eqn. (4),
𝑄1 −𝑄2 𝑄2
ηth = =1−
𝑄1 𝑄1
The temperature of a reservoir remains uniform and fixed irrespective of heat transfer.
This means that reservoir has only one property defining its state and the heat transfer from a
reservoir is some function of that property, temperature. Thus Q = ϕ (K), where K is the
temperature of reservoir. The choice of the function is universally accepted to be such that the
relation,
𝑄1 ϕ(𝐾1 ) 𝑄1 𝑇1
= becomes = (7)
𝑄2 ϕ(𝐾2 ) 𝑄2 𝑇2
where T1 and T2 are the thermodynamic temperatures of the reservoirs. Zero thermodynamic
temperature (that temperature to which T2 tends, as the heat transfer Q2 tends to zero) has never
been attained and one form of third law of thermodynamics is the statement:
‘‘The temperature of a system cannot be reduced to zero in a finite number of processes.”
c
After establishing the concept of a zero thermodynamic temperature, a reference reservoir is
chosen and assigned a numerical value of temperature.
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Any other thermodynamic temperature may now be defined in terms of reference value and the
heat transfers that would occur with reversible engine, ch
𝑄
T = Tref (8)
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓
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The determination of thermodynamic temperature cannot be made in this way as it is not
possible to build a reversible engine. Temperatures are determined by the application of
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thermodynamic relations to other measurements.
The SI unit of thermodynamic temperature is the kelvin (K). The relation between
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thermodynamic temperature and celsius scale, which is in common use is:
Thermodynamic temperature = Celsius temperature + 273.15°.
1
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The kelvin unit of thermodynamic temperature is the fraction of thermodynamic

273.15
temperature of ‘Triple point’ of water.
3.10 Reversibility and Irreversibility

A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can return back in such a that both the
system and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else
in the universe. It means both system and surroundings are returned to their initial states at the
end of the reverse process.
Thermal Engineering
c
Fig 3.4: Reversibility and Irreversibility
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In the figure above, the system has undergone a change from state 1 to state 2. The reversible
process can reverse completely and there is no trace left to show that the system had undergone
thermodynamic change. During the reversible process, all the changes in state that occur in the
ch
system are in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other.
Irreversible processes are a result of straying away from the curve, therefore decreasing the
amount of overall work done. An irreversible process is a thermodynamic process that departs
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from equilibrium. In terms of pressure and volume, it occurs when the pressure (or the volume)
of a system changes dramatically and instantaneously that the volume (or the pressure) does
not have the time to reach equilibrium.
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A classic example of an irreversible process is allowing a certain volume of gas to release into
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a vacuum. By releasing pressure on a sample and allowing it to occupy a large space, the system
and surroundings are not in equilibrium during the expansion process.
Here little work occurs. However, there is a requirement of significant work, with a
corresponding amount of energy dissipation as heat flows to the environment. This is in order
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to reverse the process.
3.11 Causes of Irreversibility

Friction Between Moving Parts
Friction between moving parts prevents the system to reach back to its equilibrium state.
Heat Transfer Due to Temperature Difference

Let us see another example of irreversibility in thermal processes. Consider two objects in
thermal contact: one at temperature T1 and the other at temperature T2 > T1, as shown in Figure
3.5 ow from common personal experience that heat flows from a hotter object to a colder one.
For example, when we hold a few pieces of ice in our hands, we feel cold because heat has left
our hands into the ice.
The opposite is true when we hold one end of a metal rod while keeping the other end over a
fire.
Fig 3.5: Spontaneous Heat Flow from High Temperature Region to Low Temperature Region.
Other Causes
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Pressure Equilibrium
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Thermal Equilibrium
c
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Chemical Equilibrium
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Mechanical Equilibrium
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• Irreversibility can be caused due to Magnetic Hysteresis
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Polarization
ch
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Resistance in Electric Circuit
• Irreversibility can be caused due to mixing of two or more substance in a medium
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Heterogenous mixture
• Irreversibility can be caused due to transient heat conduction in different materials
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• Irreversibility can be caused due unrestrained Expansion or Compression of Gases
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Inelastic Deformation
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• Irreversibility can be caused due to Change in State of working substance.

• Irreversibility can be caused due to Throttling Losses in I.C Engine
• Irreversibility can be caused due to Pumping Losses in Mechanical System.
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3.12 Conditions for Reversibility

An important feature of a reversible process is that, depending on the process, it represents the
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maximum work that can be extracted in going from one state to another, or the minimum work
that is needed to create the state change.
Let us consider processes that do work, so that we can show that the reversible one produces
the maximum work of all possible processes between two states. For example, suppose we
have a thermally insulated cylinder that holds an ideal gas, Figure 3.6. The gas is contained by
a thermally insulated massless piston with a stack of many small weights on top of it. Initially
the system is in mechanical and thermal equilibrium.
Each small weight is removed from the piston one at a time, so that the pressure inside the
cylinder is always in equilibrium with the weight on top of the piston. When the last weight is
removed, the volume has increased by a factor of four. Maximum work (proportional to the
area under these curves) is obtained for the quasi-static expansion. The work done by a system
during a reversible process is the maximum work we can get. Friction should be negligible for
work done throughout the process. Heat Transfer should be through a finite temperature
difference. Free Expansion or Compression of Gases.
Thermal Engineering
Fig 3.6: Piston with Weight on Top
All the factors which can cause Irreversibility can be eliminated for achieving Reversible
Process.
3.13 Carnot Cycle
c
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The cycle was first suggested by a French engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824 which works on
reversible cycle and is known as Carnot cycle.
Any fluid may be used to operate the Carnot cycle ch

(Fig. 3.7) which is performed in an engine cylinder the
head of which is supposed alternatively to be perfect
conductor or a perfect insulator of a heat. Heat is
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caused to flow into the cylinder by the application of
high temperature energy source to the cylinder head
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during expansion, and to flow from the cylinder by the

application of a lower temperature energy source to
the head during compression.
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Fig. 3.7 Carnot Cycle
The assumptions made for describing the working of the Carnot engine are as follows:
• The piston moving in a cylinder does not develop any friction during motion.
• The walls of piston and cylinder are considered as perfect insulators of heat.
• The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat conductor or perfect heat
insulator.
• The transfer of heat does not affect the temperature of source or sink.
• Working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.
• Compression and expansion are reversible.
Following are the four stages of Carnot cycle:
Stage 1. (Process 1-2). Hot energy source is applied. Heat Q1 is taken in whilst the fluid expands
isothermally and reversibly at constant high temperature T1.
Stage 2. (Process 2-3). The cylinder becomes a perfect insulator so that no heat flow takes
place. The fluid expands adiabatically and reversibly whilst temperature falls from T1 to T2.
Stage 3. (Process 3-4). Cold energy source is applied. Heat Q2 flows from the fluid whilst it is
compressed isothermally and reversibly at constant lower temperature T2.
c
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Stage 4. (Process 4-1). Cylinder head becomes a perfect insulator so that no heat flow occurs.
The compression is continued adiabatically and reversibly during which temperature is raised
from T2 to T1.
ch
The work delivered from the system during the cycle is represented by the enclosed area of the
cycle. Again, for a closed cycle, according to first law of the thermodynamics the work obtained
is equal to the difference between the heat supplied by the source (Q1) and the heat rejected to
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the sink (Q2).
∴ W = Q1 – Q2
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Work done 𝑄1 −𝑄2

Also, thermal efficiency, ηth = =
Heat Supplied by the source 𝑄1
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𝑄2 𝑇2
=1− 1− [⸪ Q1 = mcpT1
𝑄1 𝑇1
Q2 = mcpT2
where, m = mass of fluid]
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Such an engine since it consists entirely of reversible processes, can operate in the reverse
direction so that it follows the cycle shown in Fig. 3.7 (b) and operates as a heat pump. Q2 is
being taken in at the lower temperature T2 during the isothermal expansion (process 4-3) and
heat Q1 is being rejected at the upper temperature T1 (process 2-1). Work W will be needed to
drive the pump. Again, the enclosed area represents this work which is exactly equal to that
flowing from it when used as engine.
The Carnot cycle cannot be performed in practice because of the following reasons:
It is impossible to perform a frictionless process.
It is impossible to transfer the heat without temperature potential.
Isothermal process can be achieved only if the piston moves very slowly to allow heat transfer
so that the temperature remains constant. Adiabatic process can be achieved only if the piston
moves as fast as possible so that the heat transfer is negligible due to very short time available.
The isothermal and adiabatic processes take place during the same stroke therefore the piston
has to move very slowly for part of the stroke and it has to move very fast during remaining
stroke. This variation of motion of the piston during the same stroke is not possible.
Thermal Engineering
3.14 Carnot’s Theorem

