AMT Full Notes TOLANI

TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE
ISO 9001:2015 CIP Grade1 (Outstanding)
COURSE NOTES
ADVANCE MARINE TECHNOLOGY
Course Code: UG11T3704 Prepared for Academic Year: 2020-2021

Compiled by: Mr Anirudh Kumar Reviewed by: Mr Ashish Kumar
TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

Talegaon Chakan Road, Induri, Taluka Maval, Pune - 410507
Table of Contents
Sr. No. Contents Page No

1 Bridge Control Systems & UMS Operation 1
2 Study of LPG & LNG Ships 17
3 Chemical Tankers 78
4 Oil Tankers 114
5 Car Carrier 151
6 Bulk Carrier 174

7 Latest Engine Technology 204
Preface
This handout of Advance Marine Technology has been compiled for TMI cadets based on 2017
syllabus and previous years question papers of IMU and personal professional experience. Cadets are
encouraged to refer reference materials at the end of each chapter for further knowledge. The topics
covered will provide fair knowledge of bridge control system, UMS operations, problems faced and
actions to be taken, wide coverage of major types of ships, latest engine technology dealing with
optimization of fuel consumption and increasingly stricter environmental compliances. Cadets are
advised to study a topic in advance, before it is covered in class, for better understanding. All
topics/contents are very relevant for not only success in academic exams but also for practice on
board and professional exams later by MMD/DG Shipping.
Chapter 1
Bridge Control Systems & UMS Operation

1.1 Bridge Control System for Propulsion Engine and Control Flow Diagram
1.1.1 Essentials of a Bridge Control System
Main engine can be started from 3 locations:
1. Local station (Emergency control)
2. Engine control room (ECR control)
3. Bridge Control
Out of the above 3 locations ECR and Bridge control are remote control locations.
Engine control consoles are provided at both of these locations.
To enable a direct reversing engine to be controlled from the bridge, basic procedure
and safeguards must be built in to the control system. The following shows some of the
checks which may be incorporated in a system to protect the engine during starting and
running.
1. Confirmation that the turning gear is disconnected.
2. Confirmation that the engine is running in the correct direction on air, before the fuel is
applied.
3. Confirmation that the engine is accelerating on fuel before the starting air is cut off.
4. Alarm if a start is not confirmed within a reasonable period of time.
5. Speed limitation, i.e. avoidance of critical speed ranges or limits imposed by excessive
jacket temperatures, etc.
6. Acceleration limiting to limit the rate at which the fuel is applied to give a safe torque or to
prevent the fuel exceeding the air available from the turbo-blower.
7. Automatic rundown to half speed if, for example, the cylinder jacket temperature is too
high.
8. Automatic stop if the lubricating oil pressure fails.
Other checks or alarms may be fitted if required.
1.1.2 Bridge Control of Direct Drive Diesel Engine, Control Flow Diagram (Main Engine
starting and reversing process from local and remote position with the help of simple block or flow diagram)
Two consoles would be provided, one on the bridge the other in the engine room. For
the bridge console the minimum possible alarms and instruments would be provided
commensurate with safety and information requirements, e.g. low starting air pressure and
temperature, sufficient fuel oil, fuel oil pressure and temperature, etc. The engine room
console would give comprehensive coverage and overriding control over that of the bridge.
In Fig. 1.1 for simplification all normal protective devices are assumed and subsidiary
control loops are not considered. The selector would be in the engine room console and the
operator can select either engine room or bridge control, with one selected the other is
inoperative. Assuming bridge control a programme would be selected, say half ahead, Then
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Bridge Control System & UMS Operation * Anirudh Kumar * Page 1
providing all safety blockages such as no action with turning gear in, etc. are satisfied, the
programme can be initiated and could follow a sequence of checks and operations such as:
1. Fuel control lever at zero.
2. Camshaft in ahead position.
3. Sufficient starting air.
4. Starting air admitted.
5. Adjustable time delay permits engine to reach firing speed.
6. Fuel admitted.
7. Starting air off, checks on direction of rotation and speed.
8. Fuel adjusted to set value.
Essential safety locks, such as low lubricating oil pressure or cooling water pressure
override the programme and will stop the engine at the same time as they give warning.
Direct local control at the engine itself can be used if required on in the event of an
emergency.
Further protective considerations:
1. Governor, including overspeed trip.
2. Non operation of air lever during direction alteration.
3. Failure to fire requires alarm indication and sequence repeat with a maximum of say four
consecutive attempts before overall lock.
4. Movement of control lever for fuel for a speed out of a critical speed range if the bridge
speed selection within this range.
5. Emergency full ahead to full astern timing and setting.
Outline Description
The following is a brief description of one type of electronic-pneumatic bridge control
for a given large single screw direct coupled I.C. engine to illustrate the main essentials. The
I.C. engine lends itself to remote control more easily than turbine machinery.
Movement of the telegraph lever actuates a variable transformer so giving signals to
the engine room electronic controller which transmits, in the correct sequence, a signal series
to operate solenoid valves at the engine. One set of solenoid valves controls starting air to the
engine while a second set regulates fuel supply, pneumatic cylinder whose speed of travel is
governed by an integral hydraulic cylinder in which rate of oil displacement is governed by
flow regulators. This cylinder also actuates a variable transformer giving a reset signal when
fuel lever position matches telegraph setting.
With the engine on bridge control the engine control box starting air lever is
ineffective and the fuel control rack is held clear of the box fuel lever. Engine override of
bridge control is provided.
Fig. 1.1: Engine Control Programme
The function of the electronic controller is to give the following sequence for, say,
start to half ahead: Ensure fuel at zero, admit starting air in correct direction, check direction,
time delay to allow engine to reach firing speed, admit fuel, time delay to cut off air, time
delay and check revolutions, adjust revolutions. Similar functions apply for astern or
movements from ahead to astern directly. Lever travel time to full can be varied from stop to
full between adjustable time limits of half minute and 6 minutes. Fault and alarm circuits and
protection are built into the system.
1.2. Bridge Indicator Panel for Engine Room Machineries
Bridge Control Console: This console will have minimum possible alarms/instrumentation
just sufficient enough to warn the watch keeper and take corrective action, commensurate to
safety and essential information requirement. The instrumentation/alarm may consist of:
1. Engine/Bridge control position changeover switch/ position indicator.
2. Telegraph handle/lever
3. M/E RPM indicator
4. Starting air pressure indicator/Low starting air pressure alarm
5. Lube oil low pressure alarm
6. Fuel oil pressure and temperature alarm
7. Wrong way alarm
8. Engine slow down/shut down indicator and alarm
9. M/E Emergency shutdown button etc.
Each bridge control will be designed and customized to owners requirements and may have
few alarms less or more than the above list.
Engine Control Console: This console will have all the possible alarms and instrumentation
required for smooth running of the propulsion plant. This console will also give overriding
control over that of the bridge. The changeover from bridge to ECR and vice-versa is only
possible from ECR control.
1.3. Emergency Operation for Propulsion Engine

