Journal of Managerial Psychology

Relating work engagement and workaholism to entrepreneurial performance

Marjan J. Gorgievski Juan Antonio Moriano Arnold B. Bakker
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Marjan J. Gorgievski Juan Antonio Moriano Arnold B. Bakker , (2014),"Relating work engagement and workaholism to
entrepreneurial performance", Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 29 Iss 2 pp. 106 - 121
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JMP
29,2
106
Received 5 June 2012
Revised 9 January 2013
31 January 2013
Accepted 28 February 2013
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Journal of Managerial Psychology
Vol. 29 No. 2, 2014
pp. 106-121
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0268-3946
DOI 10.1108/JMP-06-2012-0169
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0268-3946.htm
Relating work engagement and
workaholism to entrepreneurial
performance
Marjan J. Gorgievski
Department of Work and Organizational Psychology,
Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Juan Antonio Moriano
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology,
Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain, and
Arnold B. Bakker
Department of Work and Organizational Psychology,
Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Abstract
Purpose – Building on the dualistic approach to passion, the aim of this paper was to examine how
work engagement and workaholism relate to entrepreneurs’ performance (innovative behavior,
business growth, and subjective business performance).
Design/methodology/approach – Cross-sectional survey data of 180 Spanish entrepreneurs were
analyzed using partial least squares modeling.
Findings – Evidence was found for a dual affective pathway to performance. Work engagement
related favorably to performance through its relationship with more positive affect and less negative
affect. Workaholism related to more negative affect, which in turn related negatively to performance.
After controlling for affective states, both work engagement and workaholism still had a direct and
positive association with innovative behavior.
Research limitations/implications – Limitations are the cross-sectional design and the reliance
on self-report measures; although self-reports of business growth can be considered indicative of
objective business performance. Bi-directional relationships between the study variables seem
plausible. The dualistic approach to passion is a sound theoretical basis for future research on drivers
and consequences of work engagement and workaholism.
Practical implications – The findings imply that entrepreneurial success can be enhanced by
improving entrepreneurs’ emotion-regulation strategies to manage their affective states. Workaholics
especially would benefit from such strategies.
Social implications – Improving entrepreneurial performance has value for society via
counteracting economic decline and creation of wealth and jobs.
Originality/value – This study adds to our limited understanding of the consequences of work
engagement and workaholism. It addresses entrepreneurs, who are an under researched occupational
group.
Keywords Entrepreneurship, Business performance, Work engagement, Motivation (psychology),
Affective psychology, Workaholism
Paper type Research paper
The authors would like to thank Theresa McGovern for correcting their spelling and grammar.
 The question of what predicts good performance at work remains relevant, especially Work
for entrepreneurs who are critical for the development and well-being of society, who engagement and
play a crucial role in counteracting economic decline, and are major agents of economic
growth, innovation and employment (Kelley et al., 2010). Entrepreneurship researchers workaholism
have emphasized the importance of motivational concepts labeled “passionate, selfish
love of the work” as key to understanding entrepreneurial behavior (Locke, 2000;
Shane et al., 2003), and indeed, empirical research has shown positive relations between 107
passion for work and entrepreneurial performance (Baum and Locke, 2004). However,
building on the dualistic approach to passion (Vallerand, 2008), it can be expected there
are two different sides of the coin. According to this approach, passion can be either
“harmonious” or “obsessive”, and performance outcomes are assumed to differ
depending on the type of passion people have. Focusing on work engagement and
workaholism as two motivational concepts closely related to “passion for work”,
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researchers have found evidence for this assumption as well (Gorgievski et al., 2010).
The question was put forward as to what different mechanisms may underlie the
relationships between the two motivational concepts and performance outcomes.
The goal of the present study among Spanish entrepreneurs is to expand our
knowledge on the difference between work engagement and workaholism by testing a
model that proposes differential affective pathways to performance. We will first outline
the dual approach to passion for work and clarify why the concepts of work engagement
and workaholism are close to harmonious and obsessive passion. Then we will argue
that hard-working entrepreneurs driven by work engagement versus workaholism
experience different types of affect, and thus show different performance outcomes.