“It states that of all engines operating between a given constant temperature source and a given
constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency than a reversible engine”.
Refer Fig. 3.8.
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ch
Fig. 3.8 Two Cyclic Heat Engines HEA and HEB Operating Between the Same Source and Sink, of
Which HEB is Reversible.
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HEA and HEB are the two engines operating between the given source at temperature T1 and
the given sink at temperature T2.
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Let HEA be any heat engine and HEB be any reversible heat engine. We have to prove that
efficiency of HEB is more than that of HEA. Let us assume that ηA > ηB. Let the rates of working
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of the engines be such that

Q1A = Q1B = Q1
Since ηA > ηB
𝑊𝐴 𝑊𝐵
>
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𝑄1𝐴 𝑄1𝐵
⸫ WA > WB
Now, let HEB be reversed. Since HEB is a reversible heat engine, the magnitudes of heat and
work transfer quantities will remain the same, but their directions will be reversed, as shown
in Fig. 3.9.
Since WA > WB, some part of WA (equal to WB) may be fed to drive the reversed heat engine
∃HB. Since Q1A = Q1B = Q1, the heat discharged by ∃HB may be supplied to HEA. The source
may, therefore, be eliminated (Fig. 3.10).
The net result is that HEA and ∃HB together constitute a heat engine which, operating in a cycle
produces net-work WA – WB while exchanging heat with a single reservoir at T2. This violates
the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law. Hence the assumption that ηA > ηB is wrong.
ηB ≥ ηA.
3.15 Efficiency of the Reversible Heat Engine

The efficiency of a reversible heat engine in which heat is received solely at T1 is found to be
𝑄2 𝑇2
ηrev. = ηmax = 1 – ( ) =1–
𝑄1 𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝑇1
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ni
ch
Fig. 3.9 HEB is Reversed
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Fig. 3.10 HEA And HB Together Violate the Kelvin-Planck Statement.
𝑇1 −𝑇2
or ηrev. =
𝑇1
From the above expression, it may be noted that as T2 decreases and T1 increases, the efficiency
of the reversible cycle increases.
Since η is always less than unity, T2 is always greater than zero and + ve.
The C.O.P. of a refrigerator is given by

𝑄2 1
(C.O.P.) ref. = = 𝑄1
𝑄1 −𝑄2 −1
𝑄2
Thermal Engineering
For a reversible refrigerator, using
𝑄1 𝑇1
=
𝑄2 𝑇2
1
(C.O.P.) rev. = 𝑇1
−1
𝑇2
𝑇2
∴ [(C.O.P.)ref.]rev. =
𝑇1 −𝑇2
Similarly, for a reversible heat pump
𝑇1
[(C.O.P.) heat pump] rev. =
𝑇1 −𝑇2
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Example 3.1. A heat engine receives heat at the rate of 1500 kJ/min and gives an output of 8.2
kW. Determine:
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(i) The thermal efficiency; (ii) The rate of heat rejection.
Solution. Heat received by the heat engine,
Q1 = 1500 kJ/min
ch
te
1500
= = 25 kJ/s
60
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Work output, W = 8.2 kW = 8.2 kJ/s.
𝑊
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(i) Thermal efficiency, ηth =

𝑄1
8.2
= = 0.328 = 32.8%
25
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Hence, thermal efficiency = 32.8%. Ans.
(ii) Rate of heat rejection,
Q2 = Q1 – W = 25 – 8.2 = 16.8 kJ/s
Hence, the rate of heat rejection = 16.8 kJ/s. Ans.
Example 3.2. During a process a system receives 30 kJ of

heat from a reservoir and does 60 kJ of work. Is it possible
to reach initial state by an adiabatic process?
Solution. Heat received by the system = 30 kJ

Work done = 60 kJ
Process 1-2: By first law of thermodynamics,
c
Q1–2 = (U2 – U1) + W1–2
30 = (U2 – U1) + 60
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∴ (U2 – U1) = – 30 kJ.
Process 2-1 : By first law of thermodynamics, ch

Q2–1 = (U1 – U2) + W2–1
∴ 0 = 30 + W2–1
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∴ W2–1 = – 30 kJ.
Thus 30 kJ work has to be done on the system to restore it to original state, by adiabatic process.
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Example 3.3. Find the co-efficient of performance and heat transfer rate in the condenser of a
refrigerator in kJ/h which has a refrigeration capacity of 12000 kJ/h when power input is 0.75
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kW.
Solution. Refer figure.

Refrigeration capacity, Q2 = 12000 kJ/h
Power input, W = 0.75 kW (= 0.75 × 60 × 60 kJ/h)
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Co-efficient of performance, C.O.P.:

Heat transfer rate:
Heat absorbed at lower temperature

(C.O.P.) refrigerator =
Work input
𝑄2 12000
∴ C.O.P. = = = 4.44
𝑊 0.75×60×60
Hence, C.O.P. = 4.44 Ans.

Hence transfer rate in condenser = Q1
According to the first law Q1 = Q2 + W = 12000 + 0.75 × 60 × 60 = 14700 kJ/h
Hence, heat transfer rate = 14700 kJ/h. Ans.
Thermal Engineering
Example 3.4. A domestic food refrigerator maintains a temperature of – 12°C. The ambient
air temperature is 35°C. If heat leaks into the freezer at the continuous rate of 2 kJ/s determine
the least power necessary to pump this heat out continuously.
Solution. Freezer temperature,

T2 = – 12 + 273 = 261 K
Ambient air temperature,

T1 = 35 + 273 = 308 K
Rate of heat leakage into the freezer = 2 kJ/s
Least power required to pump the heat: The

refrigerator cycle removes heat from the freezer at the
same rate at which heat leaks into it.
c
For minimum power requirement
ni
𝑄2 𝑄1
=
𝑇2 𝑇1
⸫ Q1 =
𝑄2
𝑇2
× T1 =
2
261
ch
× 308 = 2.36 kJ/s
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⸫ W = Q1 – Q2 = 2.36 – 2 = 0.36 kJ/s = 0.36 kW
Hence, least power required to pump the heat continuously = 0.36 kW. Ans.
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Example 3.5. What is the highest possible theoretical

efficiency of a heat engine operating with a hot
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reservoir of furnace gases at 2100°C when the cooling

water available is at 15°C?
Solution. Temperature of furnace gases, T1 = 2100 +

273 = 2373 K
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Temperature of cooling water, T2 = 15 + 273 = 288 K
𝑇2 288
Now, ηmax (= ηcarnot) = 1 – =1– = 0.878 = 87.8%
𝑇1 2373
Ans.
Example 3.6. A Carnot cycle operates between source

and sink temperatures of 250°C and -15°C. If the
system receives 90 kJ from the source, find:
(i) Efficiency of the system;
(ii) The net-work transfer;
(iii) Heat rejected to sink.
Solution. Temperature of source, T1 = 250 + 273 = 523 K

Temperature of sink, T2 = – 15 + 273 = 258 K
Heat received by the system, Q1 = 90 kJ
𝑇2 258
(i) ηcarnot = 1 – =1– = 0.506 = 50.6% Ans.
𝑇1 523
(ii) The net-work transfer, W = ηcarnot × Q1 [⸪ ηcarnot = 𝑄𝑊 ]

1
= 0.506 × 90 = 45.54 kJ. Ans.
(iii) Heat rejected to the sink, Q2 = Q1 – W [⸪W = Q1 – Q2]
= 90 – 45.54 = 44.46 kJ. Ans.
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3.16. Entropy
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Introduction
In heat engine theory, the term entropy plays a vital role and leads to important results which
by other methods can be obtained much more laboriously. ch
It may be noted that all heat is not equally valuable for converting into work. Heat that is
supplied to a substance at high temperature has a greater possibility of conversion into work
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than heat supplied to a substance at a lower temperature.
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“Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat which shows the possibility of conversion of that
heat into work. The increase in entropy is small when heat is added at a high temperature and
is greater when heat addition is made at a lower temperature. Thus, for maximum entropy, there
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is minimum availability for conversion into work and for minimum entropy there is maxi-mum
availability for conversion into work.”
Entropy - A Property of a System