1.3.1 Engine Starting
Prior to starting the engine checks must be made to ensure that there is sufficient air
pressure in the starting air receivers. The functioning of the air compressors must also be
checked so that replenishment of the receivers can take place during manoeuvring.
Circulation of the engine jacket cooling water and piston cooling systems (on older engines)
must be commenced a number of hours before the engine is to be started in order to raise
temperatures gradually to the levels indicated by the engine builder. If temperatures are raised
too quickly there is a risk of uneven thermal expansion which can result in leakage at seals.
Should the engine be started before the cooling systems have reached the desired temperature
high thermal stresses may be induced which could lead to subsequent cracking. System
lubrication should be started some time before manoeuvring is due to commence so the
correct lubricant temperature can be achieved. If the turbochargers and camshaft systems are
separate they must also be checked. The cylinder lubrication system for quantity of oil in
each lubricator box and the settings of the lubricator pumps should be checked, this is
particularly important if any cylinder has been overhauled and items such as liner or piston
rings are to be run-in. If the engine is manoeuvring on heavy fuel oil the fuel must be
circulated through the system, via the heater, for some time before starting so that the correct
temperature is achieved at the fuel injectors. In order to assist in this the tracing steam valve
must be open. Visual checks should be made of the engine control linkages and its
functioning must be determined by movement of the controls.
All safety precautions should be taken to ensure that there is never any risk of the
engine actually starting while these checks are being carried out and all circulating lines
should be examined visually for signs of leakage. There are usually blocking devices on the
turning gear and the starting air distributor preventing the engine from starting if these are
engaged. Disengaging the turning gear removes that blocking device but the starting air
distributor blocking device must be removed manually. This is to enable the starting air
system to be checked without the risk of the engine starting, as the blocking device prevents
air from the starting air receivers reaching the starting air manifold. There may also be
interlocks on the starting air and fuel linkages which prevent them from being moved should
some part of the engine system not function correctly. One such arrangement often fitted is
the 'wrong way interlock' which prevents the fuel pumps supplying fuel to the injectors if the
engine is turning in the opposite direction to that signaled by the control system. In some
engines this can be achieved by means of air actuated puncture valves located at the fuel
pumps. Control air sent to the puncture valve causes the valve to open and vent to the pump
spill line which prevents any fuel oil flow to the injector. Puncture valves can be actuated to
stop the engine, or shut power from a single cylinder, whenever the control system detects
abnormal operation.
1.3.1.1 Engine Start-up
The actual process for engine starting will differ with engine type and the control
system employed. Prior to switching to remote control the auxiliary blowers must be started
and the turning gear disengaged. If the engine is to be started locally the same precautions
apply but the engineers have direct control and can take immediate action in the event of any
malfunction. Whenever under remote control the control system will react according to
instructions and any preplanned programme, however, the engineers in the engine room will
have to check the functioning of the control system and be in a position to react to any
deviation from the programme. If during manoeuvring the engine has been at rest for 20
minutes or more the control system will initiate the slow-turning procedure, if this is
available. When a start is initiated under such circumstances the main starting air valve
remains closed and a smaller slow turning valve is opened to allow the engine to turn over on
a reduced starting air flow. This allows the engine to rotate, however, if there is a hydraulic
lock in any cylinder due to a leaking fuel injector or crack in a liner or piston which would
allow coolant to enter the cylinder, the air pressure is insufficient to enable the engine to turn-
over against the hydraulic lock. If a complete revolution of the crankshaft is not achieved
within a pre-set period of time the control system shuts down and an alarm sounds. If a
complete revolution of the crankshaft is achieved on slow turning within the prescribed time
interval the slow turning valve is closed and the main starting air valve can be opened to
allow the engine to start normally.
1.3.1.2 Emergency Control
Should any malfunction of the control system occur the engineer must take immediate
control of the engine under instructions from the Bridge. This means disengaging the remote
control system, from Bridge or control room, then engaging the control station at the side of
the engine. Actual systems differ from engine to engine but the process essentially involves
disconnecting the air start and fuel regulating linkages from the automatic control system
then connecting them to the manual control station. In terms of the air start system this may
simply be a case of rotating a changeover valve which sends control air to the manual control
station rather than the automatic control station. Under remote control fuel regulation is
achieved via the governor and failure of the control system generally means that the governor
will not operate correctly. Under these circumstances the governor must be disconnected
from the fuel pump control linkage and that linkage connected to the manual control. This
can be achieved by simply removing a pin which attaches the fuel pump linkage to the
governor and using that pin to connect the fuel pump linkage to the manual control linkage.
Other systems use a variation of this arrangement which incorporates a hand-wheel and
slotted links to physically disconnect the fuel pumps from the governor then connect them
with a manual control, however, the principle is the same. Although the governor will be
inoperative under such circumstances the overspeed cut-out will still function provided it is
not part of the governor.
1.3.1.3 Speed Adjustment
When on remote control speed adjustment is taken care of via the control system and
the governor, while the programme ensures all barred speed ranges are avoided. For manual
control the engineer must take care to run the engine through the barred speed range as
quickly as possible in order to prevent engine damage from severe vibration. Jacket and
piston cooling systems must always be maintained at the desired temperatures throughout the
manoeuvring period and rapid changes in temperature must be avoided. Although the
circulation systems may be on automatic control visual checks should be made to ensure the
systems are performing satisfactorily. An alarm will sound if the jacket or piston cooling
temperature varies beyond the set range, due to a malfunction in the control system or some
other reason such as pump failure. The engineer must be prepared to act quickly to restore
effective cooling or reduce engine load, if necessary, to prevent abnormal temperatures or
rapid rates of change in temperature. If manual control of coolers is required the responsible
engineer must anticipate thermal loadings due to changes in engine speed and act accordingly
in order to keep jacket and piston cooling temperatures within desired limits and to prevent
rapid changes in temperature.
While the engine is operating via remote control speed is adjusted by the control
system which changes the speed setting of the governor. The governor then adjusts the fuel
pumps. Even if the engine is operating via local control fuel pumps are adjusted via the
governor. However, speed changes must always be undertaken gradually to avoid rapid
cylinder load fluctuations which could have an adverse effect on the cylinder oil film and
piston rings. As previously stated, rapid load changes can cause temporary surging. When
manoeuvring sometimes the auxiliary blowers need to be started so that sufficient scavenge
air is supplied during low speed operations. The engineer must be aware of this requirement
and ensure the blowers are started at the appropriate time.
1.3.1.4 Fuel Changeover
If the engine is manoeuvring on light fuel oil it must be changed over to heavy fuel oil
as soon as normal seagoing conditions exist. The technique adopted depends on the engine
arrangement and instructions from the engine builder. No matter which procedure is adopted,
the purpose is to achieve a change from light fuel oil to heavy fuel oil without large
fluctuations in temperature at fuel pumps or injectors. Rapid temperature variation can cause
cracking of components and a risk of seizure, while too low a viscosity reduces the
lubrication effect of the fuel oil and also increases the load on the fuel oil transfer pumps.
This must be done gradually by closing the supply valve from the light fuel oil tank while at
the same time opening the valve from the heavy fuel oil tank. This gradual change in the
viscosity of the mixture allows the Viscotherm, or other viscosity monitoring device, to
adjust the heater control and so maintain the desired fuel viscosity at the fuel injectors. One
engine builder requires the changeover from light fuel oil to heavy fuel oil to be carried out
quickly. With the engine running at 0.75 of normal power the light fuel oil temperature is
raised to a maximum 60-80oC, keeping the viscosity of the fuel above 2 cSt in order to
prevent fuel pump and fuel injector scuffing or sticking due to the fuel oil losing its
lubrication effect. The heavy fuel oil temperature in the supply tank must not exceed 25°C
more than the light fuel oil temperature at the time of changeover. When temperatures have
reached the required levels the changeover cock is turned to shut off the light fuel oil and put
the engine on heavy fuel oil supply. The heavy fuel oil temperature is then increased at the
rate of about 2°C per minute until the desired viscosity is achieved.
1.3.2 Stopping
Removing the fuel supply from the fuel injectors will cause the engine to stop. There
are no particular problems associated with this apart from the fact that there is no cooling
requirement when the engine is stopped and heating will be required in order to maintain
cylinder and piston temperatures. Although the control system should perform all necessary
adjustments the engineer should double check to ensure all the necessary adjustments have
actually been made and that cylinder temperatures are held within narrow limits.
1.3.3 Emergency stopping
It may be necessary for the ship's speed to be reduced rapidly and the engine can be
run in the reverse direction to help achieve this. It should be realised, however, that when
rotating in the reverse direction the propeller will only thrash water if the ship's speed is still
high. If fuel is simply removed from the engine the propeller, and hence the crankshaft, will
still rotate due to the effect of the water on the propeller which will have little or no effect on
the ship's speed. A better arrangement is to gradually reduce engine speed until the engine is
running at its lowest speed as this allows the propeller to exert a drag effect on the ship's
motion. When the ship's speed has reduced to a reasonable level the engine may be stopped
and started in the reverse direction. If there is a requirement for a crash stop in which the
Bridge takes responsibility for possible engine damage it should be understood by all of the
engineering staff that the Bridge requires the engine to be operating at maximum speed in the
reverse direction as soon as possible. Different engine builders have different instructions
relating to manual crash stops but the general requirements are as follows:
1. Acknowledge the instruction by answering the telegraphs.
2. Move the control lever to the stop position. While the engine speed is reducing ensure that
starting air is available at the engine, and that coolers, and other engine support systems
receive the necessary attention.
3. When engine speed has fallen to the reversing value (15 per cent to 30 per cent of MCR
speed), operate the control to engage the reversing system and apply starting air. When the
engine has reached the required speed of rotation in the reverse direction, apply fuel.
With some engines it is possible to brake the engine speed in the ahead direction by
applying starting air in the reverse direction before the reversing value has been reached.
This should only be done with care and after the crash stop has been signalled. All engineers
should make themselves fully aware of the instructions for emergency reversal and crash
stops as soon as they join a particular ship; it is too late to find out what they are when faced
with an emergency situation.
1.3.4 Continuous Slow Running
If the engine is to be run continuously for prolonged periods at reduced speed there is
a risk of deposit build-up in the cylinders, on the exhaust valves, the turbine blades and in the
uptakes. This is a result of poor combustion due to the fact that slow running produces
imperfect atomisation. When manoeuvring the carbon deposits are light and burn away
quickly when the engine resumes full speed, however, if the engine will need to run for a
prolonged period at low speed some rectifying action is required. The fitting of 'slow
steaming' nozzles to the injectors will improve atomisation as the smaller area of the nozzles
compensate for the reduction in fuel pressure due to slow running so the correct fuel droplet
size is produced. Prior to resuming normal speed the 'slow steaming' nozzles must be
replaced by normal nozzles otherwise very fine fuel droplets will be produced which will
have a detrimental effect on fuel combustion. The return to full sea speed should be
undertaken gradually in order to avoid the possibility of scavenge fires.
1.3.5 Emergency Running
There are times when engine defects cannot be rectified immediately yet the engine
must be operated in order to make the next port. The engineer must be aware of how the
engine can be run safely under such circumstances. At all times safe conditions in the engine
room must exist and there must be the minimum of subsequent damage to the engine.
1.3.5.1 Cylinder Cut-out
An engine is designed to run in balanced condition with all cylinders functioning and
developing approximately the same power. If for some reason a cylinder has to be cut-out the
engine will no longer be in mechanical or thermal balance and it must be operated at reduced
loading. Defects such as a wiped crosshead bearing, cracked cylinder liner, cracked piston,
or defective cylinder cover which cannot immediately be replaced mean the engine must run
with the affected cylinder cut-out. It is not simply a case of shutting off fuel to the cylinder
concerned as each cylinder has an influence on other cylinders and other parts of the engine.
Torsional vibration may be a problem at certain speed and the engine builder must be
consulted for advice as to the speed ranges which must be avoided with a particular cylinder
cutout. Turbocharger surging may occur making it necessary to reduce the operating speed
below that which the remaining cylinders could maintain.
Hunting of the governor may take place and if this happens the governor must be
adjusted until the hunting ceases. With electro-hydraulic governors the stop screw on the
changeover mechanism must be screwed down until the hunting ceases while electronic
governors must be operated on 'index control'. Depending on the reason for cutting out a
cylinder unit the starting air system on that unit may or may not remain operable. If it does
the engine is fully manoeuvrable but if starting air is shut off to the cylinder there may be a
dead spot where the engine may not start. Giving the engine a short burst of starting air in
the opposite direction may move the engine from the dead spot but if this does not work the
turning gear must be employed.
If the piston has to be removed from the cylinder it is necessary to disable the air start
system, exhaust valve operating mechanism, cylinder lubrication and piston cooling and also
to blank off the hole in the diaphragm gland. If the engine has a cracked liner or cylinder
cover the jacket cooling water must also be isolated. Failure of a crosshead or bottom end
bearing requires the crosshead assembly, including the connecting rod, to be disconnected
from the crankshaft and secured in a safe position within the crankcase or, preferably,
removed from the crankcase completely. All lubrication supply paths to that unit's bearings
must be isolated to prevent loss of lubrication pressure. Because an engine's response to the
removal of power from a cylinder differs with engine size and the number of cylinders, the
opinion of engine builder should always be sought before operating the engine.
1.3.5.2 Turbocharger Surging
The phenomenon known as surging takes place at the turbocharger compressor

because the air mass delivered falls off at a greater rate than the air pressure. Surging is a
complex topic and there are many factors which influence the tendency for a turbocharger to
surge under particular circumstances. In simple terms, it means that the turbocharger
compressor delivery is unable to overcome the pressure in the engine scavenge space so air
tends to flow from the scavenge space into the rotating compressor impeller, i.e. the direction
of flow reverses. Consider a pulse system turbocharger supplied with exhaust gas from three
cylinders. If one cylinder is cut-out no exhaust gas gets supplied to the turbine for about 1200
of crank rotation and the turbine will slow down causing reduced air mass delivery from the
compressor. However, if there is another turbocharger connected to the three other cylinders
it will operate normally and maintain the scavenge space air pressure. Air tends to flow from
the scavenge space into the impeller of the turbocharger which is slowing down during the
period when no exhaust gas is flowing from the cut-out cylinder. Surging will occur if the air
mass delivered moves to the left of the surge line shown in Figure 1.2. This diagram of the
compressor characteristics exhibits two distinct regions, region A of stable delivery and
region B of unstable delivery, or surging. The surge line indicates the compressor pressure
limit for particular mass flows and it can be seen that to the left of this line the air mass flow
is too low for the pressure, therefore, surging will take place. The engine operating line is
placed some distance to the right of the surge line giving some leeway against the risk of
surging, however, the further the operating line is away from the surge line the lower the
turbocharger efficiency will be.
Effects of Surging
Surging produces a loud 'barking' or 'coughing' noise which is unpleasant and
worrying for the operator. It is the vibration from this surging which damages the
turbocharger. A sudden reversal in pressure due to a loss of airflow from a loss of load causes
severe jolting. Blade and impeller damage can occur but the vibration may also cause damage
to the rotor bearings and the labyrinth seals. It is essential that action be taken to stop surging
as soon as possible after it starts. The action of reducing engine load can have an immediate
effect but this may not be possible under all circumstances. Venting air from the scavenge
trunking will reduce scavenge pressure and have the effect of stopping surging, however, it
will also cause an increase in exhaust temperature which must not be allowed to exceed the
set limit. If a turbocharger starts surging immediately after an engine adjustment, such as
changing a fuel injection pump, it is likely that this adjustment is the cause of the problem.
There are, however, many reasons for turbocharger surging and it can be difficult to detect if
there is no obvious cause.
Causes of Turbocharger Surging
The causes of surging may be divided into three main groups:
Fig. 1.2: Compressor characteristics curves
1. The Turbocharger Air/gas System