Passion for work, work engagement and workaholism

In the entrepreneurship literature, the term “passion for work” emerged from
qualitative research on entrepreneurs’ motivation (Locke, 2000). Since then, few
attempts have been made to conceptualize the construct in either entrepreneurship
research, or work and organizational psychology. Research on passion and
performance is scarce and fragmented. One exception is a theoretical
entrepreneurship article that defined entrepreneurial passion as “consciously
accessible, intense positive feelings experienced by engagement in entrepreneurial
activities associated with roles that are meaningful and salient to the self-identity of the
entrepreneur” (Cardon et al., 2009, p. 517). According to this definition, passion would
only be related to positive feeling and meaning. Therefore this conception is less useful
when studying the consequences of passion from a dualistic perspective.
In the field of sports, performing arts and gambling, passion towards activities has
received more attention than in entrepreneurship and work and organizational
psychology. Passion towards activities has been defined as “a strong inclination
toward an activity that people like, find important and in which they spend time and
energy on a regular basis” (Vallerand, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2003, p. 757). Two forms of
passion have been identified: “harmonious passion” and “obsessive passion”. In the case
of harmonious passion, the person controls the activity, and the activity occupies a
significant, but not overpowering space in the person’ s life. People who have developed a
harmonious passion for an activity are theorized to feel positive affect before, during, and
after performing the activity. Empirical research has supported this notion (Vallerand
et al., 2003). In the case of “obsessive” passion, the activity controls the person, because of
 JMP which this activity eventually takes disproportionate space in the person’s identity and
29,2 causes conflicts with other life domains. Obsessive passion relates to negative feelings
when not engaging in the activity (e.g. frustration and agitation), but also while engaging
in the activity (e.g. shame and guilt). The passion literature shows that different
developmental processes lead to the development of either obsessive or harmonious
passion among children and teenagers. Young people whose environments supported
108 their autonomy were more likely to develop harmonious passion. In contrast, young
people who highly valued activity specialization, who relied heavily on the activity for
self-definition, and whose parents highly valued the activity were more likely to develop
obsessive passion. This indicates the two forms of passion are qualitatively different
constructs rather than two points on the same continuum on which obsessive passion
would be a more extreme level of passion than harmonious passion (Mageau et al., 2009).
Recent research has verified that the dual theory of passion is applicable to the work
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setting. This research shows that harmonious and obsessive passion towards work
relate differently to cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes (Forest et al., 2011).
Harmonious passion related positively to flow, affective commitment, vitality, mental
health, fulfillment of psychological needs, control over one’s professional life, and
having fun while working. In contrast, obsessive passion, related positively to distress,
taking work home, and thinking about work when outside the workplace.
Strong analogies exist between harmonious and obsessive passion toward work
and two other well-validated concepts in work and organizational psychology, namely
work engagement and workaholism. Harmonious versus obsessive passion could
perhaps best be regarded as precursors of work engagement and workaholism,
respectively (cf. Vallerand et al., 2003). Theoretical insights from the passion literature
inspired a new outlook on the study of those constructs.
Work engagement refers to a “positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is
characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption” (Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 74). People
high in work engagement have a sense of energetic and affective connection with their
work activities. In other words, “engaged individuals work hard (vigor), are involved
(dedicated) and feel happily engrossed (absorbed) in their work” (Bakker et al., 2008;
p. 190). Engaged employees experience vitality, flow, and fun while working and work
fulfills important psychological needs. Engaged workers exercise influence over events
that affect their lives – they are self-efficacious, just as harmoniously passionate
employees (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009).
Concerning workaholism, different conceptualizations exist, some of which match
more closely to the concept of “passion” than others (Cantarow, 1979; Oates;, 1971;
Peiperl and Jones, 2001; Scott et al., 1997). We follow the lead of Scott et al. (1997), who
summarize three key features of workaholism based on a critical review of the
literature. First, workaholics work excessively hard. Second, workaholics are reluctant
to disengage from work and they persistently and frequently think about work when
they are not at work. Third, workaholics work beyond what is reasonably expected
from them to meet organizational or economic requirements. These features are similar
to the behavioral outcomes of obsessive passion mentioned above.
A final parallel with the passion literature is that the recent research on work
engagement and workaholism has demonstrated these two constructs to be largely
independent, with qualitatively different drivers and consequences (Van Beek et al.,
2011). Compared to workaholism, work engagement shows more daily fluctuations and
 seems more easily triggered by environmental characteristics, such as having job Work
resources. Additionally, work engagement has been positively associated with engagement and
psychological resources (such as general self-efficacy), life satisfaction, and good social
relationships at work (Taris et al., 2009). Workaholism has been related positively to workaholism
personality constructs with a less positive connotation, such as perfectionism, Type A
behavior, dominance obstinacy and rigidity. Workaholism has been linked to high
levels of job strain, mental and physical health complaints and low levels of life 109
satisfaction (Taris et al., 2009), impaired relationship quality and social functioning,
reduced happiness and poorer well-being (Bakker et al., 2009).