Refer Fig. 3.11. Let us consider a system undergoing a reversible process from state 1 to state
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2 along path L and then from state 2 to the original state 1 along path M. Applying the Clausius
theorem to this reversible cyclic process, we have
δ𝑄
∮𝑅 𝑇
=0
Hence when the system passes through the cycle 1-L-2-M-1, we have
2 δ𝑄 1 δ𝑄
∫1(𝐿) 𝑇
+ ∫2(𝑀)
𝑇
=0 (9)
Now consider another reversible cycle in which the system changes from state 1 to state 2
along path L, but returns from state 2 to the original state 1 along a different path N. For this
reversible cyclic process, we have
2 δ𝑄 1 δ𝑄
∫1(𝐿) 𝑇
+ ∫2(𝑁)
𝑇
=0 (10)
Thermal Engineering
Subtracting equation (10) from equation (9), we have
1 δ𝑄 1 δ𝑄
∫2(𝑀) 𝑇
- ∫2(𝑁)
𝑇
=0
2(𝑀) δ𝑄 2(𝑁) δ𝑄
or ∫1 𝑇
= ∫1
𝑇
As no restriction is imposed on paths L and M, except that they must be reversible, the quantity
δ𝑄
is a function of the initial and final states of the system and is independent of the path of the
𝑇
process. Hence it represents a property of the system. This property is known as the “entropy”.
Change of Entropy in a Reversible Process
c
ni
ch
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Fig. 3.11 Reversible Cyclic Process Between Two Fixed End States.
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Refer Fig. 3.11.

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Let S1 = Entropy at the initial state 1, and

S2 = Entropy at the final state 2.
Then, the change in entropy of a system, as it undergoes a change from state 1 to 2, becomes
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2 δ𝑄
S2 – S1 = ∫1 ( ) (11)
𝑇 𝑅
Lastly, if the two equilibrium states 1 and 2 are infinitesimal near to each other, the integral
sign may be omitted and S2 – S1 becomes equal to dS.
Hence equation (11) may be written as
δ𝑄
dS = ( ) (12)
𝑇 𝑅
where dS is an exact differential.
Thus, from equation (12), we find that the change of entropy in a reversible process is equal to
δ𝑄
. This is the mathematical formulation of the second law of thermodynamics.
𝑇
Equation (12) indicates that when an inexact differential δQ is divided by an integrating factor
T during a reversible process, it becomes an exact differential.
The third law of thermodynamics states “When a system is at zero absolute temperature, the
entropy of system is zero”.
It is clear from the above law that the absolute value of entropy corresponding to a given state
δ𝑄
of the system could be determined by integrating ( ) between the state at absolute zero and
𝑇 𝑅
the given state. Zero entropy, however, means the absence of all molecular, atomic, electronic
and nuclear disorders.
As it is not practicable to get data at zero absolute temperature, the change in entropy is
calculated either between two known states or by selecting some convenient point at which the
entropy is given an arbitrary value of zero. For steam, the reference point at which the entropy
is given an arbitrary value of zero is 0°C and for refrigerants like ammonia, Freon-12, carbon
c
dioxide etc. the reference point is – 40°C, at which the entropy it taken as zero.
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Thus, in practice we can determine the change in entropy and not the absolute value of entropy.
3.17. Entropy and Irreversibility ch δ𝑄

We know that change in entropy in a reversible process is equal to ( ) (eqn. 12). Let us
𝑇 𝑅
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now find the change in entropy in an irreversible process.
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Po
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Fig. 3.12 Entropy Change for an Irreversible Process.
Consider a closed system undergoing a change from state 1 to state 2 by a reversible process
1-L-2 and returns from state 2 to the initial state 1 by an irreversible process 2-M-1 as shown
in Fig. 3.12 on the thermodynamic coordinates, pressure and volume.
Since entropy is a thermodynamic property, we can write
2 1
∮ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫1(L)(dS)R + ∫2(M)(dS)I = 0 (13)
Thermal Engineering
(Subscript I represents the irreversible process).

Now for a reversible process, from eqn. (12), we have
2 2 δ𝑄
∫1(L)(dS)R = ∫1(L) ( 𝑇 ) (14)
R
2
Substituting the value of ∫1(L)(dS)R in eqn. (13), we get
2 δ𝑄 1
∫1(L) ( 𝑇 ) + ∫2(M)(dS)I = 0 (15)
R
Again, since in eqn. (13) the processes 1-L-2 and 2-M-1 together form an irreversible cycle,
applying Clausius equality to this expression, we get
δ𝑄 2 δ𝑄 2 δ𝑄
∮ = ∫1(L) ( ) + ∫1(M) ( 𝑇 ) < 0 (16)
c
𝑇 𝑇 R I
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Now subtracting eqn. (16) from eqn. (15), we get
1 2 δ𝑄
∫2(M)(dS)I > ∫1(M) ( 𝑇 ) ch I
which for infinitesimal changes in states can be written as

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δ𝑄
dS ≥ ∫ ( ) (17)
𝑇 I
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where equality sign stands for the reversible process and inequality sign stands for the
irreversible process.
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It may be noted here that the effect of irreversibility is always to increase the entropy of the
system.
Let us now consider an isolated system. We know that in an isolated system, matter, work or
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heat cannot cross the boundary of the system.
Hence according to first law of thermodynamics, the internal energy of the system will remain
constant.
Since for an isolated system, δQ = 0, from eqn. (17), we get
(dS)isolated ≥ 0 (18)
Eqn. (18) states that the entropy of an isolated system either increases or remains constant. This
is a corollary of the second law. It explains the principle of increase in entropy.
3.18 Clausius Inequality

When a reversible engine uses more than two reservoirs the third or higher numbered reservoirs
will not be equal in temperature to the original two.
Consideration of expression for efficiency of the engine indicates that for maximum efficiency,
all the heat transfer should take place at maximum or minimum reservoir temperatures. Any
intermediate reservoir used will, therefore, lower the efficiency of the heat engine. Practical
engine cycles often involve continuous changes of temperature during heat transfer. A
relationship among processes in which these sorts of changes occur is necessary. The ideal
approach to a cycle in which temperature continually changes is to consider the system to be
in communication with a large number of reservoirs in procession. Each reservoir is considered
c
ni
ch
Fig. 3.13 The Clausius Inequality.
to have a temperature differing by a small amount from the previous one. In such a model it is
possible to imagine that each reservoir is replaced by a reversible heat engine in communication
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with standard reservoirs at same temperature T0. Fig. 3.13 shows one example to this
substitution.
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The system to which the heat transfer is affected is neither concerned with the source of energy
it receives nor with the method of transfer, save that it must be reversible. Associated with the
small heat transfer dQ to the original system is a small work transfer dW and for this system
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the first law gives

∑Cycle (δ𝑄 − δ𝑊) = 0
Now consider the engine replacing the reservoirs and apply the second law to the new system
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in Fig. 3.13 (b). If the new system is not a perpetual motion machine of second kind, no positive
work transfer is possible with a single reservoir.
Therefore, ∑Cycle (δ𝑊 − δ𝑊𝑅 ) ≤ 0
But by the definition of thermodynamic temperature,
δ𝑊𝑅 δ𝑄0 − δ𝑄 𝑇0 − 𝑇
= =
δ𝑄 δ𝑄 𝑇
By combining these equations,
δ𝑄
T0 ∑Cycle ( 𝑇 ) ≤ 0 but T0 ≠ 0 and therefore;
δ𝑄
∑Cycle ( ) ≤ 0
𝑇
This is known as Clausius inequality.
Thermal Engineering
Let us now consider the case of a reversible engine for which
δ𝑄
∑Cycle ( ) ≤ 0
𝑇
reverse the engine and for the reversible heat pump obtained it is possible to develop the
expression,
δ𝑄
- ∑Cycle ( 𝑇 ) ≤ 0
The negative sign indicates that the heat transfers have all reversed in direction when the engine
was reversed. This means that for the same machine we have two relations which are only
satisfied if in the reversible case,
δ𝑄
∑Cycle ( ) ≤ 0
𝑇
c
For a reversible case, as the number of reservoirs used tends to infinity, the limiting value of
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the summation will be
δ𝑄
∑Cycle ( ) = 0
𝑇
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In words, the Clausius inequality may be expressed as follows: “When a system performs a
reversible cycle, then
δ𝑄
∑Cycle ( ) = 0,
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𝑇
but when the cycle is not reversible

