Metal Forming (Warm): Comparison with Hot and Cold Forming$

FT Mahi, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

D Schmoeckel, Stuttgart, Germany, and Updating author: Fariba Taher Mahi, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland, UK
r 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1 Shape Spectrum and Component Characteristics 2

2 Delimitation as against Cold and Hot Forming 3
3 Process Chain in Warm Forming 3
4 Concluding Remarks 3
References 3
Further Reading 3

Warm forming of steel takes place in a temperature range between 600 and 900 1C. A relevant factor for deciding to work in this
temperature range is the comparatively low flow stress as well as the great formability potential.
Figure 1 shows the flow stress kf as a function of temperature for various steels. The decrease of flow stress with increasing
temperature is to be explained by the higher mobility of the dislocations as well as by the recovery and recrystallization processes
increasingly occurring in parallel.

Figure 1 Flow curves of steels 100Cr6, 42CrMo4, Cf53, and 16 MnCr5.

Figure 2 documents the limiting strain fGr. (or formability) as well as oxide formation in terms of layer thickness as functions
of temperature. The lower limit of warm forming is at approximately 600 1C, since it is only from that point up that a significant
increase of limiting strain fGr can be obtained. The upper limit of warm forming is in the vicinity of 900 1C. A beneficial factor is
the rise of formability having taken place up to this temperature. A disadvantage is the increasingly occurring oxide formation.
The choice of temperature within these limits is influenced by various factors. Decisive among these are workpiece shape,
workpiece material, true strain, the required accuracy, and the workpiece characteristics requested.
Figure 3 shows the influence of forming speed on flow stress for steel grade 100Cr6. At higher forming speeds, flow stress in the
range of phase transition (B720–750 1C) is higher by a factor of 2–3 than at low forming speeds. This is an indication of the fact
that recrystallization, which takes some time, has a positive impact at lower forming speeds.
Tekkaya et al., (2015) stated that metal forming is not only shaping the form of a product, it is also influencing its mechanical
and physical properties over its entire volume. Advanced analysis methods enable accurate prediction of these properties and
allow for setting these properties deterministically during the forming process. Effective measurement methods ensure the setting
of these predicted properties.
Graff (2015) describes that ultrasonic metal forming is the application of ultrasonic vibrations to these processes to enhance
performance through increased production speeds, less tool wear, reduced forming forces, and better surface finish. Ultrasonic
forming depends on the effects of vibrations on both the volume and surface of the metal being formed.

☆
Change History: July 2015. F.T. Mahi added Abstract and Keywords. Text has been expanded with additional review materials and list of references updated.

Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.03564-5 1

2 Metal Forming (Warm): Comparison with Hot and Cold Forming

Figure 2 Influence of temperature on limiting strain and oxide formation.

Figure 3 Influence of forming speed on yield stress.

Hussaini et al. (2015) finds that in sheet metal forming, the formability is limited by the onset of localized necking and it is
important to know the limit up to which the material can be formed. Forming limit diagram (FLD) offers a convenient and useful
tool to predict the forming behavior of the sheet metals, which can be enhanced by forming at elevated temperatures. The
investigation focused on the development of FLD for ASS 316 at 300 1C which was constructed by performing hemispherical
dome punch tests on different width specimens. Theoretical FLDs have been developed using Marciniak–Kuczynski analysis based
on Hill's and Barlat's yield criteria and compared with the experimental FLD. Theoretical FLD based on Barlat's yield criterion is
found to be in a close agreement with the experimental FLD.