Work engagement and workaholism as predictors of job performance

Previous research has shown that both work engagement and workaholism may relate
to good performance, but findings are more robust for work engagement than for
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workaholism (Gorgievski and Bakker, 2010; Gorgievski et al., 2010a). Ample empirical
evidence shows that engaged employees and self-employed people perform better than
their less engaged counterparts. Several studies related work engagement to both
higher in-role and extra-role performance (e.g. Bakker and Bal, 2010; Bakker and
Xanthopoulou, 2009; Halbesleben and Wheeler, 2008). Concerning workaholism,
results are more equivocal. Some authors have asserted that workaholics are extremely
productive “hyper-performers” (e.g. Korn et al., 1987; Machlowitz, 1980; Peiperl and
Jones, 2001). Others have claimed the opposite (e.g. Flowers and Robinson, 2002; Oates,
1971; Porter, 2001; Schaufeli, Taris and Bakker, 2006a), and suggested that
workaholics may work hard, but not particularly smart. More specifically, they may
be investing a lot of time and effort. For the self-employed, working long hours may
mean competitive business advantage, which is good (Burke, 2006). However, the
compulsive element or, “the sting of workaholism”, would at the same time
counterbalance the positive effect of hard work (Gorgievski and Bakker, 2010;
Gorgievski et al., 2010a; Wijhe et al., 2011). The possibility of a conflicted relationship
between workaholism and performance will be investigated further in the current
study, but the starting point is that workaholism relates positively to performance, as
does work engagement. Workaholics aim for good performance and it can be expected
that workaholics spend as much time and effort as needed to meet their own, typically
high, performance standards (Clark et al., 2010; Ng et al., 2007).
This study will focus on three important entrepreneurial success criteria commonly
used in the business literature: innovative behavior, business growth, and subjective
business performance (Gorgievski et al., 2011). Innovativeness, such as finding
applications for new ideas, is both seen as an entrepreneurial end goal as well as means
to an end (financial success and growth). Business growth has value for society via
creation of wealth and jobs. Finally, subjective business performance is the extent to
which entrepreneurs themselves are satisfied with the financial and overall performance
of their business. Subjective business success is rooted in actual economic performance
(Dej, 2011), and is an important predictor of entrepreneurs” decisions:
H1. Work engagement is positively related to job performance (innovative
behavior, business growth and subjective business performance).
H2. Workaholism is positively related to job performance (innovative behavior,
business growth and subjective business performance).
 JMP Affective routes to job performance
Next, building on the dual model of passion, this study will investigate whether there may
29,2 be affective routes to performance that either add to performance – in the case of positive
affect – or counterbalance good performance – in the case of negative affect. Positive
affect and positive emotions have been related to a broader scope of attention and an
ability to build up one’s resources (cf. broaden-and-build theory; Frederickson, 2001).
110 Entrepreneurs who experience positive affect may be better able to fulfill typical
entrepreneurial tasks (Gartner et al., 1999). They may be more open to identify, create and
seize new opportunities, make better decisions, be more helpful towards other people, be
more convincing in negotiations, and better able to build social networks, job resources
and personal resources (Baron, 2008). Engaged employees have been found to experience
active, positive emotions at work, which appears to be one of the major ingredients of the
link between work engagement and job performance (Bakker, 2010; Bakker and
Oerlemans, 2011). Based on this reasoning the following hypothesis is put forward:
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H3. Work engagement relates to experiencing more positive affect, which in turn
is positively related to job performance (innovative behavior, business growth
and subjective business performance).
For workaholics, working has been found to lack a positive emotional component,
presumably because of the compulsive drive to do so. Empirical results show that
workaholism relates to active, negative affective states (Bakker and Oerlemans, 2011;
Wijhe et al., 2011) and trait negative affect (e.g., Clark et al., 2010), which can be
expected to relate negatively to performance. This negative affective route thus
counterbalances a possible positive effect of workaholism on performance through
other mechanisms, such as working many hours. In contrast to positive emotional
states, negative emotional states have been related to a narrower thought-action
repertoire (Frederikson, 2001; Frederickson and Branigan, 2005). Especially
entrepreneurial performance outcomes that typically benefit from a broader scope of
attention, such as innovativeness, networking and resource acquisition, may be
impaired by experiencing negative affect. Entrepreneurs experiencing more negative
affect may also be less able to cope effectively with stress. Positive affect enhances the
use of more effective coping strategies, such as direct efforts to solve problems, whilst
negative affect relates to less effective, avoidant coping strategies for dealing with
stress (Baron, 2008). Longitudinal studies among agricultural entrepreneurs showed
that poor mental health, accompanied by feeling strain, unhappiness and depressed
mood, indeed predicted poor economic business performance over time (Gorgievski
et al., 2000; Gorgievski, Bakker, Schaufeli, van der Veen and Giesen, 2010). Therefore,
we hypothesize that:
H4. Workaholism is positively related to negative affect, which in turn relates
negatively to job performance (innovative behavior, business growth and
subjective business performance).