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δ𝑄
∑Cycle ( ) < 0.”
𝑇
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Short Questions
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
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1 State Kelvin-Planck Statement. Remember

2 What does Second law of thermodynamics define? Remember
3 For a reversible adiabatic process, the change in entropy Understand
is___________.
4 State the processes of a Carnot cycle. Remember
5 If the temperature of the source is increased, the efficiency of Understand
the Carnot engine_____________.
6 The efficiency of an ideal Carnot engine depends Remember
on__________.
7 State Clausius’ statement. Remember
8 What is PMM-2? Remember
9 The change of entropy, when heat is absorbed by the gas Understand
is___________.
10 Define Entropy. Remember
11 Define Heat Engine, Heat pump. Remember
12 What is CoP? Remember
Long Questions
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 State the limitations of first law of thermodynamics. Understand
2 What is an irreversible process? Give some examples of Understand
irreversible processes.
3 Give the following statements of second law of Understand
thermodynamics.
(i) Clausius statement
(ii) Kelvin-Planck statement.
4 Define heat engine, refrigerator and heat pump. Understand
5 What is the perpetual motion machine of the second kind? Understand
6 What do you mean by ‘Thermodynamic temperature’? Understand
7 Describe the working of a Carnot cycle. Understand
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8 A cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of Evaluate
800°C and a sink temperature of 30°C. What is the least rate of
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heat rejection per kW net output of the engine?
9 A domestic food freezer maintains a temperature of – 15°C. Evaluate
The ambient air temperature is 30°C. If heat leaks into the
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freezer at the continuous rate of 1.75 kJ/s what is the least
power necessary to pump this heat out continuously.
10 A heat engine is supplied heat at the rate of 1700 kJ/min and Evaluate
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gives an output of 9 kW. Determine the thermal efficiency and
the rate of heat rejection.
11 What is the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heat Evaluate
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engine operating with a hot reservoir of furnace gases at

2000°C when the cooling water available is at 10°C?
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Activity
1 Find CoP of Air conditioner / Refrigerator in your class/house. Standard Data to

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be provided by your professor.
Learning Outcome
1 Students can understand & apply second law of thermodynamics & PPM 2.
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Properties of Gases and Mixtures Unit 4
Properties of Gases
and Mixtures
4.1 Introduction
A perfect gas (or an ideal gas) may be defined as a state of a substance, whose evaporation from its
liquid state is complete, and strictly obeys all the gas laws under all conditions of temperature and
pressure.
In actual practice, there is no real or actual gas which strictly obeys the gas laws over the entire range
of temperature and pressure. But the real gases which are ordinarily difficult to liquify, such as oxygen,
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nitrogen, hydrogen and air, within certain temperature and pressure limits, may be regarded as perfect
gases.
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4.2 Laws of Gases
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The physical properties of a gas are controlled by the following three variables
• Pressure exerted by the gas
• Volume occupied by the gas,
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• Temperature of the gas.
The behaviour of a perfect gas, undergoing any change in the above-mentioned variables, is
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governed by the following laws which have been established from experimental results.
• Boyle's law
• Charles' law
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• Gay-Lussac law.
Boyle’s Law
“The absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely as its volume, when
the temperature remains constant.”
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Mathematically,
1
p ∝ v or pv = constant
The more useful form of the above

equation is:
p1v1 = p2v2 = p3v3 = …. = constant
where suffixes 1,2 and 3… refer to different

sets of conditions.
Fig 4.1 Boyle’s Law
Charles’ Law
“The volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute temperature, when
the absolute pressure remains constant”
Thermal Engineering
Mathematically,
v
v ∝ T or T = Constant
OR
v1 v2 v3
= = = … = Constant
T1 T2 T3
Where suffixes 1,2 and 3 … refer to different sets of

conditions.
Fig:4.2 Charles’s Law
“All perfect gases change in volume by 1/273th of
its original volume at 0°C for every 1°C change in temperature when the pressure remains
constant.”
Let
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v0 = Volume of a given mass of gas at 0°C, and
vt = Volume of the same mass of gas at t°C.
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Then, according to the above statement,
1 273+t
vt = v0 +
273
OR
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v0 t = v0 (
273
) = v0
te
vt v
= T0
T 0
Where
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T = Absolute temperature corresponding to t° C.

T0 = Absolute temperature corresponding to 0° C.
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A little consideration will show, that the volume of a gas goes on decreasing by 1/273th of its
original volume for every l°.0 decrease in temperature. It is thus obvious, that at a temperature
of - 273 C, the volume of the gas would become zero. The temperature at which the volume of
a gas becomes, zero is called absolute zero temperature.
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Note. In all calculations of a perfect gas, the pressure and temperature values are expressed in
absolute units.
Gay-Lussac Law
“The absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute
temperature, when the volume remains constant.”
Mathematically,
p
p ∝ T or = Constant
T
OR
p1 p2 p3
T1
=
T2
=
T3
= … = Constant
where suffixes 1,2 and 3 … refer to different sets of conditions.
Avogadro’s Law
It states, “Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal
number of molecules.”
Thus, according to Avogadro’s law, 1 m3 of oxygen (O2) will contain the same number of
molecules as 1 m3 of hydrogen (H2) when the temperature and pressure is the same. Since the
molecular mass of hydrogen is 2 and that of oxygen is 16, therefore a molecule of oxygen has
a mass which is 32/2 = 16 times the mass of hydrogen molecules. Moreover, as 1 m 3 of these
two gases contain the same number of molecules, and a molecule of oxygen has a mass 16
times than that of hydrogen molecule, therefore it is evident that density of any two gases is
directly proportional to their molecular masses, if the gases are at the same temperature and
pressure. The density of oxygen at Normal Temperature and Pressure (briefly written as N.T.P.)
i.e., at 0° C and 1.013 bar is 1.429 kg/m3.
⸫ Specific volume (of 1 kg) of oxygen at N.T.P.
c
1 1
vS = m3/kg… [ ⸪ Specific volume = Density ] and volume of 32 kg (or 1 kg molecule briefly
1.429
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written as 1 kg-mol)
1
= 1.429 × 32 = 22.4 m3 ch
Similarly, it can be proved that the volume of 1 kg mol of any gas at N.T.P. is 22.4 m3.
Note: 1 g-mole (molecular mass expressed in gram) of all gases occupies a volume of 22.4
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litres at N.T.P.
The values of molecular mass for some common gases are given in the following table:
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Molecular Molecular
Sr. No. Gas Sr. No. Gas
Mass Mass
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1. Hydrogen (H2) 2 5. Carbon dioxide 44

(CO2)
2. Oxygen (O2) 32 6. Methane (CH4) 16
3. Nitrogen (N2) 28 7. Acetylene (C2H2) 26
4. Carbon monoxide 28 8. Sulphur dioxide 64
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(CO) (SO2)
Gibbs-Dalton Law
Let us consider a closed vessel of volume V at temperature T, which contains a mixture of
perfect gases at a known pressure. If some of the mixtures were removed, then the pressure
would be less than the initial pressure. If the removed mixture were the full amount of one of
the constituents of the total mixture, then the reduction in pressure would be equal to the
contribution of that constituent to the initial total pressure. Each constituent of mixture
contributes to the total pressure by an amount which is known as the partial pressure of the
constituent.
Partial pressure is defined as “The pressure which each constituent of a gas mixture would
exert if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the same temperature”
“The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the
individual gas components of the mixture.”
Thermal Engineering
This is known as Dalton’s law of

partial pressure.
This is explained in the Fig.4.3.