1 Shape Spectrum and Component Characteristics

The shape spectrum that can be produced by warm forming corresponds largely to that of cold forming. This primarily includes
axially and rotationally symmetrical components. In addition, there are also components equipped with gears and gear-like
profiles. This is due to the fact that while flow stress decreases with increasing temperature, for higher-alloy steels it still reaches
values as they occur in cold forming low-alloy steels.
The component materials used in warm forming are non-alloyed or low-alloy case hardening steels. An advantage is that in
addition to these also austenitic stainless steel (ASS) as well as steels with relatively high carbon percentage can be worked.
The tool technology used in warm forming orients itself largely at tool constructions for cold forming. This means application
of female dies equipped with shrink rings as well as split tool constructions at flutes or failure-prone points.
 Metal Forming (Warm): Comparison with Hot and Cold Forming 3

The achievable dimensional and shape accuracies correspond to ISO qualities IT 9–IT 12. They are thus comprised between the
accuracies achievable by cold extruding and drop forging. The surface quality of the components is determined by temperature and
the lubricant used and is usually comprised Rt ¼ 10–50 mm. Further advantages of the process are high material utilization of 85%
and the comparatively low energy input of 41 Jkg1 per finished part. The mechanical characteristics of warm-formed components
differ only to a minor degree from those of components heat-treated after cold forming. If no particular demands are made as to
the homogeneity of strength distribution within the components, an additional heat treatment can thus be dispensed with.

2 Delimitation as against Cold and Hot Forming

Hot forming of steel is consecutive to warm forming in the temperature range above 900 1C. Here, drop forging is the most
common hot forming process. It permits producing components of almost any shape in large quantities and in any grade of steel.
However, the intense oxide formation in the temperature range above 900 1C deteriorates surface quality (Rto100 mm) which
involves wider dimensional tolerances (IT 12–IT 16) and greater amounts of excess material to be removed by metal cutting
operations on functional surfaces. In drop forging, material utilization is between 60 and 80%. The average energy input per kg of
finished parts is 46–49 Jkg1.
The processes of cold forming find application in the range of room temperature. The most important process is cold extruding.
The process limitations are determined by the potential for deformation and by the choice of materials. The spectrum of shapes is
largely restricted to rotationally symmetrical components, the choice of materials being limited to non-alloyed or low-alloy
structural steels (Co0.5%). Outstanding advantages of this process are high surface quality (Rt ¼ 10 mm) and good dimensional
and shape accuracy (IT 7–IT 11). Another advantage is high material utilization from 85 to 90%. The average energy input per kg
of finished parts is 41 Jkg1.

3 Process Chain in Warm Forming

The production sequence in warm forming corresponds largely to that in hot forming. It starts with producing bar sections by
shearing. For the coating process, the blanks are preheated in an induction furnace and then are provided with a graphite coat by
immersion. After further heating of the blanks to the forming temperature, the forming operation takes place in a press. Depending
on further use, the components then are either sand blasted and calibrated or subjected to another heat treatment.

4 Concluding Remarks

The advantage of warm forming in steel is the relatively low flow stress as well as the great formability potential. The shape
spectrum corresponds largely to that of cold forming. In addition, there are also components equipped with gears and gear-like
profiles. The dimensional and shape accuracies correspond between the accuracies achievable by cold extruding and drop forging.

References

Graff, K.F., 2015. Ultrasonic metal forming: Processing. Power Ultrason. 377–438.
Hussaini, S.M., Krishna, G., Gupta, A.K., Singh, S.K., 2015. Development of experimental and theoretical forming limit diagrams for warm forming of austenitic stainless steel
316. J. Manuf. Process. 18, 151–158.
Tekkaya, A.E., Allwood, J.M., Bariani, P.F., et al., Metal forming beyond shaping: Predicting and setting product properties. CIRP Annals − Manufacturing Technology, In
Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 21 July 2015.

Further Reading

Herlan, Th., 1999. Warm forging of straight tooth bevels for the utility vehicle’s production. Adv. Technol. Plast. 2, 767–778.
Hirschvogel. M., 1990. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Halbwarmumformung Proc. XIII. Int. Forging Congress, New Delhi, India
Hirschvogel. M., 1997. Potentiale der Halbwarmumformung—ein Verfahrensvergleich. [Potential of warm forming − a comparison of processing methods] Tagungsband 6.
Umformtechnisches Kolloquium. Meisenbach-Verlag Darmstadt, Germany S195-S205.
Nagahama, T., Enomae, S., 1992. Cold- and warm-forging press developments and applications. J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 35, 415–427.