Method
Participants and procedure
A sample of 180 Spanish entrepreneurs was recruited to participate in the study using
a “snowballing” technique with the assistance of psychology students following a
research master at the Spanish University for Distance Education (UNED).
 Entrepreneurs were self-employed business owners (cf. the definition of Rauch and Work
Frese, 2000), 84 percent of which had at least one employee. Firms had on average six engagement and
employees (SD ¼ 9.12) from various branches of industry (e.g. financial services,
consumer services, software and computer services, or transportation and workaholism
communication). Most of the participants were male (59.1 percent), held a college or
university degree (41.3 percent), had a mean age of 42 years (SD ¼ 10.25) and 18.23
years (SD ¼ 10.73) of work experience. All variables were measured using a paper and 111
pencil questionnaire. Entrepreneurs were informed in a cover letter that their
participation was voluntary and all information would be strictly confidential and used
only for research purposes.

Measures
In addition to background data (gender, age, education from elementary school (1) to
doctorate (6), number of hours worked, and business size in number of employees), the
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questionnaire contained the following scales to measure the study variables.

Composite reliability, rc of the scales are presented in Table I.
.
Work engagement was assessed with the Spanish, nine-item version of the
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli, Bakker and Salanova,
2006b). Example items are: “At my job I feel strong and vigorous” and “I am
immersed in my work”. All items were scored on a seven-point rating scale
ranging from 0 “never” to 6 “always/ daily”.
.
Workaholism was measured with the Spanish version of the ten-item DUWAS
(Dutch Workaholism Scale; Lı́bano et al., 2010). Example items are: “I overly
commit myself by biting off more than I can chew”, and “I feel obliged to work
hard, even when it’s not enjoyable.” Responses were given on a seven-point
frequency scale ranging from 0 “never” to 6 “always / daily”.
.
Affective state was assessed with the Spanish version of 20-item PANAS, which
asked respondents to indicate how often they had felt certain emotional states
during the past week (Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Watson et al., 1988).
Responses were given on a five-point agreement scale ranging from 1 “not at all”
to 5 “extremely”.
.
Innovative behavior at work was measured with a Spanish translation of the
six-item scale of individual innovative behavior ( Janssen, 2003). For example, “I
invent new solutions for problems at work” and “I transform innovative ideas
into useful applications” (1 ¼ never, 5 ¼ very often).
.
Business growth was measured using three items referring to business growth
during the past 12 months in number of employees, profit and business turnover
(Stephan and Richter, 2006). For example: “how did the number of employees
change over the past twelve months?” Responses were given on a five-point scale
ranging from 1 “has declined” to 5 “has grown”.
.
Subjective business performance was measured with five items worded: “How
satisfied are you with. . .?” followed by different facets of financial business
performance, such as “your personal income”, “your business profit” and