The gases 1 and 2, originally
occupying volume V at
temperature T are mixed in the
third vessel which is of the same
volume and is at the same
temperature. Thus, Dalton’s law
can be written as
Fig 4.3 Gibbs-Dalton Law
p = p1 + p2
By consideration of mass,
m = m1 + m2
c
The law can be extended to any number of gases, i.e.,
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p = p1 + p2 + p3 +… or p = Ʃ pi
where pi = The partial pressure of a constituent.
Similarly,
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m = m1 + m2 + m3 +… or m = Ʃ mi
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where mi = Mass of constituent.
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Dalton’s law was re-formulated by Gibbs to include a second statement on the properties of
mixture. The combined statement is known as the Gibbs-Dalton law, and is as follows:
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“The internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a gaseous mixture are respectively equal to the
sums of the internal energies, enthalpies, and entropies of the constituents.”
Each constituent has their internal energy, enthalpy and entropy, which it could have if it
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occupied alone the volume of the mixture at the same temperature.
This statement leads to the following equations:

m × u = m1u1 + m2u2 +m3u3 +… or mu = Ʃ miui
m × h = m1h1 + m2h2 +m3h3 +… or mh = Ʃ mihi
m × s = m1s1 + m2s2 +m3s3 +… or ms = Ʃ misi
4.3 Properties of Ideal Gases

An ideal gas has a number of properties; real gases often exhibit behaviour very close to ideal.
The properties of an ideal gas are:
• An ideal gas consists of a large number of identical molecules.
• The volume occupied by the molecules themselves is negligible compared to the volume
occupied by the gas.
• The molecules obey Newton's laws of motion, and they move in random motion.
• The molecules experience forces only during collisions; any collisions are completely
elastic, and take a negligible amount of time.
4.4 Equation of Ideal Gas

By combining Boyle’s law and Charle’s law, ideal gas equation can be obtained.
Let us consider a unit mass of an ideal (perfect) gas to change its state in the following two
successive processes
Process 1-2 at constant pressure, and Process 2-3 at constant temperature. Applying Charles’s
law to process 1-2, we have
v1 v
= T2 [⸪ p = constant]
c
T1 2
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v v
Since T2 = T3, we may write, T1 = T2 ------- (1)
1 3
Applying Boyle’s law to process 2-3, we have
p2v2 = p3v3
Since p2 = p1
[⸪ T = constant] ch
p1v2 = p3v3
te
p3 v3
v2 = ----------------------- (2)
p1
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Substituting the value of v2 from equation (2) in equation (1) we get,

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v1 p v
= p3 T3
T1 1 3
p1 v 1 p3 v 3
=
T1 T3
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pv
= constant------------------------- (3)
T
The magnitude of this constant depends upon the particular gas and it is known as characteristic
gas constant R.
pv
So, =R
T
pv = RT -----------------------------------(4)
This equation is called equation of state for a perfect gas or ideal gas equation.
Where p = pressure of gas, N/m2
v = specific volume of gas, m3/kg
T = temperature of gas, K
R = characteristic gas constant, J/kg K.
Thermal Engineering
Multiplying both sides of eq. (4) by mass m of the gas, we can write this equation in the
following form
p(mv) = mRT
pV = mRT ----------------------------------- (5)
This equation is in terms of total volume and total mass of the gas.
Equation (5) can be written in terms of the total number of moles of the gas. Defining number
of kg moles n of the gas present in terms of mass m in kg and molecular mass M in kg/kg mol
by the relation
m
n = M and substituting, m = nM in equation (5), we get pV = n(MR)T
Substituting R0 for the product MR, we have pV = nR0T
c
This equation is in terms of total number of mole present in the gas.
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In this equation R0 = MR is known as the universal gas constant. Its value is 8314.4 J/kg mol
K same for all gases.
4.5 Specific Heats of Ideal Gas

ch
All the gases have two kinds of specific heats: specific heat for constant volume Cv and specific
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heat at constant pressure, Cp.
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Specific Heat at Constant Volume Cv

The specific heat at constant volume is defined as the amount of heat energy transferred to
change the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree, when the volume of
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substance is maintained constant.
Consider a closed system of an ideal gas undergoing a change of state at constant volume.
According to the first law of thermodynamics for unit mass system,
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δq = δw + du = pdv + du
du
But for constant volume, dv = 0; thus δw = 0, therefore, δq = du = Cv dT OR Cv = (dT)v
Further, the specific heat at constant volume Cv can also be defined as change of specific
internal energy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant volume. It relates the
change in properties, and thus it is also a property.
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure Cp

It is defined as the amount of heat energy transferred to change the temperature of unit mass of
a substance by one degree when the pressure is maintained constant during the process.
Consider an ideal gas undergoing a process at constant pressure. The enthalpy for unit mass, in
differential form can be expressed as dh = du + d(pv)
As the pressure is constant, therefore, dh = du + pdv = dq OR dh = Cp dT
Further, the specific heat at constant pressure Cp can also be defined as change in the specific
enthalpy of a substance per unit change in temperature at a constant pressure. It relates the
change in properties, and thus it is also a property.
These specific heats are properties of the gas and both vary with pressure and temperature.
However, for an ideal gas they are assumed constant.
For air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg∙K, and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg∙K
4.6 Internal Energy and Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas

Joule submerged two tanks A and B connected by a valve in an insulated tank of water as
shown in Fig.4.4.
One tank A was filled with air and the other tank B was evacuated. The air, tanks and
surrounding water were allowed to come to
c
thermal equilibrium. The temperature of the
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water bath was measured. Then the valve
between the two tanks was opened to let the
air pass as a result of free expansion from one
tank to other. Of course, no work transfer was
involved. Joule observed no change in
temperature of the water bath during free
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expansion of air.
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From this experiment, he concluded that in
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the absence of any heat and work interactions Fig.4.4 Joule’s Experiment Demonstrating Energy
to or from the system of air; the internal is a Function of Temperature
energy of air did not change. The temperature
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of air remained constant even though pressure and volume changed. He established that the
internal energy of an ideal gas does not depend on pressure and volume, it depends only on
temperature.
Hence, the conclusion of Joule’s experiment was that the internal energy of an ideal gas is a
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function of temperature only. It is known as Joule’s law and can be stated as u = u(T)
In differential form, du = Cv dT --------- (6)
The change in specific internal energy for an ideal gas during a process from the state 1 to state
2
2 is obtained by integrating (6), ∆u = ∫1 Cv dT OR ∆u = u2 – u1 = Cv (T2-T1)
By definition, the enthalpy per unit mass, h = u + pv

For an ideal gas, pv = RT
Thus h = u + RT
Both terms on the right side of the equation depend on temperature only, so enthalpy h is
function of temperature only.
Thus h = h(T)
In differential form, dh = CpdT -----------(7)
Thermal Engineering
The change in specific enthalpy for an ideal gas during a process from the state 1 to state 2is
obtained by integrating eq. (7),
2
∆h = ∫1 Cp dT OR ∆h = h2 – h1 = Cp (T2-T1)
4.7 Entropy of an Ideal Gas

Using the results of thermodynamics only, we can go a long way in determining the expression
for the entropy of an ideal gas. This is an important step since, according to the theory
of thermodynamic potentials, if we can express the entropy as a function of U (U is a
thermodynamic potential), volume V and the number of particles N, then we will have a
complete statement of the thermodynamic behaviour of the ideal gas. We will be able to derive
both the ideal gas law and the expression for internal energy from it.
Since the entropy is an exact differential, using the chain rule, the change in entropy when
going from a reference state 0 to some other state with entropy S may be written as ΔS where:
c
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The reference variables may be functions of the number of particles N. Using the definition of
the heat capacity at constant volume for the first differential and the appropriate Maxwell
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relation for the second we have:
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Short Questions
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
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1 What is an ideal gas? Remember

2 The sum of partial volumes of all gases in a mixture is equal to Understand
_______________.
3 What is the partial volume of a gas in a mixture? Remember
4 State Dalton's law of partial pressure. Remember
5 In a mixture of ideal gases of volume V and temperature T, Understand
what is the pressure exerted by each individual gas if it occupies
the total volume V alone at temperature T called?
6 What is reduced property of a substance? Remember
7 In high pressure condition, the real gases conform more closely Understand
with?
8 In which condition can real gas closely obey the ideal gas Remember
equation?
9 A gas being the best-behaved thermodynamics substance, what Understand
is the relation between the ratio of pressure (p) of a gas at any
temperature to pressure (pt) of same gas at triple point

temperature and the nature of gas?
10 The volume occupied by one number of units mol of gas is Remember
called as ___________.
11 What is the volume of a gram mole of hydrogen at 760 mm Hg Understand
and 0 °C?
12 What is a mole of a substance? Remember
13 Define Gas. Remember
14 The relationships between the which four variables are known Remember
as the gas laws?
15 State Avogadro’s law? Remember
16 State Dalton’s law partial pressure? Remember
17 How does the Vander Waals equation differ from the ideal gas Understand
equation of state?
18 Distinguish between ideal and real gas? Remember
19 Define Joule–Thomson co–efficient? Remember
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20 Explain Boyle’s law. Remember
21 Explain Gay Lussac’s law. Remember
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22 Define Pressure and state its unit. Remember
23 Explain Charle’s law. Remember
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Long Questions
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Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 State the three major properties of gases that distinguish them Understand
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from condensed phases of matter.