This group includes fouled turbine and nozzle blades, fouled suction filter, damaged
induction silencer, restricted air cooler or water mist separator, restricted scavenge ports,
defective operation of exhaust valve, damaged or blocked protective grating before
turbocharger, and pressure pulsations in the exhaust system. Turbocharger bearing failure can
also be included in this group.
2. The Engine Fuel System
Any part of the fuel system which has an influence on cylinder combustion can be
found in this group. Air or water in the fuel, low fuel pressure or temperature, fuel pump
damage, fuel injector damage, faulty injection timing, poor load distribution between
cylinders (if one cylinder cuts out it indicates an extreme cylinder power imbalance), and
changing to a fuel of different ignition quality without making a timing correction all form
part of this group.
3. Rapid Variation in Engine Load
During manoeuvring surging can take place if the engine load is suddenly reduced
(i.e. the engine cannot make use of all of the air being supplied). Although this surging is
transient and will pass quickly, it can still cause turbocharger damage and should be avoided
if at all possible. Defects in the engine control system can produce rapid changes in loading
and action should be taken to ensure the control system makes all speed/load changes
gradually. A defective governor can cause hunting which has the effect of producing rapid
changes in engine fuel supply. During heavy weather the propeller may race when it is only
partially immersed which causes rapid changes of engine load. Reducing the engine speed
will minimise this effect.
Corrective action depends on the cause and some causes are easier to detect than
others. Surging after changing to a different fuel has an obvious cause, however, the reason
for surging during formerly normal engine running can be difficult to detect. Frequent
cleaning of turbines, compressors and coolers will minimise deposit build-up while regular
inspection can indicate deposit formation in other areas such as scavenge ports. Cylinder
exhaust temperatures can often provide an indication of particular cylinder defects such as
malfunctioning exhaust valves or fuel injectors.
1.3.5.3 Turbocharger Failure
A two-stroke cycle engine requires an air supply under pressure for scavenging,
therefore, failure of a turbocharger has serious implications, particularly if the engine only
has one turbocharger. Severe vibrations due to impeller or turbine blade damage, bearing
failure or fracture of the water cooled casing all require the turbocharger to be put out of
operation. There are many other reasons why it might be considered advisable to reduce
turbocharger speed or disable the turbocharger completely and the engineer must always be
mindful of the possible consequences of allowing a defective unit to continue in operation.
The immediate action taken in the event of discovering a damaged turbocharger depends on
the nature of the damage and the current situation of the ship. If the ship is manoeuvring
when the damage occurs the load should be reduced until vibrations cease.
Disabling a Turbocharger
The action taken to disable a turbocharger depends upon the facilities available and
the design of the installation. If there is only one turbocharger it is important to ensure
sufficient air reaches the auxiliary blower. If the auxiliary blower takes its suction from the
engine room no action need be taken, however, if suction is taken from the turbocharger
compressor outlet the compensator located between the compressor outlet and the scavenge
air suction must be removed to reduce auxiliary blower suction resistance. Because of the
lower air supply which is available from the auxiliary blower the engine must be run at
reduced load. The turbocharger must be isolated and there are two arrangements in general
use, both of which assume the turbocharger operates on the constant pressure system.
Engines with Exhaust By-pass
Lock the turbocharger rotor and remove the blanking plate from the exhaust by-pass
pipe. In some cases the by-pass pipe is not a permanent fixture and must be fitted. Insert
blanking plates to turbine inlet and outlet to prevent flow of exhaust gas through the
turbocharger
Engines without Exhaust By-pass
Remove the rotor and nozzle ring from the turbocharger and insert blanking plates to
isolate the air side and bearings from the gas side of the turbocharger. There will be a flow
passageway for the exhaust gas to go directly from the turbine inlet to the turbine outlet.
For engines with two or more turbochargers (again assuming operation on the
constant pressure system) the rotor of the defective turbocharger may be locked and orifice
plates inserted in the compressor outlets and turbine inlets. The small air flow that this allows
provides for compressor cooling while the small gas flow through the turbine prevents
corrosion. Engine load restrictions will apply and the auxiliary blower may be operated as
required depending on scavenge air demand.
1.4. UMS Requirements and Operation

1.4.1 UMS Requirements
In the past an unmanned machinery space (UMS) may have been known under other
names such as “Unattended Machinery Space”. However, IMO has chosen the wording
“Unmanned” and this is terminology used in the STCW too.
In vessels, that have a machinery space designed as unmanned, it does not mean that
the engine room is unattended or unsupervised, in fact quite the opposite. STCW actually
describes such an engine room as “periodically unmanned engine room”, which is the key
description to the system of watchkeeping practiced on ships built to operate in such a way.
The watchkeeping engineer officer is supervising, controlling, monitoring and
working closely with the machinery just as s/he would in a fully manned engine room. The
difference is that some of the routine monitoring is undertaken by the control system that will
activate a machinery alarm if any of the controlled condition moves outside of the preset
values. This means that the watch keeper does not have to carry out routine adjustments to
the machinery systems and his/her time is freed up to carry out other tasks. It also means of
course that if the watch keeper completes all the checks and duties that the machinery should
operate for up to 8 hours without the watch keeper being physically present in the engine
room.
The watch keeper is, however, still on duty and responsible for the supervision of the
machinery space but to be effective s/he can monitor the alarm system remotely from the
vessel’s accommodation block. In the event of machinery alarm, the watch keeper must be
present in the machinery control room and respond to the machinery alarm within 90 seconds
of alarm first sounding.
All modern ships are built with sophisticated alarm and monitoring control system
and they will all have the ability to run with UMS; however, not all vessels will be operated
in this way. Passenger ships, for example, have 15,000 alarm points but they still have an
engineering watch keeper in the ECR at all times due to the reassuring message that this
sends to the customers.
Cargo ships on ocean passage will be able to operate with the machinery space
unmanned if the vessel has appropriate certificate to do so. To get the approval, the vessel
must have the following essential requirements for unattended machinery spaces, i.e.
particularly for unmanned engine room during the night:
1. Bridge control of propulsion machinery. The bridge watch keeper must be able to take
emergency engine control action. Control and instrumentation must be as simple as possible.
2. Centralised control and instruments are required in machinery space. Engineers may be
called to the machinery space in emergency and controls must be easily reached and fully
comprehensive.
3. Automatic fire detection system. Alarm and detection system must operate very rapidly.
Numerous well sited and quick response detectors (sensors) must be fitted.
4. Fire extinguishing system. In addition to conventional hand extinguishers a control fire
station remote from the machinery space is essential. The station must give control of
emergency pumps, generators, valves, ventilators, extinguishing media, etc.
5. Alarm system. A comprehensive machinery alarm system must be provided for control and
accommodation areas.
6. Automatic bilge high level fluid alarms and pumping units. Sensing devices in bilges with
alarms and hand or automatic pump cut in devices must be provided.
7. Automatic start emergency generator. Such a generator is best connected to separate
emergency bus bars. The primary function is to give protection from electrical blackout
conditions.
8. Local hand control of essential machinery.
9. Adequate settling tank storage capacity.
10. Regular testing and maintenance of instrumentation including engine emergency
shutdowns, generator overload trips, bilge alarms, fire alarms
1.4.2 Watchkeeping and UMS Operation

Most vessels now operate with an Unmanned Machinery Space (UMS), therefore,
watches only tend to be kept when entering and leaving port. UMS operation requires that the
machinery alarm and monitoring systems are fully operational. If alarms are not working then
watches must be kept at all times.
The routines involved for the watchkeeping engineer and UMS duty engineer are
similar, as UMS is essentially a 24 hour watch. Traditionally, the watch keeper would enter
the engine room prior to taking over the watch, and carry out an inspection of all machinery.
The watch keeper who was handing over would discuss any problems that had occurred
during the watch drawing attention to any items that may need particular attention.
The same still applies with UMS operation and the oncoming duty engineer should
have a thorough inspection of the machinery spaces before taking over. Any problems should
be brought to the attention of the present duty engineer. Remember that when you are on duty
or watch you are responsible. If something goes wrong while you are in charge it is no good
trying to blame someone else.
Table 1.1: UMS Checklist
The principles to be observed during watchkeeping are covered in the International

Convention on Standards, Training and Certification of Watch keepers (STCW) code, Annex
1, Pt A-VIII/2 and this is well worth reading.
If problems occur while you are on duty that you are unsure about, no matter how
insignificant they may seem, you should call the Second or Chief Engineer.
Before the machinery space can be left in unmanned mode at night the duty engineer
should carry out an inspection. This will ensure nothing has been missed and that all
important items have been checked. A UMS checklist should be used and all items checked
off and signed by the duty engineer. The list should follow an orderly route around the
machinery spaces. A typical list is shown in Table 1.1.
The check list is only a guide to show some of the items that should be included;
however, one of its purposes is to ensure all areas of the machinery spaces are inspected.
Once the checklist has been completed the duty engineer should sign the sheet. This
sheet should then be kept as a permanent record. The Bridge watchkeeping officer should be
informed when the engine room is being left unmanned and the dead man alarm should be
activated. This is a safety feature and, once the duty engineer enters the engine room, the
dead man alarm system needs to be reset every 20 or 30 minutes. If the engineer has an
accident and cannot reset the alarm, this will sound on the Bridge to alert the watch keeper.
During unmanned periods of operation the main starting air supply to the main engine
must be left open. This ensures that the Bridge have full control of the engine. Safety
equipment such as fire pumps that can be started from the Bridge should also be left ready for
operation.
If alarms occur during UMS periods they should be recorded in an alarm log book.
Details of the date and time of alarm, what the alarm was and any action taken, should all be
recorded.
UMS operation relies on a correctly functioning alarm system. It is therefore
important to have an ongoing routine of alarm and automatic shutdown testing. These tests
should be recorded and, along with the alarm log book and UMS checklists, provide a record
for the Classification Society Surveyor when carrying out the UMS survey.
Provided thorough checks are made of the machinery spaces, and alarms regularly
checked for operation, unmanned periods of operation should be trouble free.
***
Reference
1.Leslie Jackson & T.D. Morton, Reeds General Engg Knowledge for Marine Engineer, Vol. 8, 4th Edn, Adlard
Coles Nautical, London, 2009
2. T.D.Morton & L. Jackson, Reeds Motor Engg Knowledge for Marine Engineer, Vol. 12, 3rd Edn, Adlard
Coles Nautical, London, 2009
3.N.E. Chell, MEP Series, Vol.1, Part 18, The Operation and Maintenance of Machinery in Motorships, The
Institute of Marine Engineers, London, 1999
4. Dr Denis Griffiths, MEP Series, Vol. 2, Part 17, Marine Low Speed Diesel Engines, The Institute of Marine
Engineers, London, 2000
Questions
1. (a) What are the requirements for UMS operation ?
(b) For UMS Operation what Controls and Indication systems are associated in Bridge Control Desk?
[IMU 2015-8+6M]
2. Discuss speed adjustment of a traditional large two stroke marine diesel engine via remote control and
precautions taken during the same. [3 M]
3. (a) Construct a block diagram, in flow chart form, to show the sequence of operations necessary for the
starting of a main propulsion diesel engine on bridge control. [6 M]
(b) List and explain the requirements to be fulfilled to operate a machinery space of a vessel in unmanned
condition? [8 M]
4. What are essentials of a Bridge Control system? [IMU 2018-3M]
5. What are the requirements for UMS operation of a modern Merchant vessel? [IMU 2018-8M]
6. With the help of simple block (or flow) diagram, discuss main engine starting and reversing process from
local and remote position [IMU 2017-9M]
Chapter 2
Study of LPG & LNG Ships

