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Unit 32. Narrative Texts
Unit updated: 23/11/2022
OPOSICIONES DE INGLES
SECUNDARIA
UNIT 32
NARRATIVE TEXTS:
CHARACTERISTICS AND STRUCTURE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition of Text
2. TEXT AND CONTEXT
3. PRINCIPLES OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
3.1. Regulative Principles

3.2. Constitutive Principles
4. COHESION AND COHERENCE IN NARRATIVE TEXTS
4.1. Register
4.2. Cohesive Devices
5. STRUCTURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
5.1. Beginning or Introduction

5.2. Middle or Development
5.3. End or Conclusion
6. ELEMENTS OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
6.1. Viewpoint
6.1.1. Omniscient
6.1.2. Third Person
6.1.3. First Person
6.2. Stream of Consciousness
6.3. Plot
7. CONCLUSION
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Trinity Centre. Albacete, Alicante, Valencia Tel: 627 137 138
1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit we are going to look at narrative texts. We are also going to include an examination of the
constituents of texts in general so that we can see the principles that will be included in any type of
narration. This will involve an examination of the meaning of the word text and the cohesive devices
that go into providing a text with coherence.
The information will be taken from Halliday and Hasan, Ramon Seldon, and the Penguin Guide To
Literature.
We will begin by looking at the meaning of the word text in general, so that we can see the foundation
of narration.
A more detailed list of references will be given at the end of this unit.
1.1. Definition of Text
Basically, text can be taken to mean a stretch of language that can form the process of communication.
This can be made through either a linear pattern of sound waves, otherwise known as speech, or a linear
sequence of marks on paper; writing. This communication must make coherent sense in the context of
its use. The linguistic form is important, but it is not itself sufficient to give a stretch of language the
status of a text. For example, a road sign reading: No Overtaking is an adequate text, though comprising
only a short noun phrase. It is understood as a statement, paraphraseable as something like: it is
dangerous to overtake here. By contrast, placing this same sign in a situation that is out of context, such
as in a supermarket, is not an adequate text because although we can recognise the structure and
understand the words, the phrase can communicate nothing to us as we pass by, and is therefore
meaningless. This is the key to understanding the text. In order for the communication to work, it has to
be placed in context. This is as true for narrative texts as it is for any other type.
We will now look at text and context in connection with narrative texts in greater detail.
2. TEXT AND CONTEXT IN NARRATIVE TEXTS
Text is all about meanings. However, for those meanings to have any value they need to be received by
someone who understands them. In the case of a narrative text this would be the person who is having
the story related to him. Look at the following diagram:
ADDRESSER ADDRESSEE
sender receiver
MESSAGE MESSAGE
encode TEXT decode
(CONTEXT)
From this diagram we can see that in order for the communication to be successful, the message that is
received by the addressee has to be identical to that which is sent by the addresser. However, this in
itself is no guarantee for success. The sender should also take care over how he sends the message. It
should, in the words of Grice, be:
TRUE, BRIEF, RELEVANT, CLEAR.
Not only that, but the text has to be received within its correct context if it is to be understood properly.
The communication is only conceptually successful if it is conceptually relevant. In a narrative, the
receiver has to be aware of all the relevant facts surrounding the plot - if he isn’t, the narration breaks
down. This is where the context plays a major role.
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The Context of the narrative text takes into account the narrator’s intention of meaning and how that
intention is to be interpreted by someone. This is deeply affected by the environment in which the
message is delivered, as well as the previous or assumed knowledge of the receiver. This sharing of
knowledge by the participants is known as the implicit context.
The explicit context refers solely to the message itself, and not any external elements.
In a narrative text, the implicit context is often missing, as the author does not necessarily know the
reader.
Now that we have seen how the narrative text can be made clear through the context, we will go on to
look at the principles that are also needed to complete a narrative.
3. PRINCIPLES OF A NARRATIVE TEXT.
A narrative text can be divided into two different categories of principles, regulative and constitutive.
We will begin with the regulative.
3.1. Regulative Principles.
This takes into account three areas:
The efficiency of the text.

