The Universe and The Solar System

CLASSICAL ASTRONOMY

ARISTOTLE
• Moral responsibility, ethics, nature of reality and the idea of the civil government
PLATO
• Aristotle’s student
• most famous philosopher
Tthese two philosophers established the first widely accepted ideas about Earth in relation to the
Universe

ARISTOTELIAN UNIVERSE
• Geocentric Universe: The geocentric model is a debunked theory that the Earth is the
center of the universe, with the sun and planets revolving around it.
• uniform Circular Motion
• parallax
• Retrograde Motion: Retrograde motion is an illusion related to the movement of the Earth-
based observer. A familiar example of retrograde motion occurs when you pass a car on
the freeway, the car being passed appears to move backwards relative to you.
• Direct (Prograde) Motion - “The apparent motion from west to east (looking /
viewing to the south – apparent right to left) motion of a planet or other object
as seen from Earth against the background of stars.”
• Retrograde Motion – “The apparent motion from east to west (looking / viewing
to the south – apparent left to right) motion of a planet or other object as seen
from Earth against the background of stars.”
• each planet revolves uniformly along a circular path (epicycle), the center of which
revolves around Earth along a larger circular path (deferent). Because one half of an
epicycle runs counter to the general motion of the deferent path, the combined motion
will sometimes appear to slow down or even reverse direction (retrograde).

PTOLEMAIC MODEL
• Ptolemaic system, also called geocentric system or geocentric model, mathematical model of
the universe formulated by the Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy about
150 CE and recorded by him in his Almagest and Planetary Hypotheses.
• The Ptolemaic system is a geocentric cosmology; that is, it starts by assuming
that Earth is stationary and at the center of the universe.
• The “natural” expectation for ancient societies was that the heavenly bodies
(Sun, Moon, planets, and stars) must travel in uniform motion along the most
“perfect” path possible, a circle. However, the paths of the Sun, Moon, and planets as
observed from Earth are not circular.
 • Ptolemy’s model explained this “imperfection” by postulating that the apparently irregular
movements were a combination of several regular circular motions seen in perspective from
a stationary Earth.

PTOLEMAIC MODEL COPERNICAN MODEL

COPERNICAN MODEL
● Copernicus proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the Solar System. Such a
model is called a heliocentric system.
● Heliocentric Theory : The heliocentric theory argues that the sun is the central body of
the solar system and perhaps of the universe. Everything else (planets and their
satellites, asteroids, comets, etc.) revolves around it.
● The first evidence of the theory is found in the writings of ancient Greek philosopher-
scientists. By the sixth century BC they had deduced that Earth is round (nearly
spherical) from observations that during lunar eclipses Earth’s shadow on the moon is
always a circle of about the same radius wherever the moon is on the sky. Only a round
body can always cast such a shadow.
● The ordering of the planets known to Copernicus in this new system is illustrated in the
following figure, which we recognize as the modern ordering of those planets.
Support for the Heliocentric Model
● Although Copernicus set down the basic principles of the heliocentric model, it was regarded
as simply an alternative way of thinking about the universe, without any certainty that the
Earth really moved. Two later scientists, Galileo and Kepler, gave several strong arguments
in favor of the heliocentric model.
● Around 1610, Galileo gave observational evidence based on telescope views:
○ Moons of Jupiter gave clear evidence of one object orbiting another
○ Phases of Venus gave clear evidence that Venus circles the Sun
○ Sunspots on the Sun gave clear evidence that the heavens are not “perfect”
○ Craters and mountains on the Moon gave clear evidence that the Moon is another world.

KEPLER’S LAWS OF MOTION

First Law: Planets travel in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus

Planets move more slowly in their orbits when far from the Sun than when close
Second Law:
to the Sun

Third Law: Planets with larger orbits move more slowly than planets with smaller orbits.
EARTH

What is Earth?
• Earth, otherwise known as the world, is the third planet from the sun and the only object in
the universe known to harbor life.
• It is the fifth-largest planet in the Solar System, being the largest of the terrestrial planets
with the highest density.

Earth’s Characteristics to Support Life

1. The presence of liquid water.

• The existence of water at the earth’s surface is neither too much nor too little that is in liquid
form.
• Water is an excellent solvent, capable of dissolving many substances, seventy (70%) of Earth’s
surface is covered by water.
• This allows water to carry nutrients to cells and carry waste away from them.
• So, the presence of liquid water in huge quantities on the surface of our planet is a crucial
differentiating factor for life’s existence here.