2.1 Liquefied Gases
A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which at ambient temperature and at
atmospheric pressure would be a gas.
Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that makes hydrocarbons the
world's primary energy source – combustibility - also makes them inherently hazardous.
Because these gases are handled in large quantities it is imperative that all practical steps are
taken to minimize leakage and to limit all sources of ignition.
The most important property of a liquefied gas in relation to pumping and storage is its
saturated vapour pressure. This is the absolute pressure exerted when the liquid is in
equilibrium with its own vapour at a given temperature. The International Maritime
Organization (IM O), for the purposes of its Gas Carrier Codes relates saturated vapour
pressure to temperature and has adopted the following definition for the liquefied gases
carried by sea:
“Liquids with a vapour pressure exceeding 2.8 bar absolute at a temperature of 37.8 deg C.”
An alternative way of describing a liquefied gas is to give the temperature at which the
saturated vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure- in other words the liquid's
atmospheric boiling point.
In Table 2.1 some liquefied gases carried at sea are compared in terms of their vapour
Pressure at 37.8 deg C - the IMO definition - and in terms o f their atmospheric boiling
points.
Table 2.1 Physical properties of some liquefied gases
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Study of LPG & LNG Ships * Compiled by Anirudh Kumar * Page 17
On the basis of the above IMO definition, ethylene oxide would not qualify a s a liquefied
gas. However, it is included in the lnternational Code for the Construction and Equipment of
Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the IGC Code) because its boiling point at
atmospheric pressure is so low that it would be difficult to carry the cargo by any method
other than those prescribed for liquefied gases.
Likewise, chemicals such as diethyl ether, propylene oxide and isoprene are not strictly
liquefied gases but they have high vapour pressures coupled with health and flammability
hazards. As a result of such dangers these chemicals, and several similar compounds, have
been listed jointly in both the IGC Code and the Bulk Chemical Codes. Indeed, when
transported on chemical tankers, under the terms of the Bulk Chemical Codes, such products
are often required to be stowed in independent tanks rather than in tanks built into the ship's
structure.
2.2 Types of Gas Carriers+

Gas carriers range in capacity from the small pressurised ships of between 500 and 6,000 m 3
for the shipment of propane, butane and the chemical gases at ambient temperature up to the
fully insulated, or refrigerated ships of over 100,000 m3 capacity for the transport of LNG
and LPG. Between these two distinct types is a third ship type - the semi-pressurised gas
carrier. These very flexible ships are able to carry many cargoes in a fully refrigerated
condition at atmospheric pressure or at temperatures corresponding to carriage pressures of
between five and nine bar.
The movement of liquefied gases by sea is now a mature industry, served by a fleet of over
1,000 ships, a worldwide network of export and import terminals and a wealth of knowledge
and experience on the part of the various people involved. In 1996 this fleet transported about
62.5 million tonnes of LPG and chemical gases and 73 million tonnes of LNG. In the same
year the ship numbers in each fleet were approximately as follows:-
• LNG carriers 105
• Fully refrigerated ships 183
• Ethylene carriers 100
• Semi-pressurised ships 276
• Pressurised ships 437
By the end of year 2018, there were a total of 525 vessels in the LNG fleet. (Source:
International Gas Union). LPG fleet too has grown multifold since 1996.
Gas carriers have certain design features in common with other ships used for the carriage of
bulk liquids such as oil and chemical tankers. Chemical tankers carry their most hazardous
cargoes in centre tanks, whilst cargoes of lesser danger can be shipped in the wing tanks.
New oil tankers are required to have wing and double bottom ballast tanks located to give
protection to the cargo. The objective in both these cases is to protect against the spillage of
hazardous cargo in the event of a grounding or collision. This same principle is applied to gas
carriers.
A feature almost unique to the gas carrier is that the cargo tanks are kept under positive
pressure to prevent air entering the cargo system. This means that only cargo liquid and cargo
vapour are present in the cargo tank and flammable atmospheres cannot develop.
Furthermore all gas carriers utilise closed cargo systems when loading or discharging, with
no venting of vapours being allowed to the atmosphere. In the LNG trade, provision is always
made for the use of a vapour return line between ship and shore to pass vapour displaced by
the cargo transfer. In the LPG trade this is not always the case as, under normal
circumstances during loading, reliquefaction is used to retain vapour on board. By these
means cargo release to the atmosphere is virtually eliminated and the risk of vapour ignition
is minimised.
Gas carriers must comply with the standards set by the International Maritime Organization
in the Gas Codes, and with all safety and pollution requirements common to other ships. The
Gas Codes are a major pro-active feature in IMO’s legislative programme. The safety
features inherent in the Gas Codes’ ship design requirements have helped considerably in the
safety of these ships. Equipment requirements for gas carriers include temperature and
pressure monitoring, gas detection and cargo tank liquid level indicators, all of which are
provided with alarms and ancillary instrumentation. The variation of equipment as fitted can
make the gas carrier one of the most sophisticated ships afloat today.
There is much variation in the design, construction and operation of gas carriers due to the
variety of cargoes carried and the number of cargo containment systems utilised. Cargo
containment systems may be of the independent tanks (pressurised, semi-pressurised or fully
refrigerated) or of the membrane type. Some of the principal features of these design
variations and a short history of each trade are described below.
Fully pressurised ships

The seaborne transport of liquefied gases began in 1934 when a major international company
put two combined oil/LPG tankers into operation. The ships, basically oil tankers, had been
converted by fitting small, riveted, pressure vessels for the carriage of LPG into cargo tank
spaces. This enabled transport over long distances of substantial volumes of an oil refinery
by-product that had distinct advantages as a domestic and commercial fuel. LPG is not only
odourless and non-toxic, it also has a high calorific value and a low sulphur content, making
it very clean and efficient when being burnt.
Today, most fully pressurised LPG carriers are fitted with two or three horizontal, cylindrical
or spherical cargo tanks and have capacities up to 6,000 m3. However, in recent years a
number of larger capacity fully-pressurised ships have been built with spherical tanks, most
notably a pair of 10,000 m3 ships, each incorporating five spheres, built by a Japanese
shipyard in 1987. Fully pressurised ships are still being built in numbers and represent a cost-
effective, simple way of moving LPG to and from smaller gas terminals.
Semi-pressurised ships
Despite the early breakthrough with the transport of pressurised LPG, ocean movements of
liquefied gases did not really begin to grow until the early 1960s with the development of
metals suitable for the containment of liquefied gases at low temperatures. By installing a
reliquefaction plant, insulating the cargo tanks and making use of special steels, the shell
thickness of the pressure vessels, and hence their weight, could be reduced.
The first ships to use this new technology appeared in 1961. They carried gases in a semi-
pressurised/semi-refrigerated (SP/SR) state but further advances were quickly made and by
the late 1960s semi-pressurised/fully refrigerated (SP/FR) gas carriers had become the
shipowners’ choice by providing high flexibility in cargo handling. Throughout this book the
SP/FR ships are referred to as semi-pressurised ships. These carriers, incorporating tanks
either cylindrical, spherical or bi-lobe in shape, are able to load or discharge gas cargoes at
both refrigerated and pressurised storage facilities. The existing fleet of semi-pressurised
ships comprises carriers in the 3,000-15,000 m3 size range, although there is a notable
exception - a ship of 30,000 m3 delivered in 1985.
Ethylene and gas/chemical carriers
Ethylene carriers are the most sophisticated of the semi-pressurised tankers and have the
ability to carry not only most other liquefied gas cargoes but also ethylene at its atmospheric
boiling point of –104°C. The first ethylene carrier was built in 1966 and, as of 1995, there
were about 100 such ships in service ranging in capacity from 1,000 to 12,000 m3.
Of this ethylene carrier fleet, about one dozen form a special sub-group of ships able to
handle a wide range of liquid chemicals and liquefied gases simultaneously. These ships
feature cylindrical, insulated, stainless steel cargo tanks able to accommodate cargoes up to a
maximum specific gravity of 1.8 at temperatures ranging from a minimum of –104°C to a
maximum of +80°C and at a maximum tank pressure of 4 bar. The ships can load or
discharge at virtually all pressurised and refrigerated terminals, making them the most
versatile gas carriers in terms of cargo-handling ability.
Fully refrigerated ships
The 1960s also saw another major development in gas carrier evolution - the appearance of
the first fully refrigerated ship, built to carry liquefied gases at low temperature and
atmospheric pressure between terminals equipped with fully refrigerated storage tanks. The
first purpose-built, fully refrigerated LPG carrier was constructed by a Japanese shipyard, to
a United States design, in 1962. The ship had four prismatic-shaped (box-like) cargo tanks
fabricated from 3.5 per cent nickel steel, allowing the carriage of cargoes at temperatures as
low as – 48°C, marginally below the atmospheric boiling point of pure propane. Prismatic
tanks enabled the ship’s cargo carrying capacity to be maximised, thus making fully
refrigerated ships highly suitable for carrying large volumes of cargo such as LPG, ammonia
and vinyl chloride over long distances. Today, fully refrigerated ships range in capacity from
20,000 to 100,000 m3.
The main types of cargo containment system utilised on board modern fully refrigerated ships
are independent tanks having rigid foam insulation. Older ships can have independent tanks
with loosly filled perlite insulation. In the past, there have been a few fully refrigerated ships
built with semi-membrane or integral tanks and internal insulation tanks, but these systems
have only maintained minimal interest.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers
At about the same time as the development of fully refrigerated LPG carriers was taking
place, naval architects were facing their most demanding gas carrier challenge. This was the
transport of LNG. Natural gas, another clean, non-toxic fuel, is now the third most important
energy source in the world, after oil and coal, but is often produced far from the centres of
consumption. Because a gas in its liquefied form occupies much less space, and because of
the critical temperature of liquefied methane, the ocean transport of LNG only makes sense
from a commercial viewpoint if it is carried in a liquefied state at atmospheric pressure; as
such, it represents a greater engineering challenge than shipping LPG, mainly because it has
to be carried at a much lower temperature; its boiling point being –162°C.
The pioneering cargo of LNG was carried across the Atlantic Ocean in 1958 and by 1964 the
first purpose-built LNG carriers were in service under a long-term gas purchase agreement.
LNG containment system technology has developed considerably since those early days: now
about one-half of the LNG carriers in service are fitted with independent cargo tanks and
one-half with membrane tanks. The majority of LNG carriers are between 125,000 and
135,000 m3 in capacity. In the modern fleet of LNG carriers, there is an interesting exception
concerning ship size. This is the introduction of several smaller ships of between 18,000 and
19,000 m3 having been built in 1994 and later to service the needs of importers of smaller
volumes.
Since 2007 Q-Flex and Q-Max types of LNG Carriers have been built which are much larger
than previous ones. Q-Flex have membrane type tanks and their capacity are between
210,000 and 216,000 m3. Q-Max has membrane type tanks and their capacity is 266,000 m3.
Presently Q-Max are largest LNG carrier in the world.
2.3 Design Standards (Survival Capability) for Liquefied Gas Carrier, as per IGC Code
Liquefied gas Carriers’ designs are subjected to IGC Code and should follow one of the
following standards:
 A Type 1G Ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 of
IGC Code (e.g. Chlorine) which require maximum preventive measures to produce the
escape of such cargo.
 A Type 2G Ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 of
IGC Code which require significant preventive measures to produce the escape of such
cargo.
 A Type 2PG Ship is a gas carrier of 150 m length or less, intended to carry products
indicated in Chapter 19 of IGC Code which require significant preventive measures to
preclude escape of such cargo, and where the products are carried in independent type C
tanks designed for a MARVS of at least 7 bar gauge and a cargo containment system
designed temperature of -55 deg C or above. Note that a ship of this description but over
150 m length is to be considered a 2G Ship.
 A Type 3G Ship is a gas carrier intended to carry products indicated in Chapter 19 of
IGC Code which require moderate preventive measures to produce the escape of such
cargo.
Thus Type 1G Ship is a gas carrier intended for the transportation of products considered to
present the greatest overall hazards and Type 2G/2PG and Type 3G for products of
progressively lesser hazards. Accordingly, a Type 1G Ship should survive the most severe
standard of damage and its cargo tanks should be located at the maximum prescribed distance
inboard from the shell plating.
2.4 Cargo Containment Systems