“turnover rates of your business” (Stephan and Richter, 2006). Responses were
given on a seven-point Kunin faces scale (Kunin, 1955) ranging from 1 “very
dissatisfied” to 7 “very satisfied”.
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29,2
JMP

112

Table I.

variables
and correlation
Means, standard
deviations, composite

coefficients of the study

of AVE (in the diagonal)
reliability, rc / square root
Hours Business Inno. Business Subj. business
M Sd Sex Age Edu per week size WE WA Pos affect Neg. affect behavior growth performance

1. Sex (1 ¼ male) 0.59 0.49 2

2. Age 42.11 10.25 0.28 * * 2
3. Education 3.33 1.66 2 0.23 * * 20.36 * * 2
4. Hours per week 48.76 10.77 0.17 * 0.07 20.14 2
5. Business size 6.75 9.12 0.08 0.12 0.10 0.11 2
6. Work engagement 4.44 1.18 2 0.06 20.01 20.03 0.05 0.07 0.95 / 0.85a
7. Workaholism 2.28 0.71 0.09 0.06 0.12 0.23 * * 0.09 0.16 * 0.91 /0.71
8. Positive affect 3.87 0.65 2 0.10 0.01 20.05 0.07 0.06 0.62 * * 2 0.02 0.88 / 0.74
9. Negative affect 2.18 0.62 2 0.03 20.05 0.09 0.02 20.10 2 0.19 * * 0.49 * * 2 0.38 * * 0.90 / 0.70
10. Innovative behavior 3.45 0.79 2 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.56 * * 0.25 * * 0.55 * * 20.13 0.92 / 0.82
11. Business growth 3.29 0.89 2 0.01 20.01 0.17 * 20.02 20.05 0.28 * * 2 0.09 0.30 * * 20.26 * * 0.15 * 0.90 / 0.87
12. Subj. business
performance 4.90 1.33 0.04 0.08 0.04 20.09 20.02 0.26 * * 2 0.11 0.36 * * 20.29 * * 0.18 * 0.66 * * 0.97 / 0.95

Notes: *p , 0.05; * *p , 0.01. aFor discriminant validity, pffiAVE should be greater than off-diagonals elements in the same row and column. n ¼ 180 Spanish entrepreneurs
 Data analysis Work
Data were analyzed using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) approach with the SmartPLS engagement and
program (Ringle et al., 2005). The objective of the PLS approach is predicting
dependent variables, latent and manifest, by maximizing the explained variance (R2) of workaholism
the dependent variables and minimizing the residual variance of endogenous variables
in any regression run by the model (Wold, 1985). An iterative procedure fits observed
measures to corresponding latent variables, and then estimates relationships among 113
the latent variables. At each stage of the iteration, a least squares fit between observed
and modeled parameters is computed, and the model is considered as a best-fit solution
when the least squares function stabilizes between iterations.
PLS has two strengths that make it well suited to this study. Similar to structural
equation modeling (e.g. AMOS, EQS, Lisrel), PLS accounts for measurement error and
should provide more accurate estimates of mediation effects than regression analyses
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(Chin, 1998). Moreover, PLS was developed to avoid the necessity of large sample sizes
and normal distribution of the data (Falk and Miller, 1992).
Standardized data were used in the analysis and missing data ðn ¼ 9Þ were
excluded list-wise. Significance was evaluated using bootstrapping of 500 samples of
171 cases, which led to a critical t-value of 1.96 for p , 0.05. PLS analyses follow a
two-step approach. Before hypotheses are tested (inner model), reliability and validity
of the measures, in other words, how well manifest indicators predict the latent
variables is tested first (outer model).