2. Right distance to the Sun.

• Proximity to the sun is neither too much heat nor too little.
• It is just the right distance for water, an indispensable inorganic substance for life to exist in
its three physical forms: liquid, solid and gas.
• If earth were too close to the Sun, water would vaporize and be useless to life. If it is too far,
water would be rock hard to be of any use to living things.
• Our planet is in the so-called Goldilocks’ Discover zone from the Sun so that, on balance, it is
neither too hot nor too cold for living things on its surface.

3. Plate Tectonics
• It is vital for a world to host life- that is, planet whose shell is broken up into plates that
constantly move around.
• Plates cover the entire Earth and their boundaries play an important role in geologic
happenings.
• The movement of these plates atop a thick, fluid “mantle” is known as plate tectonics and is
the source of earthquakes and volcanoes.
• System of plate tectonics that enables carbon-silicate cycle regulating temperature.
4. The Right Size
• Large enough to hang on to its atmosphere, but not so large to hold on too much atmosphere
and consequently too much heat.

5. The right strength of gravity

• Its protection by “big brother Jupiter” whose gravity helps divert and vacuum up incoming
debris and keep Earth safe. Earth’s gravity is a decisive factor for life’s existence.

6. The presence of an atmosphere.

• It contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1 % argon.
• It blocks some of the Sun’s dangerous rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a
comfortable temperature and the oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life.
• The ozone layer protects living things from the damaging ultraviolet rays of the sun.

7. The only moon and its stabilizing effect on our planetary rotation, which prevents the poles
from shifting unexpectedly.
8. The presence of magnetosphere.
• The role of the magnetosphere to life is now recognized.
• Without a magnetic field, the atmosphere and the surface of the planet would constantly be
bombarded with solar wind and cosmic particles decimating any emergent life form. The
magnetic field of the planet renders particles from the Sun less harmful.

9. Energy.
• Life needs energy. Without energy, virtually nothing would happen.
• The most obvious source of energy is a planet or moon’s host star, as in the case on Earth,
where sunlight drives photosynthesis in plants.
• The nutrients created by photosynthesis in turn are what the bulk of life on Earth directly or
indirectly relies on for fuel. There may be no shortage of energy sources for life to live off.

10. Time.
• Scientist have argued that habitable world’s need stars that can live at least several billion
years, long enough for life to evolve was the case on Earth.
• For instance, the Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. Because our sun is so long-lived,
comparatively higher orders of life including humans, had time to evolve.
EARTH SUBSYSTEMS

Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends from less than 1 m below the
planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion of the
atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also
absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather
occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result
can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

• The troposphere (0-10 km) constitutes the climate system that maintains the conditions
suitable for life on the planet's surface.
• The stratosphere (10 to 50 km), contains ozone that protects life on the planet by filtering
harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The mesosphere extends 80km high. Meteors
usually burn up in this region as they approach our planet.
• The thermosphere extends up to 600 km above the mesosphere. Aurora and satellites are
located here.
• The exosphere is the upper limit of the atmosphere that extends from the top of the
thermosphere up to 10,000km.
• The ionosphere extends about 48km above the surface to the edge of space up to 965km. It is
the part where abundant layers of electron, ionized atoms and molecules occur.
• The mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are zones of diffuse atmospheric components
in the far reaches of the atmosphere.
Biosphere
The biosphere is made up of the parts of the Earth where life exists. It is the life zone of the
Earth that includes all living organisms, and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed. The
biosphere contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the microorganisms,
plants, and animals of Earth. Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based
on the physical surroundings of an area. These communities are referred to as biomes. Deserts,
grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist within the
biosphere

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle upper
portion of the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth’s structure. It is bounded by the
atmosphere above and the asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle) below.

Hydrosphere
About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the
form of ocean water. Only 3% of earth’s water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the
remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes and groundwater. Cryosphere is the frozen part of
the hydrosphere such as glaciers, ice caps and icebergs.

Examples of Sphere Interaction:

• Humans (Biosphere) are boating in the water (Hydrosphere).
• Trees (Biosphere) are growing out of the rocks (Lithosphere).
• The water (Hydrosphere) is pushing up against the rocks (Lithosphere).
• Roots of the trees (Biosphere) sip water (Hydrosphere) from the river or soil.
• Humans (Biosphere) are breathing the air (Atmosphere)
 ROCKS AND MINERALS

MINERALS
• Minerals themselves are made up of one or a number of chemical elements with a definite
chemical composition. Minerals cannot be broken down into smaller units with different
chemical compositions in the way that rocks can.
• A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a definite
chemical composition.

What do all minerals have in common?