A cargo containment system is the total arrangement for containing cargo including, where
fitted:
 A primary barrier (the cargo tank),
 Secondary barrier (if fitted),
 Associated thermal insulation,
 Any intervening spaces, and
 Adjacent structure, if necessary, for the support of these elements.
For cargoes carried at temperatures between –10°C and –55°C the ship’s hull may act as the
secondary barrier and in such cases it may be a boundary of the hold space.
The basic cargo tank types utilised on board gas carriers are in accordance with the list
below:
 Independent Type ‘A’
 Independent Type ‘B’
 Independent Type ‘C’
 Membrane
Some other types such as:
 Internal insulation Type ‘1’
 Internal insulation Type ‘2’
 Integral
-have been fully designed and approved but have not been commercially used yet.
2.4.1 Independent Tanks
Independent tanks are completely self-supporting and do not form part of the ship’s hull
structure. Moreover, they do not contribute to the hull strength of a ship. As defined in the
IGC Code, and depending mainly on the design pressure, there are three different types of
independent tanks for gas carriers: these are known as Types ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’.
2.4.1.1 Type ‘A’ Tank
Type ‘A’ tanks are constructed primarily of flat surfaces. The maximum allowable tank
design pressure in the vapour space for this type of system is 0.7 barg; this means cargoes
must be carried in a fully refrigerated condition at or near atmospheric pressure (normally
below 0.25 barg). Figure 2.1 shows a section through this type of tank as found on a fully
refrigerated LPG carrier. This is a self-supporting prismatic tank which requires conventional
internal stiffening. In this example the tank is surrounded by a skin of foam insulation. Where
perlite insulation is used, it would be found filling the whole of the hold space.
The material used for Type ‘A’ tanks is not crack propagation resistant. Therefore, in order to
ensure safety, in the unlikely event of cargo tank leakage, a secondary containment system is
required. This secondary containment system is known as a secondary barrier and is a
feature of all ships with Type ‘A’ tanks capable of carrying cargoes below –10°C.
For a fully refrigerated LPG carrier (which will not carry cargoes below –55°C) the
secondary barrier must be a complete barrier capable of containing the whole tank volume at
a defined angle of heel and may form part of the ship’s hull, as shown in the figure. In
general, it is this design approach which is adopted. By this means appropriate parts of the
ship’s hull are constructed of special steel capable of withstanding low temperatures. The
alternative is to build a separate secondary barrier around each cargo tank.
The IGC Code stipulates that a secondary barrier must be able to contain tank leakage for a
period of 15 days.
On such ships, the space between the cargo tank (sometimes referred to as the primary
barrier) and the secondary barrier is known as the hold space. When flammable cargoes are
being carried, these spaces must be filled with inert gas to prevent a flammable atmosphere
being created in the event of primary barrier leakage.
Fig. 2.1: Prismatic self-supporting Type ‘A’ tank - fully refrigerated LPG carrier
2.4.1.2 Type ‘B’ Tank

Type ‘B’ tanks can be constructed of flat surfaces or they may be of the spherical type. This
type of containment system is the subject of much more detailed stress analysis compared to
Type ‘A’ systems. These controls must include an investigation of fatigue life and a crack
propagation analysis.
The most common arrangement of Type ‘B’ tank is a spherical tank as illustrated in Figure
2.2(a). This tank is of the Kvaerner Moss design. Because of the enhanced design factors, a
Type ‘B’ tank requires only a partial secondary barrier in the form of a drip tray. The hold
space in this design is normally filled with dry inert gas. However, when adopting modern
practice, it may be filled with dry air provided that inerting of the space can be achieved if the
vapour detection system shows cargo leakage. A protective steel dome covers the primary
barrier above deck level and insulation is applied to the outside of the tank. The Type ‘B’
spherical tank is almost exclusively applied to LNG ships; seldom featuring in the LPG trade.
A Type ‘B’ tank, however, need not be spherical. There are Type ‘B’ tanks of prismatic
shape in LNG service. The prismatic Type ‘B’ tank has the benefit of maximising ship hull
volumetric efficiency and having the entire cargo tank placed beneath the main deck. Where
the prismatic shape is used, the maximum design vapour space pressure is, as for Type ‘A’
tanks, limited to 0.7 barg. A drawing of a self-supporting prismatic Type ‘B’ tank is shown in
Figure 2.2(b).
Fig. 2.2(a): Self-supporting spherical Type ‘B’ tank
Fig. 2.2(b): Self-supporting prismatic Type ‘B’ tank
2.4.1.3 Type ‘C’ Tank
Type ‘C’ tanks are normally spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels having design pressures
higher than 2 barg. The cylindrical vessels may be vertically or horizontally mounted. This
type of containment system is always used for semi-pressurised and fully pressurised gas
carriers. In the case of the semi-pressurised ships it can also be used for fully refrigerated
carriage, provided appropriate low temperature steels are used in tank construction. Type ‘C’
tanks are designed and built to conventional pressure vessel codes and, as a result, can be
subjected to accurate stress analysis. Furthermore, design stresses are kept low. Accordingly,
no secondary barrier is required for Type ‘C’ tanks and the hold space can be filled with
either inert gas or dry air.
Fig. 2.3: Type ‘C’ tanks - fully pressurised gas carrier
Fig. 2.4: Type ‘C’ tanks – semi-pressurised gas carrier with bi-lobe tanks
In the case of a typical fully pressurised ship (where the cargo is carried at ambient
temperature), the tanks may be designed for a maximum working pressure of about 18 barg.
For a semi-pressurised ship the cargo tanks and associated equipment are designed for a
working pressure of approximately 5 to 7 barg and a vacuum of 0.5 barg. Typically, the tank
steels for the semi-pressurised ships are capable of withstanding carriage temperatures of -48
°C for LPG or –104 °C for ethylene. (Of course, an ethylene carrier may also be used to
transport LPG.)
Figure 2.3 shows Type ‘C’ tanks as fitted in a typical fully pressurised gas carrier. With such
an arrangement there is comparatively poor utilisation of the hull volume; however, this can
be improved by using intersecting pressure vessels or bi-lobe type tanks which may be
designed with a taper at the forward end of the ship. This is a common arrangement in semi-
pressurised ships as shown in Figure 2.4.
2.4.2 Membrane Tanks (membrane - 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)

The concept of the membrane containment system is based on a very thin primary barrier
(membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick) which is supported through the insulation. Such tanks are
not self-supporting like the independent tanks outlined in 2.4.1; an inner hull forms the load
bearing structure. Membrane containment systems must always be provided with a secondary
barrier to ensure the integrity of the total system in the event of primary barrier leakage. The
membrane is designed in such a way that thermal expansion or contraction is compensated
without over-stressing the membrane itself. There are two principal types of membrane
system in common use - both named after the companies who developed them and both
designed primarily for the carriage of LNG. These two companies have now combined into
one and future developments can be expected.
2.4.2.1 Gaz Transport Membrane System
Fig. 2.5(a): Gaz Transport membrane containment system - larger LNG carriers
Figures 2.5(a) and 2.5(b) show the Gaz Transport system comprising a thin Invar primary
barrier. Invar is a stainless steel alloy containing about 36 per cent nickel and 0.2 per cent
carbon. This is attached to the inner (cold) surface of perlite-filled plywood boxes used as
primary insulation. These boxes have thickness of between 200 and 300 millimetres. These,
in turn, are attached to an identical inner layer of Invar (the secondary barrier) and, finally, a
further set of similar perlite-filled boxes is used coefficient of thermal expansion, thus
making expansion joints, or corrugation, in the barriers unnecessary. Newer designs of the
Gaz Transport system utilise Invar membranes of 0.7 millimetres thickness in strakes of 0.5
metres width and strengthened plywood boxes to hold the perlite insulation. The perlite is
processed with silicon to make it impervious to water or moisture. The thickness of the
insulation boxes can be adjusted to obtain the required amount of boil-off. Fig. 2.5(b) shows
a section through the basic Gas Transport containment system.
Fig. 2.5(b): Construction of the Gaz Transport membrane system
2.4.2.2 Technigaz Membrane System

The Technigaz system, shown in Figure 2.6(a), features a primary barrier of stainless steel
(1.2 millimetres in thickness) having raised corrugations, or waffles, to allow for expansion
and contraction. In the original Mark I design, the insulation that supports the primary
membrane consisted of laminated balsa wood panels held between two plywood layers; the
face plywood formed the secondary barrier. The balsa wood panels were interconnected with
specially designed joints comprising PVC foam wedges and plywood scabs and were
supported on the inner hull of the ship by wooden grounds.
In the latest design (Mark III) the balsa wood insulation is replaced by reinforced cellular
foam. Within the foam there is a fibreglass cloth/aluminium laminate acting as secondary
barrier. Figure 2.6(b) shows a cutaway section through the Mark III Technigaz containment
system.
Fig. 2.6(a): Technigaz membrane containment system - larger LNG carriers
Fig. 2.6(b): Construction of the Technigaz membrane - Mark III
2.4.3 Semi-Membrane Tanks