2 Define pressure, and explain why a gas exerts pressure on the Understand
walls of a container.
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3 Explain the operation of a simple barometer, and why its Understand

invention revolutionized our understanding of gases.
4 How are the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales Understand
defined? How do the magnitudes of the "degree" on each scale
related?
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5 If several kilos of air are constantly pressing down on your Apply

body, why do you not feel it?
6 A gas is present at a pressure of 2 atm. What should be the Evaluate
increase in pressure so that the volume of the gas can be
decreased to ¼th of the initial value, If the temperature is
maintained constant?
7 Volume of given amount of a gas at 57oC and constant pressure Evaluate
is 425.8 cm3. If the temperature is decreased to 37oC at constant
pressure, then what would be the volume of gas?
8 A balloon is filled to a volume of 2.20 L at a temperature of Evaluate
22°C. The balloon is then heated to a temperature of 71°C. Find
the new volume of the balloon.
9 The gas in an aerosol can is under a pressure of 3.00 atm at a Evaluate
temperature of 25°C. It is dangerous to dispose of an aerosol
Thermal Engineering
can by incineration. What would the pressure in the aerosol can

be at a temperature of 845°C?
10 What is the difference in containers in Charles’ Law and Gay- Remember
Lussac’s Law?
11 A balloon has been filled to a volume of 1.90 L with 0.0920 Evaluate
mol of helium gas. If 0.0210 mol of additional helium is added
to the balloon while the temperature and pressure are held
constant, what is the new volume of the balloon?
12 Why does a balloon expand when you add air to it? Apply
13 What volume is occupied by 3.760 g of oxygen gas at a pressure Evaluate
of 88.4 kPa and a temperature of 19°C? Assume the oxygen is
ideal.
14 Why do you need the mass of the gas to calculate the molar Apply
mass?
Why do you need the mass of the gas to calculate the molar
mass
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15 Why do you need the volume, temperature, and pressure of the Apply
gas to calculate molar mass?
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Activitych
1 Balance two balloons on both ends of a stick and check what happens when one
balloon is burst/pricked by a needle. Find out reasons for the action ensued.
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Learning Outcome
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1 Students can comprehend principles of ideal gas.

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Heat Transfer Unit 5
Heat Transfer
5.1 Introduction
Heat transfer is a branch of thermal science which deals with analysis of rate of heat transfer
and temperature distribution taking place in a system as well the nature of heat transfer. The
design of boilers, condensers, evaporators, heaters, refrigerators and heat exchangers, requires
considerations of the amount of heat to be transmitted as well as the rate at which heat is to be
transferred.
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A heat transfer analysis must also be accounted in the design of electronic components, electric
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machines, transformers, and bearings to avoid the overheating and damage of equipments.
Modes of Heat Transfer

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When temperature gradient exists in a medium which may be a solid, fluid or gas, then there is
an energy transfer from high temperature region to low temperature region. This energy
transfer as heat is called heat conduction.
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In contrast, heat convection refers to heat transfer that will occur between a surface and the
adjacent moving medium, liquid or gas, when they are at different temperatures. It involves the
combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. If there is no fluid motion, then the heat is
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transferred between a solid and its adjacent fluid by pure conduction.

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The third mode of heat transfer is thermal radiation. All surfaces at finite temperature emit
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or (photons) as result of the changes in electron
configuration of the atoms or molecules. This mode of heat transfer does not require the
presence of a material medium.
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5.2 Fourier Law of Heat Conduction

The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on its geometry, thickness and material
of the medium as well as temperature difference.
The Fourier law states that the rate of heat conduction per unit area (heat flux) is directly
proportional to temperature gradient.
Q̇ dT
∝
A dx
Q̇ dT
or q= = -k
A dx
dT
Q̇ = -kA (1)
dx
Thermal Engineering
Where, q = heat flux (W/m2)
Q̇ = rate of heat transfer, W
A = area normal to direction of heat flow, m2
dT
= temperature gradient °C/m, slope of temperature curve on
dx
T-x diagram
k = constant of proportionality, called thermal conductivity of

material, W/m°C or W/m∙K
The minus sign is inserted to make natural heat flow a positive quantity. According to the
second law of thermodynamics, heat always flows in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Thus, the temperature gradient dT/dx becomes negative.
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Steady State One Dimensional Conduction
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Fig. 5.1 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction
For one-dimensional heat conduction (temperature depending on one variable only), we can
devise a basic description of the process. The first law in control volume form (steady flow
energy equation) with no shaft work and no mass flow reduces to the statement that ƩQ for all
surfaces = 0 (no heat transfer on top or bottom of Fig. 5.1). From Equation (1), the heat transfer
rate in at the left (at x) is
dT
Q̇ (x) = -k(A )x (2)
dx
The heat transfer rate on the right is
̇
Q̇ (x+dx) = Q̇ (x) +
dQ
dx
|
xdx + … (3)
Using the conditions on the overall heat flow and the expressions in (2) and (3)
dQ̇
Q̇(x) - (Q̇ (x) + (x)dx + ⋯ ) = 0
dx
Taking the limit as dx approaches zero we obtain
dQ̇ (x)
=0
dx
d dT
Or
dx
(kA dx ) = 0.
If k is constant (i.e. if the properties of the bar are independent of temperature), this reduces to
d dT
dx
(A dx ) = 0, (4)
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or (using chain rule)
d2 T 1 dA dT
+( ) dx = 0. ch (5)
dx2 A dx
Equation (4) and (5) describes the temperature field for quasi-one-dimensional steady state (no
time dependence) heat transfer.
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5.3 Convection Heat Transfer
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Heat transfer by convection occurs when a fluid (Liquid and gas) comes in contact with a solid
through direct contact and a temperature difference exists between them. Heat transfer by
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Convection occurs under the combined action of heat conduction and mixing motion.
When a fluid comes in contact with a hot surface,

energy in form of heat flows by conduction from hot
surface to the adjacent stagnant layer of fluid
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particles, thereby increasing their temperature and

internal energy. Due to increase in temperature,
density of the fluid particles decreases and they
become lighter as compared to the surrounding fluid
particles.
The lighter fluid particles move up to a region of

lower temperature with in the fluid where they mix
and exchange a part of their energy with colder fluid
particles. Simultaneously, the cold fluid particles
move downwards to occupy the space vacated by
Fig. 5.2 Convection Heat Transfer
hot fluid particles.
This upward and downward movement of hot and cold fluid particles continues till temperature
of the fluid and the surface becomes equal. The convection heat transfer process has been
shown in Fig. 5.2.
Thermal Engineering
Types of Convection
The convection heat transfer comprises of two mechanisms.
• The first is the transfer of energy due to random molecular motion (diffusion), and
• The second is the energy transfer by bulk motion of the fluid. The molecules of fluid are
moving collectively or as aggregates and thus carry energy from a high-temperature region
to a low temperature region.
If the fluid in motion is artificially induced by a pump, fan or a blower that forces the fluid over
a surface to flow, the heat transfer is said to be forced convection.
If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects resulting from density difference caused by
temperature difference in the fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free (or natural) convection.
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Fig. 5.3 Temperature Profile in Convection.

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Newton’s Law of Cooling

The Newton’s law of cooling is the governing equation of convection heat transfer. It states
that the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to temperature difference between a surface
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and fluid or mathematically
Q̇
(W/m2) ∝ (TS - T∞) °C
A
Q̇
or = h(TS - T∞)
A
where, TS = surface temperature, °C
T∞ = fluid temperature, °C
h = constant of proportionality, is called the heat transfer
coefficient.
The heat transfer coefficient is measured in W/m2 K or W/m2 °C. The value of the heat transfer
coefficient depends on the properties of fluid as well as fluid flow conditions.
5.4 Radiation Heat Transfer

