General Biology 1

BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
Biological macromolecules (Biomolecules) are large molecules necessary for
life that are built from smaller organic molecules. There are four major classes of
biological macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. They
are made primarily from the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus.
Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
Polymer
 from the Greek polys, “many”, and meris, “part”
 long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by
covalent bonds, much as a train consists of a chain of cars

Monomer
 repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
 smaller molecules that have other functions of their own

Dehydration reaction / Condensation reaction

 It is responsible for the synthesis of a polymer.
 It allows the monomers to be connected in which two molecules are covalently
bonded to each other through loss of a water molecule.
 When a bond forms between two monomers, each monomer contributes part of
the water molecule that is lost: One molecule provides a hydroxyl group (-OH),
while the other provides hydrogen (-H). This reaction can be repeated as
monomers are added to the chain one by one, making a polymer.
 The dehydration process is facilitated by enzymes, specialized macromolecules
that speed up chemical reactions in cells.

Hydrolysis
 It means to break using water
 from the Greek hydro, “water”, and lysis, “break”
 Bonds between the monomers are broken by the addition of water molecules,
with hydrogen from the water attaching to one monomer and a hydroxyl group
attaching to the adjacent monomer.
 An example of hydrolysis working within our bodies is the process of digestion.
The bulk of the organic material in our food is in the form of polymers that are
much too large to enter our cells. Within the digestive tract, various enzymes
attack the polymers, speeding up hydrolysis. The released monomers are then
absorbed into the bloodstream for distribution to all body cells. Those cells can
then use dehydration reactions to assemble the monomers into new, different
polymers that can perform specific functions required by the cell.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates
 almost universally used as immediate energy source in living things
 play structural roles in a variety of organisms
 include single sugar molecules and also chains of sugars

a. Monosaccharides(Simple Sugar)
 monomers of carbohydrates
 from the Greek monos, “single”, and sacchar, “sugar”
 consists of only a single sugar molecule
 generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH 20
 major source of cellular fuel

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Glucose
 with six carbon atoms (hexose) and has a molecular formula of C 6HI206
 the most common monosaccharide and has a special place in the chemistry of
organisms
 transported in the blood of animals
 it is the molecule that is broken down in nearly all types of organisms during
cellular respiration, with the resulting build-up of ATP molecules
Fructose– fruit sugar
Galactose – animal sugar
Ribose and deoxyribose
 with five carbon atoms (pentose)
 found in the nucleic acid

b. Disaccharides (Double Sugar)

 consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond
formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
Maltose
 a disaccharide formed by the linking of two molecules of glucose
 also known as malt sugar, maltose is an ingredient used in brewing beer
Sucrose
 it is commonly known as table sugar which is used at home to sweeten our food
 its monomers are glucose and fructose
 it is the form in which sugar is transported from leaves to roots and other non-
photosynthetic organs of plants
 it is acquired from plants such as sugarcane and sugar beets
Lactose
 it is the sugar present in milk
 it is a combination of glucose and galactose

c. Polysaccharides
 macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand
monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
 some polysaccharides serve as short-term energy storage molecules, hydrolyzed
as needed to provide sugar for cells
 other polysaccharides serve as building material for structures that protect the
cell or the whole organism
 the architecture and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar
monomers and by the positions of its glycosidic linkages

Starch
 a form of glucose stored in plants
 appears as granules within cellular structures known as plastids, which include
chloroplasts
 because glucose is a major cellular fuel, starch represents stored energy
 the sugar can later be withdrawn from this carbohydrate "bank~ by hydrolysis,
which breaks the bonds between the glucose monomers
 potato tubers and grains-the fruits of wheat, maize (corn), rice, and other
grasses-are the major sources of starch in the human diet
 exists in two forms: one form (amylose) is nonbranched and the other
(amylopectin) is branched

Glycogen
 a form of glucose stored in animals particularly in their liver and muscle cells
 in our bodies and those of other vertebrates, liver cells contain granules where
glycogen is being stored until needed

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 the storage and release of glucose from liver cells is under the control of
hormones
 this stored fuel cannot sustain an animal for long
 glycogen stores are depleted in about a day unless they are replenished by
consumption of food

Cellulose
 a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells
 on a global scale, plants produce almost 1014 kg (100 billion tons) of cellulose
per year
 it is the most abundant organic compound on Earth
 like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose
 major constituent of paper and the only component of cotton