For a substance to be a mineral it must have these 5 characteristics:
1. Formed by natural processes on or inside Earth- no help from humans
2. Is inorganic- was never alive. For example, although coal was formed naturally in earth’s
crust it came from plants and is therefore, not a mineral
3. Is a solid, with definite volume and shape. Liquids cannot be minerals!
4. Minerals always contains certain elements that give it a unique chemical composition
(makeup). Some minerals are compounds which are made up of more than one element.
5. Have a crystalline shape- the particles of a mineral line up in a pattern that repeats forming
a crystal.
◼ Crystal- solid with atoms arranged in an orderly, repeating pattern

How do minerals form?

There are 2 ways that crystals form:
◼ The cooling of hot, liquid rock called magma causes compounds to combine
◼ Magma cools slowly= crystals are large
◼ Magma cools quickly= crystals are small
◼ The evaporation of water that has minerals dissolved in it

How do we identify Minerals?

◼ We look at Physical Properties
◼ These include:
◼ Color/Appearance
◼ Luster
◼ Streak
◼ Hardness
◼ Cleavage/Fracture
Color
◼ Can be misleading
◼ Many minerals will have a similar appearance, but will have different impurities
◼ Color and appearance are not enough to distinguish minerals

Luster
◼ Luster refers to the way a mineral reflects light from its surface
◼ Metallic = shiny like metal
◼ Non-metallic = dull, non-shiny surface, can include pearly, silky, and glassy
◼ We can also use toher terms such as waxy, pearly, glassy, dull, and silky

Streak
◼ The color of the powdered form of the mineral
◼ We find a minerals streak by rubbing it on a white ceramic plate
◼ The color of the streak can be different than the mineral
◼ Minerals must be softer than the streak plate
◼

Hardness
◼ How easily a mineral scratches material
◼ Mohs Hardness Scale
 ◼ Scale from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest)
◼ Test by seeing if the mineral can scratch different objects (like human fingernail,
copper, penny, glass, steel file)

Cleavage & Fracture

◼ The way the mineral breaks
◼ Cleavage—minerals break along smooth, flat surfaces and every fragment has the same
general shape
◼ Fracture—minerals that break at random with rough or jagged edges

Examples or Rock-Forming Minerals

Common rock- forming Physical properties Chemical properties Rock-forming

mineral
Quartz Characteristics: It is silicon dioxide (SiO2) occur as major
the most abundant component of rocks
mineral on earth’s like plutonic igneous,
crust. sedimentary y and
metamorphic rocks.
Hardness: 7
Specific Gravity: 2.66

Color: It is transparent
to translucent in
nature and its color
varies from white and
grey to smokey

Cleavage: Does not

exhibit and thus not
break into a regular
flat face.

Luster: Crystals are

vitreous (glass-like),
massive form is dull or
waxy.

Streak: white
Feldspar Characteristics: It is Potassium Aluminum occurs as major
the most commonly Silicate component of igneous
found mineral on the rocks (like in quartz
Earth’s crust diorite, pumice) and
sedimentary rocks
Hardness: 6 (like in sandstone)
Specific Gravity: 2.7
 Color: Typically, off-
white or shades of red,
orange and brown,
occasionally green.

Cleavage: One perfect

cleavage and good
cleavage that meet at
nearly 90°

Luster: Crystals are

vitreous (glass-like) to
porcelaneous
(porcelain like)

Streak: White
Dolomite Characteristics: A magnesium carbonate Metamorphic rocks
mineral (dolomite) with chemical like dolomitic marble
and a Rock (dolostone) composition as and few sedimentary
CaMg(CO3)2 rocks have dolomite as
Hardness: 3.5-4 the major constituent
Specific Gravity: 2.8-
2.9

Color: Cleavage: It has

three directions of a
perfect cleavage.

Luster: Crystal are

vitreous(glass-like) to
pearly, massive form
is dull

Streak: White
Amphibole Characteristics: forms Fe, Mg, and Al ions common in
crystal that are substitute freely for metamorphic and
typically long and one another igneous rocks minor
prismatic constituents