The semi-membrane concept is a variation of the membrane tank system. The primary barrier
is much thicker than that in the membrane system, having flat sides and large radiused
corners. The tank is self-supporting when empty but not in the loaded condition. In this
condition the liquid (hydrostatic) and vapour pressures acting on the primary barrier are
transmitted through the insulation to the inner hull as is the case with the membrane system.
The corners and edges are designed to accommodate expansion and contraction.
Although semi-membrane tanks were originally developed for the carriage of LNG, no
commercial-size LNG carrier has yet been built to this design. The system has however, been
adopted for use in LPG ships and several Japanese-built fully refrigerated LPG carriers have
been delivered to this design.
2.4.4 Integral Tanks
Integral tanks form a structural part of the ship’s hull and are influenced by the same loads
which stress the hull structure. Integral tanks are not normally allowed for the carriage of
liquefied gas if the cargo temperature is below –10°C. Certain tanks on a limited number of
Japanese-built LPG carriers are of the integral type for the dedicated carriage of fully
refrigerated butane.
2.4.5 Internal Insulation Tanks
Internally insulated cargo tanks are similar to integral tanks (see 3.4.4). They utilize
insulation materials to contain the cargo. The insulation is fixed inside ship’s inner hull or to
an independent load-bearing surface. The non-self-supporting system obviates the need for an
independent tank and permits the carriage of fully refrigerated cargoes at carriage
temperatures as low as –55°C.
Internal insulation systems have been incorporated in a very limited number of fully
refrigerated LPG carriers but, to date, the concept has not proved satisfactory in service.
2.5 Materials of Construction and Insulation
2.5.1 Construction Materials
The choice of cargo tank materials is dictated by the minimum service temperature and, to a
lesser degree, by compatibility with the cargoes carried. The most important property to
consider in the selection of cargo tank materials is the low-temperature toughness. This
consideration is vital as most metals and alloys (except aluminium) become brittle below a
certain temperature.
Treatment of structural carbon steels can be used to achieve low-temperature characteristics
and the Gas Codes specify low-temperature limits for varying grades of steel down to –55°C.
Reference should be made to the Gas Codes and classification society rules for details on the
various grades of steel.
According to the Gas Codes, ships carrying fully refrigerated LPG cargoes may have tanks
capable of withstanding temperatures down to –55°C. Usually, the final temperature is
chosen by the shipowner, depending on the cargoes expected to be carried. This is often
determined by the boiling point of liquid propane at atmospheric pressure and, hence, cargo
tank temperature limitations are frequently set at about –46°C. To achieve this service
temperature, steels such as fully killed, fine-grain, carbon-manganese steel, sometimes
alloyed with 0.5 per cent nickel, are used.
Where a ship has been designed specifically to carry fully refrigerated ethylene (with a
boiling point at atmospheric pressure of –104°C) or LNG (atmospheric boiling point –
162°C), nickel-alloyed steels, stainless steels (such as Invar) or aluminium must be used for
the material of tank construction.
2.5.2 Tank Insulation
Thermal insulation must be fitted to refrigerated cargo tanks for the following reasons:
• To minimise heat flow into cargo tanks, thus reducing boil-off.
• To protect the ship structure around the cargo tanks from the effects of low temperature.
Insulation materials for use on gas carriers should possess the following main characteristics:
• Low thermal conductivity
• Ability to bear loads
• Ability to withstand mechanical damage
• Light weight
• Unaffected by cargo liquid or vapour
The vapour-sealing property of the insulation system, to prevent ingress of water or water
vapour, is important. Not only can ingress of moisture result in loss of insulation efficiency
but progressive condensation and freezing can cause extensive damage to the insulation.
Humidity conditions must, therefore, be kept as low as possible in hold spaces. One method
to protect the insulation is to provide a foil skin acting as a vapour barrier to surround the
system.
Table 2.2: Typical Insulation Material
Table 2.2 provides information on the insulation materials normally used in gas carrier
construction, together with approximate values for their thermal conductivities at 10°C.
Thermal insulation may be applied to various surfaces, depending on the design of the
containment system. For Type ‘B’ and ‘C’ containment systems, insulation is applied directly
to the cargo tank’s outer surfaces. For Type ‘A’ cargo tanks insulation can be applied either
directly to the cargo tank or to the inner hull (if fitted) although its application to the cargo
tank is more common.
As most insulation materials are flammable, great care is required at times of construction or
refit to ensure that fires are avoided.
2.6 Gas carrier Types & Their Cargo Containment Systems+

Gas carriers can be grouped into five different categories according to the cargo carried and
the carriage condition. These are as follows:
• Fully pressurised ships
• Semi-pressurised ships
• Ethylene ships
• Fully refrigerated LPG ships
• LNG ships
The first three ship types listed are most suitable for the shipment of smaller-size cargoes of
LPG and chemical gases. This is normally accomplished on short-sea and regional routes.
Fully refrigerated ships are used extensively for the carriage of large size cargoes of LPG and
ammonia on the deep-sea routes.
2.6.1 Fully Pressurised Ships
Fully pressurised ships are the simplest of all gas carriers. Their containment systems and
cargo handling equipment have been established for many years. They carry their cargoes at
ambient temperature. They are fitted with Type ‘C’ tanks (pressure vessels) fabricated in
carbon steel having a typical design pressure of about 18 barg. Ships with higher design
pressures are in service and a few ships can accept cargoes at pressures of up to 20 barg. No
thermal insulation or reliquefaction plant is necessary for these ships and cargo can be
discharged using either pumps or compressors.
Because of their design pressure, the cargo tanks are extremely heavy. As a result, fully
pressurised ships tend to be small having cargo capacities of about 4,000 to 6,000 m3, and are
primarily used to carry LPG and ammonia. Ballast is carried in double bottoms and in top
wing tanks. Because these ships are fitted with Type ‘C’ containment systems, no secondary
barrier is required and the hold space may be ventilated with air.
Figure 2.3 shows a section through a typical fully pressurised ship. These ships carry cargo at
ambient conditions and, as such, cargo temperatures may be different at each end of the
voyage. Allowance must be made for this and certain rules apply. When equipped with a
loading heater, these ships can load from a fully refrigerated terminal.
2.6.2 Semi-pressurised Ships
Semi-pressurised ships are similar to fully pressurised ships in that they have Type ‘C’ tanks
- in this case pressure vessels designed typically for a maximum working pressure of from 5
to 7 barg. Compared to fully pressurised ships, a reduction in tank thickness is possible due
to the reduced pressure but this is at the cost of refrigeration plant and tank insulation. This
type of gas carrier has evolved as the optimum means of transporting a wide variety of gases
such as LPG, vinyl chloride, propylene, and butadiene. They are most frequently found in the
busy coastal trades around the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. Today, this type of ship
is the most popular amongst operators of smaller-size gas carriers due to its cargo handling
flexibility.
Semi-pressurised ships use Type ‘C’ tanks and, therefore, do not require a secondary barrier
(cargo capacities can vary from 3,000 to 20,000 m3). The tanks are usually made from low
temperature steels to provide for carriage temperatures of –48°C which temperature is
suitable for most LPG and chemical gas cargoes. Alternatively, they can be made from
special alloyed steels or aluminium to allow for the carriage of ethylene at –104°C (see also
ethylene ships). The ship’s flexible cargo handling system is designed to load from (or
discharge to) both pressurised and refrigerated storage facilities. A typical ship section is
shown in Figure 2.4.
2.6.3 Ethylene Ships
Ethylene ships are often built for specific trades but will also operate carrying LPGs or
Chemical Gases. They normally have capacities ranging from 1,000 to 12,000 m3. Ethylene is
normally carried in its fully refrigerated condition at its atmospheric boiling point of –104°C.
Normally Type ‘C’ pressure vessel tanks are used and no secondary barrier is required.
Thermal insulation and a high-capacity reliquefaction is fitted on this type of ship. Ballast is
carried in the double bottom and wing ballast tanks. A complete double hull is required for all
cargoes carried below –55°C, whether the cargo tanks are of Type ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’.
2.6.4 Fully Refrigerated Ships
Fully refrigerated ships carry their cargoes at approximately atmospheric pressure and are
designed to transport large quantities of LPG and ammonia. Four different cargo containment
systems have been used for these ships. They are as follows:
• Independent tanks with single hull but double bottom and hopper tanks
• Independent tanks with double hull
• Integral tanks (incorporating a double hull), and
• Semi-membrane tanks (incorporating a double hull)
For this class of ship the most widely used arrangement is the first listed above. (The other
systems have not found general favour with ship operators). Here, the tank itself is a Type
‘A’ prismatic free-standing unit capable of a maximum working pressure of 0.7 barg (Figure
2.1). The tanks are constructed of low-temperature steels to permit carriage temperatures of
about –48°C. Fully refrigerated ships range in size from about 20,000 to 100,000 m3.
There are relatively few fully refrigerated ships between 55,000 m3 and 70,000 m3. Trading
patterns in the 1990s show that ships smaller than 55,000 m3, tend to be used in general
tramping routes, where cargo changes are frequent. Such ships may switch into the ammonia
trade from time to time and in exceptional circumstances, if properly certificated as an oil
tanker, they have been known to carry petroleum products. On the other hand ships of 70,000
m3 and above tend to be on long-haul bulk trades carrying similar grades between a limited
numbers of regular ports.
A typical fully refrigerated ship has up to six cargo tanks. Each tank is fitted with transverse
wash plates, while a longitudinal bulkhead on the centre line is provided to reduce free
surface so improving ship stability. The tanks are usually supported on wooden chocks and
are keyed to the hull to allow for expansion and contraction as well as to prevent tank
movement under static and dynamic loads. The tanks are also provided with anti-flotation
chocks to avoid lifting in case of ballast tank leakage. Because of the low-temperature
carriage conditions, thermal insulation and reliquefaction equipment must be fitted.
To improve a fully refrigerated ship’s operational flexibility, cargo heaters and booster
pumps are often fitted to allow discharge into pressurised storage facilities. This will
normally be accomplished at reduced discharge rates.
Where Type ‘A’ tanks are fitted, a complete secondary barrier is required (see 2.4.1). The
hold spaces must be inerted when carrying flammable cargoes. Ballast is carried in double
bottoms and in top side (saddle) tanks or, when fitted, in side ballast tanks.
2.6.5 LNG Ships
LNG carriers are specialised types of gas carriers built to transport large volumes of LNG at
its atmospheric boiling point of about –162° C. These ships are now typically of between
125,000 and 135,000 m3 capacity and are normally dedicated to a specific project. Here they
often remain for their entire contract life, which may be between 20-25 years or more. Apart
from a few notable exceptions during the early years of LNG transport, the containment
systems on these ships are mainly of four types:
• Gaz Transport membrane
• Technigaz membrane
• Kvaerner Moss spherical - independent Type ‘B’ (Figure 2.2(a)), and
• IHI SPB Tank - prismatic (Figure 2.2(b))
These systems have already been described in topic ‘cargo containment system’. The newest
containment system is the self supporting, prismatic Type ‘B’ (SPB) design developed by the
Japanese shipbuilder IHI and this is based on the earlier Conch system. This design
incorporates an aluminium tank.
All LNG ships have double hulls throughout their cargo length which provide adequate space
for ballast. Ships fitted with the membrane systems have a full secondary barrier and tanks of
the Type ‘B’ design have drip-pan type protection. A characteristic common to all LNG ships
is that they burn cargo boil-off as fuel.
Hold spaces around the cargo tanks are continuously inerted, except in the case of spherical
Type ‘B’ containment where hold spaces may be filled with dry air provided that there is an
adequate means for inerting such spaces in the event of cargo leakage. Continuous gas-
monitoring of all hold spaces is required.
In general, reliquefaction plants have been little used on LNG ships but it should be noted
that a very small number of LNG ships have been fitted with reliquefaction plant suited to
cater for limited boil-off. However these were never successfully operated. Being much
colder than LPG, the necessary equipment is much more costly and it is currently more
economic to burn the boil-off gas in the ship’s main boilers. Most LNG carriers have steam
turbine propulsion plants. Two medium size ships are equipped with low speed, low injection
pressure, dual fuel diesel engines. Although technology exists to introduce gas-burning diesel
engines the perceived greater reliability of the steam turbine has so far prevented any serious
development in this direction.
However Q-Flex vessels, built 2007 onwards, are equipped with an on-board re-liquefaction
system to handle the boil-off gas, liquefy it an return to the cargo tanks. Their main
propulsion is done by two slow speed diesel engines. Their cargo carrying capacity is
between 210.000 and 216,000 m3. Q-Max too are propelled by two slow speed diesel engines,
are equipped with on-board re-liquefaction plants and have cargo capacity of 266,000 m3.
2.7 Gas Carrier Layout (Electric motor room and compressor room safeties)
Gas carriers have many features which are not found on other types of tanker. Unique
features can be identified from the general arrangement of gas carriers. Some specific
features are outlined below.
It is not permitted for a cargo pump-room to be placed below the upper deck, nor may cargo
pipelines be run beneath deck level; therefore, deep-well or submersible pumps must be used
for cargo discharge. Pipelines to cargo tanks must be taken through a cargo tank dome
which penetrates the deck.
Where ships are fitted with a reliquefaction plant, this is located in a compressor house on
deck. Adjacent to the compressor house is an electric motor room which contains the
machinery for driving the reliquefaction compressors. The electric motor room and
compressor room must be separated by a gastight bulkhead (see Figure 2.7).
Fig. 2.7: Compressor room & electric motor room on a gas carrier
The Gas Codes detail the requirements for mechanical ventilation of these rooms. Positive
pressure ventilation must be provided for the electric motor room and negative pressure
ventilation for the cargo compressor area. This ensures an appropriate pressure differential
between the rooms. An airlock entrance to the electric motor room from the ship’s deck, with
two gastight doors at least 1.5 metres apart, prevents loss of air pressure on entry. To ensure
that both doors are not opened simultaneously they must be self-closing with audible and
visual alarms on both sides of the airlock. (However an airlock is required only where access
to the motor room is within 2.4 metres of the ship’s main deck). In addition, loss of over-
pressure in the motor room should trip the electric motors within.
Another safety feature associated with the compressor room area concerns the sealing of the
drive-shafts penetrating the gas-tight bulkhead between the compressor and motor room.
The cargo containment and handling systems must be completely separate from the
accommodation and machinery spaces. A cofferdam, or other means of gas-tight segregation,
is required between the cargo area and the engine room and fuel tanks. The Gas Codes also
give specific advice for positioning doors leading from accommodation spaces into cargo
areas. In addition, air intakes for accommodation and engine spaces must be sited away from
cargo vent risers. All air intakes into accommodation and service spaces should be fitted with
closing devices.
Gas tankers are fitted with a fixed water spray system for fire protection purposes. This
covers areas such as:
• Cargo tank domes
• Cargo tank areas above deck
• Cargo manifold areas
• The front of the accommodation including lifeboat boarding areas, and
• Control room bulkheads facing the cargo-deck
Minimum water flow rates of 10 litre/m2 per minute for horizontal surfaces and 4 litre/m2 per
minute for vertical surfaces must be achieved. In addition to the fixed water spray systems,
all gas tankers must be fitted with a fixed dry powder installation capable of fighting fires in
the cargo area. At least two hand-held hoses and a minimum of one fixed monitor must be
provided to cover the deck area. The dry powder installation is activated by nitrogen pressure
which is stored in cylinders adjacent to the powder containers.
Finally, cargo tanks cannot be used for ballast purposes and separate ballast tanks are
required.
2.8 Cargo Pumping System and its Operations