The effectiveness of the text.
The appropriacy of the text.
The efficiency determines whether or not a satisfactory result can be achieved by the participants
through the least effort. This means that the communicants should be able to reach a mutual
understanding without having to make huge efforts in order to negotiate meaning. If this happens, then
the text can be said to be effective. In other words, the intended result has been produced. However,
there has to be some kind of suitability or correspondence between the text and the context. If this is so,
then the appropriateness of the text is adequate.
3.2. Constitutive Principles.
This can be divided into the following sections:
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Situationality:
The text has to be relevant to a speech event. In other words, that which is said has to have some
meaning within the context. In a narrative text, all the utterances should ultimately be relevant.
Informativity:
The information has to be either expected or needed to a certain extent. If the author of a narration
includes unneeded or pointless information, then the story will be hard to follow.
Intertextuality:
It could be that the understanding of one text relies on the receiver having had some kind of contact
with another text. This can be seen when novels or films have sequels.
Intentionality:
This is related to the sender’s conscious effort towards the purpose of the communication. The sender
does all that he can to ensure that the message that is received is the one that he intended to send.
Acceptability:
For the narrative text to be acceptable, it has to be cohesive and coherent. This point will be looked at
in greater detail.
4. COHESION AND COHERENCE
In order to achieve coherence, or clarity, we have to pay attention to the cohesive devices that are used
to hold the narrative text together as a whole. According to Halliday and Hasan, cohesion is the
combination of register and various devices that go to make a text coherent. We will first look at
register:
4.1. Register
The way that we speak can say a lot about us as people. Our accent and our choice of words can have a
profound effect upon those with whom we are in contact. Generally speaking, an accent from the upper
classes will be considered as superior to some of the northern accents, and anyone with an R.P. accent
will be considered educated and so will be treated with some level of respect.
Register can be divided into two classes, open and closed.

Open register is where we have the freedom to use the words that we wish to use. This can be seen in
day-to-day conversation. Even here, truly open register is hard to find, as there are rules and
conventions that dictate what we have to say in certain situations. In the narrative text the register is
rarely open, as the narrator is following the rules for this type of text.
Closed Register is, as the name suggests, more restricted. For an example of a closed register, think
about the language used by pilots when flying. They only can use the words that are necessary. This can
be applied to the narrative text when we think about instruction manuals, where the language only
relates to the relevant information.
From the area of register we will now move on to look at some of the cohesive devices that also go to
make a narrative text coherent.
4.2. Cohesive Devices
There are five major cohesive ties: Lexical, Reference, Substitution, Ellipsis and Conjunction.
Lexis:
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This refers to the way that words are used throughout the text to provide cohesion. This can be done
through the repetition of a word:
He went into the room. It was a dark room with only a small window
or through the use of synonyms:
He was angry, more furious than he could ever remember being.
Reference:
Reference uses anaphora and cataphora to refer to words that are mentioned somewhere else in the
text.
Anaphora refers back to something that has been mentioned before:
Ian walked into the party. Everyone turned to look at him.
Cataphora is when a cohesive tie points ahead to something that has not yet been mentioned:
I gave it to the man waiting outside. His name was Daniel
Substitution:
This is a method of referring to a class of items rather than to something which is more specific, as is
the case with reference. Look at the following example:
Did you find the blankets?
Only the blue ones.
In this example, we can see that ones refers not to the blankets in general, but to a class of blankets that
are blue.
Ellipsis:
This refers to omissions. The omission is clarified by the context or by the previous information, look at
the following example:
Were you calling me?