Peptidoglycan
 Structural polysaccharide found in bacteria

Chitin
 the carbohydrate used by arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related
animals) to build their exoskeletons
 an exoskeleton is a hard case that surrounds the soft parts of an animal
 pure chitin is leathery and flexible, but it becomes hardened when encrusted
with calcium carbonate, a salt
 also found in many fungi, which use this polysaccharide rather than cellulose as
the building material for their cell walls
 seeds are coated with chitin, and this protects them from attack by soil fungi
 because it has antibacterial and antiviral properties, it is processed and used in
medicine as a wound dressing and suture material
 useful also in the production of cosmetics and various foods

Lipids

Lipids
 from the Greek word lipos which means “fat”
 insoluble in water due to their hydrocarbon chains
 used for long-term energy storage by animals

Triglycerides (Fats and Oils)

 consist of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
 glycerol is an alcohol with three carbons, each bearing a hydroxyl group
 a fatty acid has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length
 fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated
 a fat made from saturated fatty acids is called a saturated fat
 most animal fats are saturated: The hydrocarbon chains of their fatty acids-the
"tails" of the fat molecules-lack double bonds, and their flexibility allows the
fat molecules to pack together tightly
 saturated animal fats – such as lard and butter-are solid at room temperature
 in contrast, the fats of plants and fishes are generally unsaturated, meaning
that they are built of one or more types of unsaturated fatty acids
 usually liquid at room temperature, plant and fish fats are referred to as oils –
olive oil and cod liver oil are examples
 fats below the skin of marine mammals, called blubber, provide insulation and
store long-term energy
 in plants, oils are used for long-term energy storage

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Phospholipids
 from the Greek phos, “light”, and lipos, “fat”
 contain a phosphate group and fatty acids
 the hydrophilic (polar) head is soluble in water (water-loving), whereas the two
hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails are not (water-fearing)
 form a bilayer that serves as the major component of a cell’s plasma
membrane

Steroids
 lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
 cholesterol is an essential component of an animal cell’s plasma membrane,
where it provides physical stability
 cholesterol is a precursor of several other steroids such as the sex hormones
 the male sex hormone, testosterone, is formed primarily in the testes, and the
female sex hormone, estrogen, is formed primarily in the ovaries

Waxes
 solid at normal temperatures because they have a high melting point
 being hydrophobic, they are also waterproof and resistant to degradation
 in many plants, waxes, along with other molecules, form a protective cuticle
(covering) that retards the loss of water for all exposed parts
 in many animals, waxes are involved in skin and fur maintenance
 in humans, wax is produced by glands in the outer ear canal
 earwax contains cerumin, an organic compound that repels insects and traps
dust and dirt
 beeswax produced by a honeybee is used to make comb where honey is stored
 other uses of waxes include the production candles, polishing cars, furniture,
and floors

Proteins
Proteins
 comes from the Greek word proteios, meaning "first place”
 account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells, and they are
instrumental in almost everything organisms do
 some proteins speed up chemical reactions, while others play a role in
structural support, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and
defense against foreign substances
 made up of amino acids
 polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides
 a protein consists of one or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a
specific three-dimensional structure

Overview of Protein Functions

Type of Example Functions

Protein
Enzymatic Selective Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of the
proteins acceleration of polymers in food.
chemical
reactions

Structural Support Insects and spiders use silk fibers to make their
proteins cocoons and webs, respectively.
Collagen and elastin provide a fibrous
framework in animal connective tissues.

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Keratin is the protein of hair, horns, feathers,

and other skin appendages.
Storage Storage of amino
proteins acids Ovalbumin is the protein of egg white, used as
an amino acid source for the developing
embryo. Casein, the protein of milk, is the
major source of amino acids for baby mammals.
Plants have storage proteins in their seeds.
Transport Transport of other
proteins Substances Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of
vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the
lungs to other parts of the body. Other proteins
transport molecules across cell membranes.
Hormonal Coordination of
proteins an Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas,
organism's helps regulate the concentration of sugar in the
activities blood of vertebrates.

Receptor Response of cell

proteins to Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve
chemical stimuli cell detect chemical signals released by other
nerve cells.
Contractile Movement
and Actin and myosin are responsible for the
motor contraction of muscles. Other proteins are
proteins responsible for the undulations of the organelles
called cilia and flagella.
Defensive Protection against
proteins disease Antibodies combat bacteria and viruses.