Results
Descriptive statistics
PLS shows good results for the outer model, which has 63 manifest indicators loading
on seven latent constructs. With the exception of one item, all latent variables
explained each indicator’s variance from sufficient to very well, with outer (factor)
loadings ranging between 0.57 and 0.95. The standardized outer loading of one
workaholism construct was much lower than the recommended 0.60 (Hair et al., 2006),
namely 0.44, and hence this item was excluded from further analyses. PLS calculates a
composite reliability (rc) for all latent constructs, which is a preferred alternative to
Cronbach’s a as a measure of internal consistency reliability. While Cronbach’s a
assumes that all indicators are equally reliable, PLS prioritizes indicators according to
their reliability, resulting in a more reliable composite (Henseler et al., 2009). For each
scale, rc was well above the recommended 0.70 (see Table I).
Besides reliability of the constructs, PLS calculates the average variance extracted
(AVE), indicating convergent and discriminant validity (see Table I). For all constructs, the
common variance between the indicators and their constructs was well above 0.50 (Fornell
and Larcker, 1981) and per scale, the square roots of the AVE were higher than the squared
correlations with all other constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). This means both
convergent and discriminant validity was satisfactory. This is particularly noteworthy for
the workaholism and workload measures, which may appear to have conceptual overlap.
In line with previous studies (e.g. Harris et al., 1999; Gorgievski et al., 2010a; Snir
and Harpaz, 2004; Tetrick et al., 2000), descriptive statistics show that the
entrepreneurs in the sample score high on work engagement (M ¼ 4.44, SD ¼ 1.18)
and work long hours per week (M ¼ 48.76, SD ¼ 10.77). Few relationships are found
between the demographics and the study variables. Finally, workaholism did, but
 JMP work engagement did not relate significantly to working more hours per week and
29,2 number of working hours did not relate to performance.

Hypotheses testing
The first inner model we tested was a direct effects model, which fully supported H1:
work engagement positively predicted business growth ðb ¼ 0:34; p , 0.001),
114 subjective business success ðb ¼ 0:33; p , 0.001) and innovative behavior ðb ¼ 0:54;
p , 0.001). The model showed only partial support for H2: Workaholism did not relate
significantly to business growth and subjective business success, but it did relate
positively to more innovative behavior ðb ¼ 0:17, p , 0.05).
Next, an indirect effects model was tested. The hypothesized indirect paths were
modeled over and above the direct paths leading from work engagement and
workaholism to the performance measures. Figure 1 shows the significant relationships.
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As Figure 1 shows, H3 was supported. Work engagement related to more positive affect
ðb ¼ 0:66, p , 0.001), which in turn related to more innovative behavior ðb ¼ 0:35;
p , 0:001), higher business growth ðb ¼ 0:26; p , 0.001) and more subjective business
success ðb ¼ 0:34; p , 0.001). The significance of the indirect effects was assessed using
the Sobel test (Sobel, 1982), which confirmed that the indirect effects were significant for
innovative behavior ðZ ¼ 4:15; p , 0.01), business growth ðZ ¼ 3:33; p , 0.01), and
subjective business success ðZ ¼ 4:32; p , 0.01).
In line with H4, workaholism related significantly to negative affect ðb ¼ 0:56;
p , 0:001), which in turn related negatively to business growth ðb ¼ 0:26; p , 0.05)
and subjective business performance ðb ¼ 0:34; p , 0.05), but not to less innovative
behavior ðb ¼ 20:03; p ¼ 0:73Þ: The results of the Sobel test confirmed that the
indirect effect was significant for business growth ðZ ¼ 22:56; p , 0.01) and
subjective business success ðZ ¼ 22:30; p , 0.05).