No, I wasn’t.
Here the short answer No, I wasn’t doesn’t need calling you to be added as the context makes it clear
who is being spoken to.
Conjunctions:
These are used to help the listener or the reader to be able to interpret the relationship between the
clauses. This basically means that the clauses are tied together:
He stared across the bay, and as he looked, he saw the lights of a ship out at sea.
These are some of the devices that go to give a narrative text meaning. This meaning however, is lost if
the text lacks structure.
5. STRUCTURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
A structure implies that there is a meaningful order to the events within a text, that there is nothing
arbitrary about that which is written or said. This applies to narrative texts, although sometimes the
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structure can be tampered with by the author in order to maintain his intention with the plot. The main
parts of a narrative text, according to Brooks and Warren are the following:
5.1. Beginning or Introduction
This is obviously the key to a narrative text. The author has to attract the attention of the reader from
the very beginning as failure to do so will result in the reader not wishing to continue.
This is equally as true for spoken narrative texts. In many ways, the opening of the book is the key to
the reader of the way that the action is going to develop. Often the opening chapters will introduce us to
the characters as well as providing us with a description of the scene in which the action is to take
place. More importantly, however, is the fact that the beginning of the narrative text will give us some
clues as to the way that the plot is going to develop, and what the story is actually going to be about. If
we are unable to understand the beginning of the book, then it is highly unlikely that we will be able to
understand that which is to follow.
Look at this example taken from A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole:
A green hunting cap squeezed the top of the fleshy balloon of the head.
This description is of the main character in the novel. The image that is created is so unusual that the
reader feels compelled to read further in order to find out more about the person being described.
There is, according to Warren and Brooks, a great art in trapping the reader’s interest. For this reason
the opening of the book will often be deliberately designed so as to catch the imagination of the reader.
Authors can use many techniques in order to achieve this. Often they present us with a curious situation
that we realise will require further reading if we are to resolve the mystery. This curiosity is often
maintained throughout the work, but the main body of the action will normally occur in the middle
section.
5.2. Middle or Development
By the time we have reached the middle section of a narrative text, we usually feel comfortable with
the actions that are being narrated. The characters have become familiar to us and we are able to know
the way that they act, think and feel.
However, there is a danger that at this point our attention could begin to drop unless some new element
is introduced. For this reason, it is common that many authors choose to add a complication to the plot
in order to prevent the receiver from becoming too complacent.
For example, we may find that one of the principal characters changes his personality, so that the one
we had hitherto thought of as being the hero will suddenly become the villain. Perhaps a major
character is even killed off, a favourite ploy of writers of television soap operas who can often raise
falling viewing figures just by killing one of the protagonists. The main aim of the author is to create
tension in this point. The more tense the receiver feels, the more likely he is to follow the story through
to its final resolution.
Traditionally this has involved a twist in the plot, such as mentioned above, or it could involve the
introduction of new characters or new elements.
Whatever happens through this section of the narrative, the author has to be sure that he is carefully
leading the reader towards the climax. This means that as the text progresses, each of the incidents and
utterances must begin to take on greater importance. This way there can be a series of increasing
complications that lead from the original situation towards the final resolution, presented in such a way
as to ensure that the reader is carried along towards the conclusion of the story.
5.3. End or Conclusion
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The concluding part of a narrative is called the coda. Normally this is the part where all of the conflicts
and twists within the plot are worked out, so that the receiver can finally understand all that has
happened. Sometimes though, the author prefers to leave some things unresolved, either because there
is no real solution, or because he wants to leave room for another story to follow.
It is also possible that the coda will contain some kind of a moral that summarises or evaluates the
relevance of the story. This is especially true of some of the novels from the Victorian Period, whose
authors saw the medium as a perfect opportunity to extol the virtues of God.
This moral is just one of the many elements that we can find within the narrative text. These elements
will form the next part of this unit.
6. ELEMENTS OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
The first thing that we have to think about in this section is the point of view of the narrator.
6.1. Viewpoint
This refers to the position of the narrator in relation to his story, thus referring also to the outlook from
which the events are related. There are many variations and combinations, but three basic ones may be
distinguished.
6.1.1. Omniscient
In this type of narrative the narrator can move from character to character and from place to place at
will. As the scenes shift between the episodes, the narrator goes with them, jumping between scene to
scene, with no regard for the timescale of the action.
In addition to this, he also has access to the thoughts and to the feelings of the characters, which he in
turn relates to the reader. This can be supplemented by the provision of information about the events as
the narrator wishes them to be presented to the reader.
This is probably the commonest point of view, and one that has been established for a very long time.
Chaucer used the method very successfully in The Canterbury Tales and it is still used regularly by
authors in the present day, including the Pulitzer prize winner, Toni Morrison, who employs the
technique in Beloved.
One of the advantages to the author of this point of view is that he is not required to stay outside of the
text, and he can, if he wishes, interpose his own commentaries into the action.
6.1.2. Third Person Narrator
In this technique the author chooses a character and the story is related through that character in such a