Hardness: 5-6
Specific Gravity: 3-3.4

Color: Dark green,

dark brown

Cleavage: Two
directions that meet
at 56- and 124-degrees
uneven fracture

Luster: Vitreous
(glassy) to dull opaque

Streak: white to gray

Major Mineral Resources of the Philippines
Mineral Uses
Quartz • For grass manufacturing
• As a gemstone, abrasive material, foundry work, in the petroleum industry,
etc.
• As an essential component of cell phones, watches, clocks games console,
television, navigational instruments, etc.
Nickel • Component of many industrial and consumer products such as stainless steel,
kitchen and laboratory sinks, magnets, batteries, electric guitar strings,
plating material and microphone capsules
Gypsum • As retarder in Portland cement
• As soil conditioner for agricultural lands
• In making plaster of Paris
Gold • Chief use is for jewelry
• Ideal for electronics and electrical appliances
• As thread in embroidery
Iron • Mixed with carbon to produce steel
• Component of metallurgical products such as magnets, high-frequency cores,
car parts
Sulfur • For production of sulfur dioxide used in the paper industry
• For production of sulfuric acid used for various chemical purposes
• As raw material for the manufacture of fertilizers, animal feeds, cement,
adhesive, slat blocks, explosives, glass, matches, etc.
• Used in sugar and petroleum refining, and soil amelioration
• Essential ingredient in skin treatment, ointment, bar soap, lotions, creams
ROCKS
• The word ‘” rock” refers to the solid mass of lithosphere. It is a naturally occurring solid
mixture of one or more different minerals and other organic matter. Petrology is the science
that is concerned with the study of rocks.

• A rock is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals, or organic matter
• Rocks are classified by how they are formed, their composition, and texture
• Rocks change over time through the rock cycle

THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS

1. Igneous rock
- from a Latin word “ignis” which means fire.
• Rocks of magmatic origin with either coarse grains (due to rapid cooling at or near the
surface) or fine grains (due to slow cooling below the surface).
• these are rocks that are derived from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
• from solidified molten rock materials, usually hard and crystalline
• rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that control crystal size
• solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of the
earth
• Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth.
• Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through a central
vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.
• Igneous rock begins as magma.
• Magma can form:
• When rock is heated
• When pressure is released
• When rock changes composition
• Magma is a mixture of many minerals

• Felsic: light colored rocks that are rich in elements such as aluminum, potassium,
silicon, and sodium
• Mafic: dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon
• Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool, giving mineral crystals more time to grow
• Fine-grained: cools quickly with little to no crystals

Coarse-Grained Fine-Grained

Felsic
Granite Rhyolite

Mafic

Gabbro
Basalt
Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
 magma pushes into surrounding rock below the Earth’s surface
 Magma cools slowly
 Large crystal forms
Extrusive Rocks:
 forms when magma erupts onto the Earth’s surface (lava), cools quickly with very small or
no crystals formed
 Crystals may be vesicular

2. Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rock is formed by erosion
 Sediments are moved from one place to another
 Sediments are deposited in layers, with the older ones on the bottom
▪ The layers become compacted and cemented together
▪ Sedimentary Rocks are formed at or near the Earth’s surface
▪ No heat and pressure involved
▪ Strata – layers of rock
▪ Stratification – the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers

◼ Clastic – made of fragments of rock cemented together with calcite or quartz

o Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed of
large angular fragments (over two millimeters in diameter). The spaces between the
large angular fragments can be filled with a matrix of smaller particles or a mineral
cement that binds the rock together.

◼ Non-Clastic – made of evaporites, precipitates and Biological matter

◼ Chemical sedimentary – minerals crystallize out of solution to become rock

o Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) in
the form of the mineral calcite. It most commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow marine
waters. It is usually an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation of
shell, coral, algal and fecal debris.
 ◼ Organic sedimentary – remains of plants and animals
o Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation and
preservation of plant materials, usually in a swamp environment.
o Coal is a combustible rock and along with oil and natural gas it is one of the three
most important fossil fuels.

3. Metamorphic Rock
▪ Meaning to change shape
▪ Changes with temperature and pressure, but remains solid
▪ Usually takes place deep in the Earth

• Contact Metamorphism – heated by nearby magma

• Increased temperature changes the composition of the rock, minerals are changed into new
minerals
• Regional Metamorphism – pressure builds up in rocks that is deep within the Earth
• Large pieces of the Earth’s crust collide and the rock is deformed and chemically changed by
heat and pressure

• Foliated - contain aligned grains of flat minerals

• Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded appearance and is made up of
granular mineral grains.
• It typically contains abundant quartz or feldspar minerals.

• Non-Foliated – mineral grains are not arranged in plains or bands

• Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism of
limestone.
• It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate.
SUMMARY:

The ROCK CYCLE

• The rock cycle describes the processes through which the three main rock types (igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary) transform from one type into another.
• The formation, movement and transformation of rocks results from Earth’s internal heat,
pressure from tectonic processes, and the effects of water, wind, gravity, and biological
(including human) activities.
• The texture, structure, and composition of a rock indicate the conditions under which it
formed and tell us about the history of the Earth.