2.8.1 Cargo pipelines
Gas carriers are normally fitted with liquid and vapour manifolds situated amidships. These
are connected to liquid and vapour headers or pipelines with branches leading into each cargo
tank. The liquid loading line is led through the tank dome to the bottom of each cargo tank;
the vapour connection is taken from the top of each cargo tank. On semi-pressurised and fully
refrigerated LPG ships a vapour connection is taken from the vapour header to the cargo
compressor room where reliquefaction of the boil-off takes place. After reliquefaction the
cargo is piped, via a condensate return line, to each cargo tank. In the case of LNG ships the
boil-off vapours are usually fed to the ship’s boilers, via a compressor and heater, for use as
main propulsion fuel.
Cargo pipelines are not allowed beneath deck level on gas carriers; therefore, all pipe
connections to tanks must be taken through the cargo tank domes which penetrate the main
deck. Vapour relief valves are also fitted on the tank domes; these are piped, via a vent
header, to the vent riser. The vent risers are fitted at a safe height and safe distances from
accommodation spaces and other such gas safe zones as specified in the Gas Codes.
Provision must be made in the design and fitting of cargo pipelines to allow for thermal
expansion and contraction. This is best achieved by the fitting of expansion loops or, by using
the natural geometry of the pipework, as appropriate. In a few specific cases, expansion
bellows may be fitted and, where this is planned, corrosion resistant materials should be used
and Section 5.3.2.2 of the IGC Code should be considered.
Where expansion bellows are fitted in vapour lines, it should be ensured that their pressure
rating at least meets the liquid pipeline design criteria. Furthermore, expansion bellows are
often subject to a considerable amount of wear and tear while a ship is in service - in
particular, sea-water corrosion must be carefully avoided otherwise pin hole leaks are liable
to develop. It is also important not to alter or adjust adjacent pipeline supports once the ship
has entered service since they form an integral part of the expansion arrangements.
Furthermore it should also be noted that parts of pipeline systems are fitted with strong
anchor points to resist lateral or vertical displacement from surge pressures. Similarly, when
replacing parts such as bolts and restraining rods, care must be taken to ensure that the new
parts are of the correct material for the service.
Removable spool pieces are taken in or out of pipelines to interconnect sections of line for
special operational reasons such as using the inert gas plant or ensuring segregation of
incompatible cargoes. These spool pieces should not be left in position after use but should be
removed and pipelines blanked to ensure positive segregation.
2.8.2 Cargo Valves and Strainers (Fixed piping arrangements in a LPG tank)
Isolating valves for cargo tanks must be provided in accordance with Gas Codes. Where
cargo tanks have a MARVS greater than 0.7 barg (Type ‘C’ tanks), the principal liquid and
vapour connections on the tank dome (except relief valve connections) should be fitted with a
double valve arrangement. This should comprise one manually operated globe valve and a
remotely operated isolation valve fitted in series.
Fig. 2.8: Cargo tank dome piping arrangement-Type ‘C’ tank

For Types ‘A’ and ‘B’ cargo tanks (with the MARVS less than 0.7 barg) the Gas Codes allow
single shut-off valves for liquid and vapour connections. These valves can be remotely
actuated but must also be capable of local manual operation.
Remotely operated emergency shut-down valves are provided at the liquid and vapour
manifolds for all gas carriers.
Figure 2.8 shows the piping system on a cargo tank dome including the valving arrangement.
This particular drawing is typical for a semi-pressurised ship.
The types of isolation valve normally found on gas tankers are ball, globe, gate or butterfly
valves. These valves are usually fitted with pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. Ball valves for
liquefied gas service are provided with a means of internal pressure relief. This is usually a
hole drilled between the ball cavity and the downstream side of the valve. Valves must be of
the fail-safe type. In the LNG trade, strainers are commonly provided at the manifold
connections for loading and discharging. It is important not to bypass these strainers.
Furthermore, they should be frequently checked and cleaned. The strainers are installed to
protect cargo handling equipment from damage by foreign objects. Many strainers are
designed for one-way flow only.
2.8.3 Emergency Shut-Down (ESD) Systems
At a number of locations around the ship (bridge front, gangway, compressor room and
cargo control room, emergency control station), pneumatic valves or electric push buttons
are provided. When operated, these controls close remotely actuated valves and stop cargo
pumps and compressors (where appropriate). This provides an emergency-stop facility for
cargo handling. Such emergency shut-down (ESD) is also required to be automatic upon loss
of electric control or valve actuator power. Furthermore, if a fire should occur at tank domes
or cargo manifolds (where fusible elements are situated), the ESD system is automatically
actuated. Individual tank filling valves are required to close automatically upon the actuation
of an overfill sensor in the tank to which they are connected. ESD valves may be either
pneumatically or hydraulically operated but in either case they must be fail-safe; in other
words they must close automatically upon loss of actuating power.
A vital consideration, particularly during loading, is the possibility of surge pressure
generation when the ship’s ESD system is actuated. The situation varies from terminal to
terminal and is a function of the loading rate, the length of the terminal pipeline, the rate of
valve closure and the valve characteristic itself. The phenomenon of surge pressure
generation is complex and its effects can be extreme, such as the rupture of hoses or hard arm
joints. Precautions are, therefore, necessary to avoid damage and sometimes, loading jetties
are fitted with surge pressure drums. Terminals should confirm ship’s ESD valve closure
times and adjust loading rates accordingly or place on board a means to allow the ship to
actuate the terminal ESD system and so halt the flow of cargo before the ship’s ESD valves
start to close. In this respect consultation between the ship and shore must always take place,
to establish the parameters relevant to surge pressure generation and to agree upon a safe
loading rate.
2.8.4 Cargo Pumps
Cargo pumps fitted on board refrigerated gas carriers are normally of centrifugal design and
may be either of the deepwell or submerged type. They may operate alone or in parallel with
one another. They may also operate in series with a deck-mounted booster pump and a cargo
heater: this would happen during discharge of LPG to pressurised storage. Some fully
pressurised ships discharge cargo by pressurising tanks with vapour and booster pumps are
fitted to speed the cargo transfer.
Deepwell Pumps
Deepwell pumps are the most common type of cargo pump for LPG carriers. Figure 2.9
shows a typical deepwell pump assembly. The pump is driven electrically or hydraulically
(through a sealing arrangement) by a motor which is mounted outside the tank. The drive
shaft is held in carbon bearings inside the cargo discharge tube and these bearings are
lubricated and cooled by the cargo flow.
Fig.2.9: Typical deepwell pump

The centrifugal impeller is mounted at the bottom of the cargo tank and frequently comprises
two or three stages together with a first stage inducer: this latter is used to minimise the
NPSH requirement of the pump. Shaft sealing at the cargo tank dome consists of a double
mechanical seal flushed with lubricating oil. This stops cargo leakages to atmosphere. The
accurate alignment of the motor coupling, thrust bearing and mechanical oil seal is important.
Furthermore, the length of the drive shaft can be a problem and the longer it becomes the
more support is needed. Accordingly, it is often found that the largest types of ships are fitted
with submerged pumps.
Submerged Motor Pumps
Submerged motor pumps are installed at the bottom of cargo tanks and enable very low
pump-down levels to be achieved. They are fitted on all LNG carriers and on some of the
larger LPG carriers.
Fig.2.10: Submerged motor pump for LPG

The pump and electric motor are integrally mounted on the same shaft so eliminating the
need for a mechanical seal or coupling. Power is supplied to the motor through specially
sheathed cables. Electrical cabling is passed through a hazardous area junction box in the
tank dome and then, by flexible cables to the motor terminals. The older mineral insulated
copper sheathed cable used inside cargo tanks has been superseded in modern ships by
flexible stainless steel armoured insulated power cables.
These pumps are cooled and lubricated by cargo flow and are, therefore, prone to damage due
to loss of flow. Accordingly, the pump is protected from dry running by safety devices such
as an under-current relay, a low discharge pressure switch, or a low tank level switch. Figure
2.10 shows a typical submerged pump/motor assembly for an LPG carrier and Figure 2.11
shows a similar pump but in this case designed for LNG.
Fig.2.11: Typical LNG submerged motor pump assembly

Submerged pumps need to be designed for the particular grades of cargo found on the ship’s
Certificate of Fitness. For example contrary to the hydrocarbon gases, ammonia is an electric
conductor and can also be a particularly corrosive cargo for some materials such as copper
wires and electrical insulation. Pump design must take this into account. To preserve the
electric motor, pumps used for ammonia have the electric stator enclosed in a ‘can’.
2.9 Cargo Handling Operations
2.9.1 Sequence of Operations
Assuming a gas carrier comes directly from a shipbuilder or drydock, the general sequence of
cargo handling operations is as follows.
2.9.2 Cargo Loading