Protein Structure

Primary Structure of a Protein (Linear Arrangement of Amino Acids)

The primary structure of a protein is simply the linear arrangement, or sequence,

of the amino acid residues that compose it. Many terms are used to denote the chains
formed by the polymerization of amino acids. A short chain of amino acids linked by
peptide bonds and having a defined sequence is called a peptide; longer chains are
referred to as polypeptides. Peptides generally contain fewer than 20–30 amino acid
residues, whereas polypeptides contain as many as 4000 residues. We generally reserve
the term protein for a polypeptide (or for a complex of polypeptides) that has a well-
defined three-dimensional structure. It is implied that proteins and peptides are the
natural products of a cell.

Secondary Structure of a Protein (Core Elements of Protein Architecture)

The second level in the hierarchy of protein structure consists of the various
spatial arrangements resulting from the folding of localized parts of a polypeptide

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chain; these arrangements are referred to as secondary structures. A single polypeptide

may exhibit multiple types of secondary structure depending on its sequence. In the
absence of stabilizing noncovalent interactions, a polypeptide assumes a random coil
structure. However, when stabilizing hydrogen bonds form between certain residues,
parts of the backbone fold into one or more well-defined periodic structures: the alpha
( ) helix, the beta (β) sheet, or a short U-shaped turn. In an average protein, 60
percent of the polypeptide chain exist as helices and β sheets; the remainder of the
molecule is in random coils and turns. Thus, helices and β sheets are the major
internal supportive elements in proteins.

Tertiary Structure (Overall Folding of a Polypeptide Chain)

Tertiary structure refers to the overall conformation of a polypeptide chain—that

is, the three-dimensional arrangement of all its amino acid residues. In contrast with
secondary structures, which are stabilized by hydrogen bonds, tertiary structure is
primarily stabilized by hydrophobic interactions between the nonpolar side chains,
hydrogen bonds between polar side chains, and peptide bonds. These stabilizing forces
hold elements of secondary structure— helices, β strands, turns, and random coils—
compactly together. Because the stabilizing interactions are weak, however, the
tertiary structure of a protein is not rigidly fixed but undergoes continual and minute
fluctuation. This variation in structure has important consequences in the function and
regulation of proteins.

Quaternary Structure (Multimeric Structures and Macromolecular Assemblies)

Multimeric proteins consist of two or more polypeptides or subunits. A fourth

level of structural organization, quaternary structure, describes the number
(stoichiometry) and relative positions of the subunits in multimeric proteins.
Hemagglutinin, for example, is a trimer of three identical subunits held together by
noncovalent bonds. Other multimeric proteins can be composed of any number of
identical or different subunits. The multimeric nature of many proteins is critical to
mechanisms for regulating their function. In addition, enzymes in the same pathway
may be associated as subunits of a large multimeric protein within the cell, thereby
increasing the efficiency of pathway operation.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids

 macromolecules that exist as polymers called polynucleotides

 as indicated by the name, each polynucleotide consists of monomers called
nucleotides
 a nucleotide is itself composed of three parts: a nitrogenous base, a five-
carbon sugar (a pentose), and a phosphate group
 the portion of this unit without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside
 there are two families of nitrogenous bases: pyrimidines and purines
 a pyrimidine has a six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
 the nitrogen atoms tend to take up H+ from solution, which explains why it's
called a nitrogenous base.
 the members of the pyrimidine family are cytosine (C), thymine (T), and
uracil (U)
 purines are larger, with a six-membered ring fused to a five membered ring
 the purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G)
 adenine, guanine, and cytosine are found in both types of nucleic acid

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 thymine is found only in DNA and uracil only in RNA

Comparison between Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Ribonucleic Acid

Comparison DNA RNA
 long-term storage of genetic  used to transfer the genetic code
information from the nucleus to the ribosomes
 transmission of genetic to make proteins
information to make other  used to transmit genetic
Function
cells and new organisms information in some organisms and
may have been the molecule used
to store genetic blueprints in
primitive organisms
 double-stranded molecule  single-strand helix consisting of
Structural consisting of a long chain of shorter chains of nucleotides
Features nucleotides
 double helix
 deoxyribose  ribose sugar
Composition of
 phosphate backbone  phosphate backbone
Bases and
Sugars  adenine, guanine, cytosine,  adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
thymine bases bases
Propagation  self-replicating  synthesized from DNA
 AT (adenine-thymine)  AU (adenine-uracil)
Base Pairing
 GC (guanine-cytosine)  GC (guanine-cytosine)

Sources:
Belardo, G.M. (2020). General Biology 1. Manila: Vibal Group
Karp, G. (2020). Cell and Molecular Biology Concepts and Experiments. USA: John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.
Reece, J. (2014). Campbell Biology. USA: Pearson Education, Inc. A