way so that the field of vision is confined to him alone. This could also include the area of sharp focus.
This means that the author focuses all the attention on one character and his relation to the action.
6.1.3. First Person Narrator.
Here the story is told in the first person by one of the characters. Well known examples include Moll
Flanders by Daniel Defoe and The Great Gatsby by Scott Fitzgerald. It may be that the narrator is
telling about the action in which he is one of the main or most important characters. In this way he
could be said to be telling his own story, as can be seen in Robinson Crusoe.
Also it could be that the narrator in the first person recounts the action of which he is simply an
observer.
Many authors have tried to combine the various styles. One of the most successful was Emily Brönte in
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Wuthering Heights. Here the characters of Lockwood, Nellie, Heathcliffe and Cathy all have a go at
narrating.
Another device that has been popular is the stream of consciousness.
6.2. Stream of Consciousness.
This was the term that was coined by William James in Principles of Psychology (1890) to denote the
flow of inner experiences. It is now used to depict the multitudinous thoughts and feelings that pass
through the mind. Perhaps the most famous example of this technique is to be found in James Joyce’s
Ulysses. The climax to this work is the forty page monologue of Molly Bloom, a passage that only has
one punctuation mark.
Naturally, no type of narrative text would be complete without the plot.
6.3. Plot
The plot is the plan, design, scheme or pattern of events in a play, poem or work of fiction which is
designed to induce curiosity or suspense in the mind of the reader. In Aspects of the Novel by
E.M.Forster, plot is defined as a narrative of events arranged in their time sequence, the emphasis
falling on causality.
If we look at the following passage the King and the Queen died we can say that this is a story. It is the
narration of events chronologically. However, if we say: the King died, and then the Queen died of grief
we can say that this is a plot. This shows that the reader and the author are both aware of the
relationship between events, particularly of the relationship between cause and effect. In narrative texts
there is not always a natural order of events. The author may decide to change this order so that he may
prolong the suspense, keep something from the reader or to build an interpretation.
There are many techniques that are used to change the natural order of events, amongst them we may
find items such as the flashback where the narrative will return to events that happened in the past so
that the reader can be aware of their importance in the present.
7. CONCLUSION
In this unit we have seen how important the structure of a text can be if it is to be fully comprehended
in a way that the receiver can understand exactly what the intention of the sender is. In narration, all of
the elements of textual cohesion have to be present so that the plot flows naturally and effectively. The
students must be aware of these elements so that they can fully appreciate any form of narrative text
that they may come into contact with throughout the teaching programme, also giving them the
opportunity to produce their own work effectively and accurately.
A USEFUL HYPERLINK
http://www.english.unitechnology.ac.nz/resources/units/between/home.html
REFERENCES
Martinet, André. 1962. A Functional View of Language. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
McArthur, Tom. 1992. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press.
Matthews, P.H. 1981. Syntax. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Muir, James. 1972. A Modern Approach to English Grammar: An Introduction to Systemic Grammar.
London: B.T. Batsford, Ltd.
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UNIT 32 NARRATIVE TEXTS
Themes Notes
Text: Stretch of language that forms the process of communication. The linguistic form is
important, but the message must be placed in context if it is to be understood, for example:
no overtaking would have little meaning if it were placed away from a road.
Text and Context: For messages to have any value they must be received by someone who
understands them in context. To follow Grice, the message must be: true, brief, relevant
and clear. The context of a narrative text takes into account the narrator’s intention.
Implicit Context is the sharing of knowledge between the sender and the receiver. Explicit
Context uses no external elements, it refers solely to the message itself.
Principles of Texts. A text can be divided into two different categories of principles:
regulative and Constitutive. Regulative: efficiency, effectiveness, appropriacy.
Constitutive: Situationality, informativity, intertextuality, intentionality, acceptability.
Register: The accent and the choice of words affect the people who we are speaking to.
Open register gives us freedom of choice to the amount of creativity that we use. Closed
register is very restricted, such as can be found in air travel.
Cohesion and Coherence: In order to achieve coherence, or clarity, we have to pay
attention to the cohesive devices that are used. Cohesive devices: Lexis: This refers to the
way that words are used throughout a text to provide cohesion. Reference: This refers back
or forwards to something and includes the areas of anaphora and cataphora. Substitution:
This is when one word is used to substitute another, the idea being that repetitions are
avoided. Ellipsis: Part of the sentence is cut, the context makes the meaning clear.
Conjunction: Clauses are tied together with words such as and.
Structure of Narrative Texts. Beginning/Introduction: Sets the scene, gets the attention.
Middle/Development: Leads to climax. End /Conclusion: Ties all the plot together.
Elements of Narrative Texts: Viewpoint: This refers to the position of the narrator. There
are many variations: Omniscient: narrator is everywhere. 3rd person: Plot related through a
character. 1st person: Can be main character or observer Many authors have tried mixing
the styles, a good example of this is Wuthering Heights.
Stream of consciousness: Thoughts and feelings that go through our head. The most
famous example of this is Ulysses.
Plot: Design, scheme or pattern. Narrative of events in time sequence. Emphasis on
causality. The king and Queen died: Story. The King died, and then the Queen died of
grief: Plot.
The natural order of events can be changed, as can be seen with flashbacks.
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Now test your knowledge of unit 32 by answering the following questions:
1. Describe the order in narrative texts.
2. Describe the structure in narrative texts.
3. How can the author create tension in the middle of the novel?
4. What are the main elements of narrative texts?
5. What is the stream of consciousness?
10
WHAT HAVE WE FORGOTTEN?
If you think that we should include anything more in this