Figure 1.
Standardized results for
the relations between
work engagement,
workaholism, and
performance for Spanish
self-employed workers
 As a final note, after modeling indirect effects through affective state, both work Work
engagement and workaholism still directly and positively related to more innovative engagement and
behavior ðb ¼ 0:26; p , 0.001; b ¼ 0:17; p , 0.05; respectively). In addition, further
exploratory analyses showed a significant negative relationship between work workaholism
engagement and negative affect, which means work engagement related positively to
job performance both through experiencing more positive and through less negative
affect. Workaholism did not relate (negatively) to positive affect. 115
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to investigate unique pathways between passion for
work, defined as work engagement and workaholism, and entrepreneurial
performance. Evidence was found for a dual affective pathway. Work engagement
related to experiencing more positive affect, which in turn related to more innovative
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behavior, business growth, and subjective business success. In contrast, workaholism

related to experiencing more negative affect, which related negatively to business
growth and subjective business success.
Our results among entrepreneurs underline the notion that experiencing more
positive and less negative affective states play an important role in explaining high
performance. This lines up with the dualistic model of passion, according to which two
forms of passion – harmonious passion and obsessive passion – relate differentially to
expert performance through different pathways. In sports and performing arts,
harmonious passion has been related to positive affective states and better performance.
In contrast, obsessive passion has been associated with negative affective states, whilst
the association with performance was rather complex (Vallerand, 2008). The current
study identified affective states as part of mediating pathways. One possible process that
may be involved is that positive affective states lead to broader cognitive and behavioral
responses and resource building, whereas negative affect leads to cognitive tunneling
and narrower action repertoires (Frederickson, 2001; Frederickson and Branigan, 2005).
Openness is an important requisite for performing entrepreneurial activities. Another
possibility is that different types of affective states relate to different types of goal
setting. Vallerand et al. ( 2008) have shown that harmonious passion relates to setting
mastery goals, which predict deliberate practice and high performance. Setting mastery
goals has been associated with sensitivity to absence or presence of positive emotions,
and feelings along the cheerfulness – dejection axis (Higgins, 1997). In contrast,
obsessive passion not only related to mastery goals, but also to performance avoidance
goals, which negatively influenced performance. Performance avoidance goals have been
associated with sensitivity to presence or absence of negative emotions, and the
experience of affective states along the quiescence – agitation axis (Higgins, 1997).
In addition to the pathways identified in this study, both work engagement and
workaholism related directly to more innovative behavior. What mechanisms underlie
these relationships is interesting for further investigations. The answer to this question
may be found in creativity research, which shows that affect may foster creativity
through the activation component irrespective of a positive or a negative valence (De Dreu
et al., 2008; George and Zhou, 2002). Work engagement and workaholism share an
increased state of arousal, activation, persistence, alertness and readiness for action. In an
entrepreneurial environment, where innovativeness is generally recognized to be crucial
for success; this can be expected to increase innovative behavior (George and Zhou, 2002).
 JMP In this study, working long hours per week did not relate to good entrepreneurial
29,2 performance. This contrasts with the common sense supposition in business that hard
work means competitive business advantage and thus business success (Burke, 2006).
As yet, there is little evidence that working many hours relates to good performance,
but there is abundant evidence relating these concepts to adverse effects, such as
work-family conflict and relationship problems (Bakker et al., 2009), poor health and
116 well-being (Shimazu et al., 2011), and increased errors and inefficiency (Menzies, 2005).
The relationship between working time and performance is not a straightforward one.
The question comes up as to whether certain conditions can be identified under which
working long hours enhances entrepreneurial performance. Answers may lie, for
example, in the combination with having sufficient resources to meet the demands or
non-linear relationships.
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Limitations and future research

