Earth and Life handout

Module 1 Uniqueness of the Earth Summary

• Earth is a unique planet because of the properties that make it habitable.
o First, it is in the best location in the solar system.
o Second, it contains an atmosphere that acts as a planet’s thermostat.
o Third, its size and mass are enough to keep a gravitational force that is neither too weak nor
too strong.
o Fourth, it has a magnetic field that shields solar winds and other space weather.
o Lastly, it contains the right amount of water to support life.

• The four subsystems of the Earth are the geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and
atmosphere.
o The geosphere is the solid portion of the Earth its structure and land.
o The hydrosphere includes all the waters found on Earth.
o The biosphere encompasses all the Earth’s life forms.
o The atmosphere is the gaseous layer that envelops the Earth.

These 4 subsystems interact each other in a variety of ways. From the decomposition of life into
the soil (Biosphere and Geosphere) to the erosion of the earth by the wind (Atmosphere and
Geosphere)

Ecosystems are a structural and functional unit of ecology where living things interacts with
each other and the environment.

The Earth has 4 layers. These are the Crust, Mantle, Outer Core, Inner Core.

1) Crust – The thinnest layer of the Earth that wraps around the Planet. It is split into two types,
Oceanic and Continental Crust.

2) Mantle – Semi liquid layer that makes up 84% of the Earth’s Volume.

3) Outer Core – Lies beneath the Mantle and is made of liquid iron and nickel. It spins as the
planet rotates generating a magnetic field.

4) Inner Core –Deepest layer of the Earth. Made up of Solid Iron and Nickel due to the high
pressure keeping it solid in spite of the high temperatures.
Module 2 The Rock – Forming minerals Summary

Minerals have distinct properties and identities.

o Color refers to the ability of minerals to reflect regions of the visible light.
o Luster is defined as the ability of mineral to reflect light in its surface.
o Streak is the color of mineral in powdered form.
o Cleavage is the ability of minerals to split along weak plane.
o Fracture refers to the capacity of minerals to break along curved surfaces.
o Density is the compactness of minerals.
o Hardness is defined as the tendency of minerals to resist abrasion.
o Reaction with acids describes how minerals react with acids like HCL.
o Fluorescence is the ability of minerals to glow when bombarded with ultraviolet
light.
o And phosphorescence refers to the ability of minerals to continue glowing even
after a source of ultraviolet light has been turned off.

Calcite reacts with dilute Hydrochloric acid due to the presence of Carbonate.

Halide minerals are those minerals with a dominant halide anion (F−, Cl−, Br− and
I−). Examples include: Halite, Cryolite, Sylvite, Carnallite and Fluorite.

Module 3 Earth materials and processes Summary

Rock is a solid collection of mineral grains that grow or become cemented together.

• There are three types of rocks, Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

• Sedimentary rocks are formed sediment that is deposited over time, usually as layers

at the bottom of lakes and oceans these sediments are the minerals, small pieces of

plant and other organic matter.

• Igneous rock is found beneath the Earth surface melts and become magma when a

volcano erupts, magma flows out of it. (When magma is on the earth’s surface, it is

called lava.) As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock.
• Rocks are exposed to, extreme heat caused by magma or by the intense collisions

and friction of tectonic plates which lead to changes in their mineralogy and texture of

the rock thus metamorphic rock is formed.

• Radioactive decay major source of Earth’s heat.

The Rock Cycle

Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous rocks are formed by crystallization from molten material called magma.
Examples include granite, pumice, felsic and mafic rocks, basalt, and obsidian.

The factors that mainly affect in the formation of magma can be summarized into three:
Temperature, Pressure and composition. Magma is abundant in Oxygen and Silicon.

The size of the crystals depends on how quickly the molten magma solidified:
magma that cools slowly will form an igneous rock with large crystals. lava that cools
quickly will form an igneous rock with small crystals.

Color of igneous rocks is influenced by Composition.

2. Sedimentary rocks are formed from material that has accumulated on the Earth's
surface through the process called deposition, compaction and cementation.
Examples include breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.

3. Metamorphic rocks are formed when a sedimentary or igneous rock is exposed to

high pressure, high temperature, or both, deep below the surface of the Earth.
Examples include phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble. granite gneiss, and biotite
schist.

Type of Igneous Rocks

1. Extrusive rocks are formed on the surface of the ground from lava, which is
magma that has emerged from underground. Crystals formed this way are finely
grained.

2. Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks. It cools steadily without ever reaching
the surface. They have large crystals that can be seen by the naked eyes. Intrusive
rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of the earth.

Type of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Detrital - It is made from the buildup of materials from both mechanical and chemical
weathering. Common rocks include shale (most abundant), siltstone, sandstone,
conglomerate, or breccia.