Radiation heat transfer is defined as “the transfer of energy across a system boundary by means
of an electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference.”
Whereas the heat transfer by conduction and convection takes place only in the presence of
medium, radiation heat transfer does not require a medium.
Radiation exchange, in fact, occurs most effectively in vacuum. Further, the rate of heat transfer
by conduction and convection varies as the temperature difference to the first power, whereas
the radiant heat exchange between two bodies depends on the difference between their
temperature to the fourth power.
Both the amount of radiation and the quality of radiation depend upon temperature. The
dissipation from the filament of a vacuum tube or the heat leakage through the evacuated walls
of a thermos flask are some familiar examples of heat transfer by radiation.
c
The contribution of radiation to heat transfer is very significant at high absolute temperature
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levels such as those prevailing in furnaces, combustion chambers, nuclear explosions and in
space applications. The solar energy incident upon the earth is also governed by the laws of
radiation.
ch
The energy which a radiating surface releases is not continuous but is in the form of successive
and separate packet or quanta of energy called photons. The photons are propagated through
space as rays, the movement of swarm of photons is described as electromagnetic waves.
te
The photons travel (with speed equal to that of light) in straight paths with unchanged
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frequency; when they approach the receiving surface, there occurs reconversion of wave
motion into thermal energy which is partly absorbed, reflected or transmitted through the
receiving surface (the magnitude of each fraction depends, upon the nature of the surface that
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receives the thermal radiation).
All types of electromagnetic waves are classified in terms of wavelength and are propagated at
the speed of light (c) i.e. 3 × 108 m/s. The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Fig. 5.4. The
distinction between one form of radiation and another lies only in its frequency (f) and
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wavelength (λ) which are related by

c=λ×f (6)
Fig. 5.4 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation
Thermal Engineering
The emission of thermal radiation (range lies between wavelength of 10-7 m and 10-4 m)
depends upon the nature, temperature and state of the emitting surface, however, with gases
the dependence is also upon the thickness of the emitting layer and the gas pressure.
Thermal radiation exhibit characteristics similar to those of visible light, and follow optical
laws. These can be reflected, refracted and are subject to scattering and absorption when they
pass through a media. They get polarized and weakened in strength with inverse square of
radial distance from the radiating surface.
Kirchhoff’s Law
The law states that at any temperature the ratio of total emissive power E to the total
absorptivity α is a constant for all substances which are in thermal equilibrium with their
environment.
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ch
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Fig. 5.5 Derivation of Kirchhoff’s Law.
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Let us consider a large radiating body of surface area A which encloses a small body (1) of
surface area A1 (as shown in the fig.5.5). let the energy fall on the unit surface of the body at
the rate Eb of this energy, generally, a fraction α, will be absorbed by the small body. Thus, this
Po
energy absorbed by the small body (1) is α1A1Eb, in which α1 is the absorptivity of the body.
When thermal equilibrium is attained, the energy absorbed by the body (1) must be equal to
the energy emitted, say E1 per unit surface. Thus, at equilibrium, we may write
A1E1 = α1A1Eb
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Now we remove body (1) and replace it by body (2) having absorptivity α2. The radiative
energy impinging on the surface of this body is again Eb. In this case, we may write
A2E2 = α2A2Eb
By considering generality of bodies, we obtain
E1 E2 E
Eb = = = (7)
α1 α2 α
Also, as per definition of emissivity ε, we have
E
ε=
Eb
E
or, Eb = (8)
ε
by comparing equation (7) and (8), we obtain
ε=α
(α is always smaller than 1. Therefore, the emissive power E is always smaller than the emissive
power of a black body at equal temperature.) Thus, Kirchhoff’s law also states that the
emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity when the body remains in thermal equilibrium
with its surroundings.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature.
c
Eb = σ T4
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where, Eb = Emissive power of a black body, and
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2K4
ch
The above equation can be written as:
T 4
Eb = 5.67 ( )
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100
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Po
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Fig. 5.6 Experimental Set Up for Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Surface Emission Properties
The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon the following factors:
• The temperature of the surface,
• The nature of the surface, and
• The wavelength or frequency of radiation.
Emissivity(ε)
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also defined as the ratio
of the emissive power of anybody to the emissive power of a black body of equal temperature
E
(i. e. ε = E ). Its values varies for different substances ranging from 0 to 1. For a black body ε
b
= 1, for a white body surface ε = 0 and for gray bodies it lies between 0 and 1. It may vary with
temperature or wavelength.
Thermal Engineering
Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity

When incident radiation also called irradiation (defined as the total incident radiation on a
surface from all directions per unit time and per unit area of surface), expressed in W/m2 and
denoted by (G) impinges on a surface, three things happen; a part is reflected back (Gr), a part
is transmitted through (Gt), and the remainder is absorbed (Ga) depending upon the
characteristics of the body, as shown in Fig. 5.7.
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Fig. 5.7 Absorption, Reflection and Transmission of Radiation.
ch
By the conservation of energy principle,
Ga + Gr + Gt = G
Dividing both sides by G, we get
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Ga Gr Gt G
+ + =
G G G G
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α+ρ+τ=1 (9)
α = Absorptivity (or fraction of incident radiation absorbed),
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where,
ρ = Reflectivity (or fraction of incident radiation reflected), and
τ = Transmittivity (or fraction of incident radiation transmitted).
When the incident radiation is absorbed, it is converted into internal energy.

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Black Body
For perfectly absorbing body, α = 1, ρ = 0, τ = 0. Such a body is called a ‘black body’ (i.e., a
black body is one which neither reflects nor transmits any part of the incident radiation but
absorbs all of it). In practice, a perfect black body (α = 1) does not exist. However, its concept
is very important.
Opaque Body
When no incident radiation is transmitted through the body, it is called an ‘opaque body’.
For the opaque body τ = 0, and eqn. (9) reduces to

α+ρ=1 (10)
Solids generally do not transmit unless the material is of very thin section. Metals absorb
radiation within a fraction of a micrometre, and insulators within a fraction of millimetre.
Glasses and liquids are, therefore, generally considered as opaque.
White Body
If all the incident radiation falling on the body are reflected, it is called a ‘white body’. For a
white body, ρ = 1, α = 0 and τ = 0.
Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (and their mixture such as air) have a
transmissivity of practically unity.
c
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Fig. 5.8 Regular and Diffuse Reflection
Reflections are of two types: Refer Fig. 5.8.

• Regular (specular) reflection
ch
• Diffuse reflection.
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Regular reflection implies that angle between the reflected beam and the normal to the surface
equals the angle made by the incident radiation with the same normal. Reflection from highly
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polished and smooth surfaces approach specular characteristics.
In a diffused reflection, the incident beam is reflected in all directions. Most of the engineering
Po
materials have rough surfaces, and these rough surfaces give diffused reflections.
Gray Body
If the radiative properties, α, ρ, τ of a body are assumed to be uniform over the entire
wavelength spectrum, then such a body is called gray body. A gray body is also defined as one
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whose absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the incident
radiation [α = (α)λ = constant.]
A coloured body is one whose absorptivity of a surface varies with the wavelength of radiation
[α ≠ (α)λ].
Short Questions
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 The literature of heat transfer generally recognizes distinct Remember
modes of heat transfer. How many modes are there?
2 Unit of the rate of heat transfer is_________. Remember
Thermal Engineering
3 Convective heat transfer coefficient doesn’t depend Remember

on____________.
4 The rate equation used to describe the mechanism of Understand
convection is called Newton’s law of cooling. So, rate of heat
flow by convection doesn’t depend on?
5 How many types of convection process are there? Remember
6 Thermal conductivity is maximum for which substance? Remember
7 State an example of forced convection. Remember
8 State an example of free convection. Remember
9 Absorptivity of a body will be equal to its emissivity at? Remember
10 Heat conducted through a unit area and unit thick face per unit Understand
time when temperature difference between opposite faces is
unity, is called?
11 For a system to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, velocity Understand
gradient may exist (True/False)
12 A grey body is one whose absorptivity? Remember
c
13 Two balls of same material and finish have their diameters in Understand
the ratio of 2:1 and both are heated to same temperature and
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allowed to cool by radiation. Rate of cooling by big ball as
compared to smaller one will be in the ratio of?
14
15
difference between temperatures of?
Define Kirchhoff’s law.
ch
In heat exchangers, degree of approach is defined as the Remember
Remember
16 According to Kirchoff’s law, the ratio of emissive power to Remember
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absorptivity for all bodies is equal to the emissive power of a?
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Long Questions
Po
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
1 Which are the different modes of heat transfer? Explain giving Understand
suitable examples and figure heat transfer by various modes.
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2 State and explain Fourier’s law for heat transfer. Mention the Understand
assumptions on which it is based. Define thermal conductivity
and give its unit.
3 With usual notations derive the generalized equation for steady Understand
state heat conduction in 3 - dimensional Cartesian Coordinates.
Simplify the same for one dimensional heat conduction.
4 Distinguish between: Understand
(i) Black body and white body
(ii) Absorptivity and emissivity of a surface.
5 Explain the following terms: Thermal conductivity, Thermal Understand
resistance, Thermal diffusivity.
6 What are the different modes of heat transfer? State the law Understand
governing each of them and write the equation for rate of heat
transfer.
7 Explain Kirchhoff’s law in detail. Understand
8 What is thermal conductivity? How does it vary with the Understand

temperature vary in solid?
9 What is Stefan-Boltzmann law? How is it derived from Plank’s Remember
law of thermal radiation?
10 State & Explain Newtons law of cooling. Remember
Activity
1. Calculate heat transfer rate of human body with and without winter clothing. Use
standard data as provided by professor.
Learning Outcome
1 Students can understand & apply heat transfer methods.
c
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ch
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LJ
LJ
Pol
yt
ec
hn
ic
CONVERSION FACTORS
Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain

2 –4
acre 43,560 square feet (ft ) joule (J) 9.478 × 10 Btu
ampere-hr (A-hr) 3,600 coulomb (C) J 0.7376 ft-lbf
ångström (Å) 1 × 10–10 meter (m) J 1 newton·m (N·m)
atmosphere (atm) 76.0 cm, mercury (Hg) J/s 1 watt (W)
atm, std 29.92 in, mercury (Hg)
atm, std 14.70 lbf/in2 abs (psia) kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound (lbm)
atm, std 33.90 ft, water kgf 9.8066 newton (N)
atm, std 1.013 × 105 pascal (Pa) kilometer (km) 3,281 feet (ft)
km/hr 0.621 mph
bar 1 × 105 Pa kilopascal (kPa) 0.145 lbf/in2 (psi)
barrels–oil 42 gallons–oil kilowatt (kW) 1.341 horsepower (hp)
Btu 1,055 joule (J) kW 3,413 Btu/hr
Btu 2.928 × 10–4 kilowatt-hr (kWh) kW 737.6 (ft-lbf )/sec
Btu 778 ft-lbf kW-hour (kWh) 3,413 Btu
Btu/hr 3.930 × 10–4 horsepower (hp) kWh 1.341 hp-hr
Btu/hr 0.293 watt (W) kWh 3.6 × 106 joule (J)
Btu/hr 0.216 ft-lbf/sec kip (K) 1,000 lbf
K 4,448 newton (N)
calorie (g-cal) 3.968 × 10–3 Btu
cal 1.560 × 10–6 hp-hr liter (L) 61.02 in3
cal 4.186 joule (J) L 0.264 gal (US Liq)
cal/sec 4.184 watt (W) L 10–3 m3
centimeter (cm) 3.281 × 10–2 foot (ft) L/second (L/s) 2.119 ft3/min (cfm)
cm 0.394 inch (in) L/s 15.85 gal (US)/min (gpm)
centipoise (cP) 0.001 pascal·sec (Pa·s)
centipoise (cP) 1 g/(m·s)
centistokes (cSt) 1 × 10–6 m2/sec (m2/s) meter (m) 3.281 feet (ft)
cubic feet/second (cfs) 0.646317 million gallons/day (mgd) m 1.094 yard
cubic foot (ft3) 7.481 gallon metric ton 1,000 kilogram (kg)
cubic meters (m3) 1,000 Liters m/second (m/s) 196.8 feet/min (ft/min)
electronvolt (eV) 1.602 × 10–19 joule (J) mile (statute) 5,280 feet (ft)
mile (statute) 1.609 kilometer (km)
foot (ft) 30.48 cm mile/hour (mph) 88.0 ft/min (fpm)
ft 0.3048 meter (m) mph 1.609 km/h
ft-pound (ft-lbf) 1.285 × 10–3 Btu mm of Hg 1.316 × 10–3 atm
ft-lbf 3.766 × 10–7 kilowatt-hr (kWh) mm of H2O 9.678 × 10–5 atm
ft-lbf 0.324 calorie (g-cal)
ft-lbf 1.356 joule (J) newton (N) 0.225 lbf
newton (N) 1 kg·m/s2
ft-lbf/sec 1.818 × 10–3 horsepower (hp) N·m 0.7376 ft-lbf
N·m 1 joule (J)
gallon (US Liq) 3.785 liter (L)
gallon (US Liq) 0.134 ft3 pascal (Pa) 9.869 × 10–6 atmosphere (atm)
gallons of water 8.3453 pounds of water Pa 1 newton/m2 (N/m2)
gamma (γ, Γ) 1 × 10–9 tesla (T) Pa·sec (Pa·s) 10 poise (P)
gauss 1 × 10–4 T pound (lbm, avdp) 0.454 kilogram (kg)
gram (g) 2.205 × 10–3 pound (lbm) lbf 4.448 N
lbf-ft 1.356 N·m
hectare 1 × 104 square meters (m2) lbf/in2 (psi) 0.068 atm
hectare 2.47104 acres psi 2.307 ft of H2O
horsepower (hp) 42.4 Btu/min psi 2.036 in. of Hg
hp 745.7 watt (W) psi 6,895 Pa
hp 33,000 (ft-lbf)/min
hp 550 (ft-lbf)/sec radian 180/π degree
hp-hr 2,545 Btu
hp-hr 1.98 × 106 ft-lbf stokes 1 × 10–4 m2/s
hp-hr 2.68 × 106 joule (J)
hp-hr 0.746 kWh therm 1 × 105 Btu
ton 2,000 pounds (lb)
inch (in) 2.540 centimeter (cm) watt (W) 3.413 Btu/hr
in of Hg 0.0334 atm W 1.341 × 10–3 horsepower (hp)
in of Hg 13.60 in of H2O W 1 joule/s (J/s)
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Diploma in

A Area m2 R Electrical resistance Ω (ohms)

CV Specific heat at constant volume J/kgKᵒ T Tension (in a rope or cable) N

USCS units conversion factor

32.174 lbm ft/ lbf sec2 = 1

Loading (e.g. on a beam)

Convective heat transfer

I Electric current A (ampere) η Efficiency ---

k Boltzmann’s constant 1.380622 x 10-23 J/K ε Strain ---

L Length m µ Coefficient of friction ---

ʍ Molecular Mass kg/mole µ Dynamic viscosity Pa-s

Q Heat transfer J τ Shear stress N/m2

Prepared and Compiled by

This handbook is compiled to provide subject information to the students. Every

Teaching and Examination Scheme

Suggested Specification Table with Hours

✓ Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the open systems.

Unit-1 Exam: Maximum Marks 10

ESE: End Semester Exam

End Semester Exam: Maximum Marks 50

Activity Assessment /Attendance: Maximum Marks 10

TW: Term Work

2.6. Steady and Unsteady Flow Process 17 1

2.9. Perpetual Motion Machine of The First Kind–Pmm1 22 0.5

3.1. Limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics and 24 0.5

1.2 Thermodynamic System and Control Volume

For thermodynamic analysis of an open

1.3 Thermodynamic Properties, Processes and Cycles

process, e.g., a constant pressure process. A

Properties may be of two types. Intensive properties are

1.4 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems

1.5 Thermodynamic Equilibrium

three types of equilibrium are satisfied:

(a) Mechanical equilibrium (b) Chemical equilibrium (c) Thermal equilibrium

surroundings, and under gas pressure, the piston will

Equilibrium States by an Unbalanced

Now if the single weight on the piston is made up of

So, every state passed through by the system will be an

Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of a quasi-static process. A quasi-static process is

1.7 Pure Substance

1.8 Concept of Continuum

Disregarding the behaviour of individual molecules, matter is

point P. The ratio δm δV is the average mass density of the

In most engineering applications, however, the assumption of a continuum is valid and

1.9 Thermodynamic Terminologies

Specific Heat Capacity

Mathematically, the heat transfer rate Q is written as

Where, C = specific heat in kJ/kg.K, m = mass of substance in kg, △ T =Temperature difference

Specific Heats in Thermodynamics

distinct values of specific heat capacity.

1.10 Work Transfer

effect. In mechanics work is defined as:

the net effect external to the system would be

Path Function and Point Function ch

a path function, and d W is an inexact or imperfect

Thermodynamic properties are point functions, since

the system follows during the change of state, and

To distinguish an inexact differential dW from an exact differential dV or dp the differential

Heat is a form of energy in transit (like work transfer).

the boundary of a system. Energy transfer by virtue of

1.12 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

thermodynamic process. Various types of thermodynamic processes are isothermal process,

4 Differentiate Homogeneous and heterogeneous system. Remember

1 Students can understand basics of thermodynamic.