This study has several limitations. Because the sample was restricted to Spanish
entrepreneurs, the question remains as to whether results would generalize to
entrepreneurs from different cultures, or to what extent results would apply to
employees on pay role. Second, this study has a cross-sectional design. It seems likely
that the relationship between performance and affective states is bi-directional. In
order to investigate bi-directional relationships, longitudinal research designs are
needed. Finally, this study relies on self-report measures. Self-reported business
growth can be considered highly indicative of objective business growth, and in earlier
research, subjective business performance turned out to be strongly rooted in the
objective economic situation of the business (Dej, 2011). Nevertheless, a next study
might benefit from including more objective performance measures.
There are still mechanisms left unexplained, as is indicated by the direct pathways
in our final outcome model between work engagement, workaholism and innovative
behavior. For future research, we suggest a focus on the activation component of affect
in addition to valence, or peoples’ interpretation of the meaning of affective states (c.f.
George and Zhou, 2002; Wijhe et al., 2011). Other constructs that could additionally be
included as mediators are persistence and focus, or vice versa role conflicts (Schaufeli
et al., 2009). Including well-being related outcome variables in addition to performance
outcome variables may help reveal a possible tradeoff between high performance and
well-being. Finally, research on the topic of work engagement, workaholism and
performance may benefit from further integration with passion research. One direction
this research could take would be to focus on passion for specific entrepreneurial roles,
such as the inventor, the founder or the developer role (cf. Cardon et al., 2009), or
passion for specific entrepreneurial tasks instead of passion for work in general.
Depending on the object of passion, relationships with role relevant outcomes may be
stronger. Research using the idea of performance episodes, such as diary research or
day-reconstruction methods (Beal et al., 2005) could be used to identify what tasks and
roles people are most passionate about and to study the effects of different patterns of
time and energy investment.

Theoretical and practical implications

Our study has interesting theoretical implications. It shows that research on work
engagement, workaholism and job performance can gain considerably from building
 on the dualistic model of passion (Vallerand, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2003). With some Work
exceptions, many studies to date have focused on workaholism or work engagement engagement and
separately. The dualistic model of passion provides a sound theoretical basis allowing
researchers to study both concepts in an integrated manner. workaholism
Concerning practical implications, this study indicates it is important for
entrepreneurs, and specifically for workaholic entrepreneurs, to use emotion
regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal. This will help them deal 117
effectively with the negative cognitive and behavioral consequences of negative
emotions and affective states (Gross and Thompson, 2007). This study showed no
evidence for a positive relationship between excessive working and business
performance. Leisure time seems better spent on fun activities that increase
psychological and social resource pools, such as self-efficacy, mastery, hope, optimism,
vitality and supportive social networks.
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Further reading
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Working Time and Work Addiction, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, pp. 193-217.

About the authors

Marjan J. Gorgievski works as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Psychology,
Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands. She gained her PhD in Occupational Health
Psychology from Utrecht University. Her research focuses on passion and motivation,
bi-directional relationships between well-being and performance, and psychological aspects of
entrepreneurship. She has published book chapters and theoretical and empirical articles in
international journals. She is a founding member of INPERE (International Network of
Psychology of Entrepreneurship Research and Education; www.inpere.org). Marjan J. Gorgievski
is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: Gorgievski@fsw.eur.nl
Juan Antonio Moriano is an Associate Professor in the Department of Social and
Organizational Psychology at the Spanish University for Distance Teaching (UNED). He gained
his University degree and Doctorate (PhD) in Psychology from UNED. His thesis “The
psychosocial study of the entrepreneur” (2005) was awarded and published by the Spanish
Economic and Social Council (ESC). He is a founding member of INPERE.
Arnold B. Bakker is Full Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at Erasmus
University Rotterdam. He holds the positions of President of the European Association of Work
and Organizational Psychology, Secretary General of the Alliance of Organizational Psychology,
and President of the Dutch Association for Work and Organizational Psychology researchers.
His specialization is positive organizational behavior, including work engagement, work-related
flow, job performance, job crafting, and positive spillover and crossover. He is interested in
quantitative diary research and in internet applications of organizational psychology. He has
published numerous articles in the major I/O journals.

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