2. Chemical – It is formed when the dissolved substances are precipitated by either

inorganic or organic processes. The precipitation may occur directly because the
results of inorganic processes or indirectly because the results of the life processes
water dwelling are claimed to possess a biochemical origin.

Processes of sedimentary rock formation;

1) Deposition --  is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added
to a landform or landmass.

2) Weathering –  is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals through contact with

water, atmosphere or other organisms.

3) Erosion -- rocks on Earth's surface break apart or change without moving anywhere. 

Type of Metamorphic Rocks

1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks- Some kinds of metamorphic rocks are strongly

banded
or foliated. Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or elongate minerals within
the rock so that they become aligned. These rocks develop a platy or sheet-like
structure that reflects the direction that pressure was applied.

2. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks- They do not have a platy or sheet-like

structure. There are several ways in which non-foliated rocks are often produced.
Some rocks, like limestone are made from minerals that are not flat or elongated
regardless of the pressure you apply.
The Earth is composed of three distinct layers: mantle, crust, and core. The hottest
layer is the core that produces heat.

Endogenic processes are geologic processes that occur beneath the surface of the
Earth (Valiao,2019). These processes are facilitated by forces that cause the Earth’s
surface to move. These forces are called Endogenic forces. These endogenic forces
are driven by
heat.

This heat is categorized into the following:

1. Primordial heat which is generated during earth’s formation.
2. Radioactive heat which is generated by long-term radioactive.
 The figure above shows how the Earth closely resembles a giant thermal power
station. It is powered by convection currents that heat the surface by taking energy from the
rocks buried deeper underground. At the very center of this giant factory, we have the inner
core and the molten outer core. Moving outwards, we have the terrestrial mantle, followed by
the Earth’s crust. The outer layer of the mantle and the whole of the crust are sometimes
collectively referred to as the lithosphere

Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from a hotter place to a cooler place.
Heat transfer can be classified into two such as:

1. Conduction heat transfer by direct contact of particles of matter.

2. Convection is a heat transfer when a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then
travels away from the source. It carries the thermal energy along which creates a
current. This happens because warmer particles tend to rise, while cooler particles tend
to sink.

Convection currents occur when warmer parts of a fluid rise, while cooler parts sink.
Convection can also occur in some solids. For example, pressure and temperature
conditions in the Earth's mantle allow mantle rock to slowly convert. Hotter rock rises
and cooler rock sinks in mantle convection currents.

This process is related to several other processes, including the movement of tectonic
plates and the outward transfer of Earth's internal heat.

Module 4 Rock Metamorphism Summary

Metamorphism is the change that takes place within a body of rock as a result of it
being subjected to conditions that are different from those in which it formed.

It therefore occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200°C. Rocks can be
subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they are buried deeper in the
Earth.

1. Any kind of rock can change into a new rock. The original rock can either be
sedimentary, igneous, or even a metamorphic rock. This is what we call
metamorphism.

2. The word metamorphic is a Greek word that means “to change form”.

3. The types of metamorphism are contact, regional, cataclastic, hydrothermal, burial,

and shock metamorphism.

4. Contact metamorphism involves intense heat while regional metamorphism

involves high pressure.

5. As temperature and/or pressure increases "old minerals" may change (typically they
increase in size) or new minerals may form.
Module 5 Earth’s Geological Processes Summary

o Plate tectonic movement of the plates results in deformation (folding and

faulting) of the Earth’s crust.

o Folding is the type of Earth movement resulting from the compression of rock
because of high temperature and pressure from the interior of Earth.

o Folding can also happen in oceans and seas. Bending, curving, crumpling, or
buckling of rocks into folds are usually visible on rock strata.

o Monocline is a one-sided slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined

strata.

o Anticline is an upward fold on the rock.

o Syncline is a downward fold on the rock.

o Overturned happens when one of the folds is pushed over the other limb due
to increasing pressure.

o Recumbent is an extreme type of overturned fold in which the axial plain

acquires an almost horizontal altitude.

o Faults form cracks or fractures on the rocks. The movement is caused by low
temperatures that make rocks brittle. Instead of folding, rocks break into large
chunks.

o Normal (divergent) fault occurs when rock is being pulled apart due to tension
force. This is how Rift Valleys are formed.

o Reverse (convergent) fault happens when rock is being squeezed due to

compression force. This type of fault generally moves up. Creates Volcanoes,
Earthquakes and Folds.

o Transform (strike-slip) fault happens when rocks slide past each other in
opposite directions like the San Andreas fault.
o Stratification is the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers
due to crustal movement, displacement of soils, and distortion of terrain.

o The layers of stratified rocks differ from one another depending on the kind,
size, and color of their sediments.

o Sedimentary rocks are formed when combinations of rock fragments, seashells,

fossils, and chemicals are compressed in layers and hardened.