unit tell us.
If you think this is a bad unit, tell us why!
(The only thing we ask is that you don’t judge it

according to how interesting it is – we cannot help that!)
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Trinity Centre.

Albacete, Alicante, Valencia Tel: 627 137 138

CHARACTERISTICS AND STRUCTURE

1.1. Definition of Text

2. TEXT AND CONTEXT

3. PRINCIPLES OF NARRATIVE TEXTS

3.1. Regulative Principles

4. COHESION AND COHERENCE IN NARRATIVE TEXTS

5. STRUCTURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS

5.1. Beginning or Introduction

6. ELEMENTS OF NARRATIVE TEXTS

1.1. Definition of Text

2. TEXT AND CONTEXT IN NARRATIVE TEXTS

encode TEXT decode

TRUE, BRIEF, RELEVANT, CLEAR.

3. PRINCIPLES OF A NARRATIVE TEXT.

3.1. Regulative Principles.

This takes into account three areas:

The efficiency of the text.

3.2. Constitutive Principles.

This can be divided into the following sections:

4. COHESION AND COHERENCE

Register can be divided into two classes, open and closed.

4.2. Cohesive Devices

or through the use of synonyms:

He was angry, more furious than he could ever remember being.

Anaphora refers back to something that has been mentioned before:

Ian walked into the party. Everyone turned to look at him.

I gave it to the man waiting outside. His name was Daniel

Were you calling me?

5. STRUCTURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS

5.1. Beginning or Introduction

5.2. Middle or Development

5.3. End or Conclusion

6. ELEMENTS OF NARRATIVE TEXTS

6.1.2. Third Person Narrator

6.1.3. First Person Narrator.

Another device that has been popular is the stream of consciousness.

6.2. Stream of Consciousness.

Naturally, no type of narrative text would be complete without the plot.

UNIT 32 NARRATIVE TEXTS

Now test your knowledge of unit 32 by answering the following questions:

1. Describe the order in narrative texts.

2. Describe the structure in narrative texts.

4. What are the main elements of narrative texts?

5. What is the stream of consciousness?

WHAT HAVE WE FORGOTTEN?

If you think that we should include anything more in this

If you think this is a bad unit, tell us why!

(The only thing we ask is that you don’t judge it

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