2.9.2.1 Loading - Preliminary Procedures
Before loading operations begin, the pre-operational ship/shore procedures must be
thoroughly discussed and carried out. Appropriate information exchange is required and the
relevant parts of the Ship/Shore Safety Check List should be completed. Particular attention
should be paid to:
• The setting of cargo tank relief valves and high alarm pressures
• Remotely operated valves
• Reliquefaction equipment
• Gas detection systems
• Alarms and controls, and
• The maximum loading rate
This should all be carried out taking into account restrictions in ship/shore systems. The
terminal should provide the necessary information on the cargo, including inhibitor
certificates where inhibited cargoes are loaded. Any other special precautions for specific
cargoes should be made known to ship personnel. This may include the lower compressor
discharge temperatures required for some chemical gas cargoes. Where fitted, variable setting
pressure relief valves, high tank pressure alarms and gas detection sample valves should be
correctly set.
The ballast system for gas carriers is totally independent of the cargo system. Deballasting
can, therefore, take place simultaneously with loading, subject to local regulations. Ship
stability and stress are of primary importance during loading. Procedures for these matters are
in accordance with normal tanker practice.
The Ship’s Seagoing Safety
Trim, Stability and Stress
The cargo plan should allow for distribution within the ship in order to achieve acceptable
structural stress and the required ship trim to meet safe stability conditions when at sea. For
these purposes, the weight of the cargo in each tank will need to be known. For ship stability
purposes, the weight in question is the true weight-in-air.
The weight-in-air of liquefied gases, calculated for cargo custody purposes, is not exact in
that the cargo vapour in these calculations is assumed to be liquid of the same mass as the
vapour. Thus, the air buoyancy of the cargo vapour spaces has been neglected. However, for
practical purposes concerning a ship’s stability calculation, this may be ignored.
All gas carriers, as part of the statutory requirements, are provided with stability data,
including worked examples showing cargo loaded in a variety of ways. In conjunction with
consumables such as fresh water, spare parts and bunkers on board, these conditions provide
cargo storage guidelines to ship’s officers in order to maintain the ship in a safe and stable
condition. Additionally, as part of the requirements to obtain a Certificate of Fitness in
compliance with the Gas Codes, the stability conditions must be such that, in specified
damaged conditions, the ship will meet certain survival requirements. It is, therefore,
essential that all relevant guidance concerning the filling of cargo tanks be observed.
Sloshing
A further point to be noted in respect of tank filling levels is that, large prismatic cargo tanks,
due to their width and shape, may suffer from substantial sloshing of cargo in heavy pitching
or rolling conditions. Such tanks, and particularly membrane-type tanks which have no centre
line wash bulkheads, may have prohibited filling levels in order to avoid damage to tank
structures or internal fittings. Typical controls on such tanks are a prohibition on all filling
levels in the 10 to 80 per cent range.
If an unusual cargo distribution is requested, and if this involves cargo tanks only being part-
filled, then it is usual for the shipmaster to seek further guidance from shipowners. In such
cases it is sometimes necessary for the owner to seek confirmation from the ship’s
classification society before loading can start.
Cargo Tank Loading Limits
Apart from the sloshing requirement outlined above, the question of cargo tank loading limits
should also be addressed.
2.9.2.2 Control of Vapours During Loading
The control of cargo vapours during loading can be carried out by using:
• A vapour return line to the shore coupled to a gas compressor
• The ship’s reliquefaction plant for liquid return to the ship’s tanks, or
• Both of the above.
For LNG ships, as depicted in Figure 2.12, gas-return to the shore, using a vapour return
system, is normal. This is because there are no reliquefaction plants fitted on board. For such
ships, the liquid cargo is loaded via the liquid header and piped to the appropriate tanks. Gas
generated in the vapour space is returned to the shore using a cargo vapour compressor. This
equipment is usually mounted on board ship but may be mounted ashore; the choice is
dependent on project specifications.
When loading with a vapour return line in use, the loading rate is independent of the capacity
of the ship’s reliquefaction plant and is governed by:
• The flow rate acceptable to the ship and terminal, and
• The capacity of the cargo vapour compressor
For fully refrigerated or semi-pressurised LPG ships, a vapour return line is normally
connected to the ship’s vapour manifold but this is most often put in place for safety relief
purposes. Normal loading practice on such ships is to load through the liquid header, to draw
off excess vapour via the vapour header, to operate the reliquefaction plant and to return the
liquid to the ship’s tank via the condensate return line. This operation controls cargo boil-off
and ensures that tank pressure limits are not exceeded. The pipeline arrangement is shown in
Figure 2.13. The introduction of a reliquefaction plant in the system can mean that loading
rates are restricted by the capacity of the machinery. It is in this sense that the vapour return
line acts as a safety device; should tank pressures become excessive, the ship’s vapour
manifold valve can be opened to relieve the situation. (For pressurised LPG carriers, the
system should be similar to that described in this paragraph, and a vapour return should be
fitted for safety relief purposes. However, a reliquefaction system is not fitted to such ships
and loading is normally achieved by shore pumps creating sufficient pressure to allow cargo
tank vapour to continuously condense into the bulk liquid.)
Figure 2.12: Loading with vapour return
Where refrigerated storage is found in a terminal, the terminal’s reliquefaction capacity is
usually greater than that provided on board ship. As a result, where an LPG vapour return is
used, in a similar way to that described for LNG ships, loading rates can be higher than those
described in the previous paragraph. However, while advantageous, such systems for LPG
are relatively rare.
A problem experienced when using vapour returns in the LPG trades is that terminals can be
concerned about the vapour quality to be returned to the shore. This is especially so at the
early stages of loading. Terminal personnel can be concerned about residual nitrogen which
acts as an incondensible during reliquefaction. They may also be concerned about
contamination with vapours from previous ship cargoes. It is also difficult to account for the
vapour returned to shore, especially if it is flared. This can lead to an overstatement of the
Bill of Lading quantity, unless credit is given for the returned vapour. For these reasons it is
unusual to find LPG terminals accepting return gas other than for safety reasons and then
only to a flare.
Figure 2.13: Loading without vapour return
2.9.2.3 Loading - Early Stages

Loading Refrigerated Ships
When liquefied gas is being loaded, it is necessary to consider the location, pressure,
temperature and volume of the shore tanks as well as the terminal’s pumping procedures.
Fully refrigerated ships usually load from fully refrigerated storage where tanks typically
operate at a pressure of approximately 60 millibars.
This pressure will allow the cargo at the bottom of a full shore tank to sustain a temperature
perhaps one degree Centrigrade warmer than its atmospheric boiling point.
When this cargo is pumped to the jetty, the pumping energy required for transfer is
dissipated in the liquid as heat, to which must be added the heat flow into the liquid through
the pipelines. The cargo may, therefore, arrive on the ship at an even warmer temperature.
When loading without a vapour return line being used, the vapour which is displaced by the
incoming liquid must be reliquefied on board. The power required for this, and to compensate
for the pumping energy and the heat flux through the insulation, may leave little capacity for
cooling the cargo during loading.
Therefore, as can be seen from the foregoing paragraphs, the early stages of loading can be
critical, particularly where significant distances exist between the storage tank and jetty. The
ship’s tank pressures must be regularly checked and on no account should relief valves be
allowed to lift. Loading rates should be reduced, and if necessary stopped, when difficulties
are experienced in maintaining acceptable tank pressures. In some ports in hot countries,
where the terminal has long pipelines, this feature can be difficult to overcome. Under these
circumstances, cargo stoppage would allow the pipeline contents once again to rise in
temperature. Accordingly, in such ports, cargo flow should be maintained as long as it is safe
to do so until cold product can be received on board at which time tank pressures will fall.
A rise in ship’s tank pressure in the early stages of loading can also be controlled to some
extent by loading limited quantities of liquid into the cargo tank via the top sprays, if fitted.
This will help to condense some of the cargo vapours.
Loading Pressurised Ships
Pressurised ships normally arrive at a loading terminal having cargo tanks at atmospheric
pressure. Firstly, the ship requests vapours from the shore to purge any remaining nitrogen
or contaminants from the tanks. This also allows the equalization of ship and shore
pressures. Thereafter, the method used is to start loading at a very slow flow, giving time for
the incoming liquid to expand safely at the first valves in the ship’s system.
In this case, as the liquid is allowed through, local flash-cooling can occur and it is important
to ensure that at no time, tank or pipeline temperatures are allowed to fall below design
limitations.
Loading Pressurised Ships from Refrigerated Storage
The cargo tanks on fully pressurised ships are made from carbon steel which is only suitable
for a minimum temperature of between 0°C and –5°C. In contrast, LPG when stored in the
fully refrigerated condition are maintained at much lower temperatures. Consequently, some
refrigerated cargoes require considerable heating prior to loading on such ships. Given that
fully pressurised ships may not have cargo heaters fitted on board, all heat input must be
provided by pumping through heaters fitted on shore.
Of course, on a pressurised ship, having loaded a cargo at close to 0°C, the cargo may warm
up further during the voyage in accordance with ambient conditions. The Gas Codes only
allow cargo to be loaded to such a level that the tank filling limit will never be more than 98
per cent at the highest temperature reached during the voyage. This means that, during pre-
loading discussions, tank topping-off levels must be established to allow sufficient room for
liquid expansion into the vapour space while on voyage.
Loading Semi-Pressurised Ships from Refrigerated Storage
The cargo tanks on semi-pressurised ships are usually constructed of low temperature sheets
able to accommodate fully refrigerated propane at temperatures of between –40°C and –
50°C, or even for ethylene carriers at –104°C. Refrigerated cargoes can therefore be loaded
directly to such ships without heating. In addition, these ships can usually maintain fully
refrigerated temperatures on voyage and this is often done to gain more space so that a
greater weight of cargo can be carried. The tank pressure must however always be maintained
slightly above atmospheric. Temperatures of sub-cooled products under vacuum conditions
can reach levels much lower than what is acceptable for the tank material. However, when
discharge to pressurised storage is planned, this is conditional on the ship having suitable
equipment to warm the cargo. On semi-pressurised ships, the cargo is occasionally allowed to
warm up during the loaded voyage and in this case, a similar procedure to that described for
fully pressurised ships applies.
2.9.2.4 Bulk Loading
Depending on the efficiency of the earlier gassing-up operation, significant quantities of
incondensible gases may be present in tank atmospheres and, without vapour return to shore,
these incondensibles will have to be vented via the ship’s purge-gas condenser (where fitted)
or, alternatively, from the top of the cargo condenser. Care must be taken when venting
incondensibles to minimise venting of cargo vapours to the atmosphere. As the
incondensibles are vented, the condenser pressure will drop and the vent valve should be
throttled and eventually closed.
A close watch should be kept on the ship’s cargo tank pressures, temperatures, liquid levels
and interbarrier space pressures, throughout the loading operation. Monitoring of liquid levels
may present difficulties when the reliquefaction plant is in operation. This is because the
liquid in the tank is boiling heavily at these times and, as a result, vapour bubbles within the
liquid increase its volume, thus giving false readings when using float-type ullage gauges.
Accurate level monitoring can be achieved by suppressing boiling and this can be done by
temporarily closing the vapour suction from the tank.
Towards the end of loading, transfer rates should be reduced as previously agreed with shore
personnel in order to accurately top-off tanks. On completion of loading, ship’s pipelines
should be drained back to the cargo tanks. Remaining liquid residue can be cleared by
blowing ashore with vapour, using the ship’s compressor. Alternatively, this residue may be
cleared by nitrogen injected into the loading arm to blow the liquid into the ship’s tanks.
Once liquid has been cleared and pipelines have been depressurised, manifold valves should
be closed and the hose or loading arm disconnected from the manifold flange.
In many ports it is a requirement, before disconnection takes place, for the hard arm, hose and
pipelines at the manifold to be purged free from flammable vapour. The relief valves of some
ships have dual settings to allow higher tank pressures during the loading operation. This is
permissible in the absence of dynamic forces which occur only when the vessel is at sea. If
relief valve settings are altered by changing the pilot spring, then the procedure must be
properly documented and logged and the current MARVS must be prominently displayed.
Relief valves must be reset to the seagoing position before the ship departs. When relief valve
pressure settings are changed, high pressure alarms have to be readjusted accordingly.
2.9.3 Cargo Discharging
When a ship arrives at the discharge terminal, cargo tank pressures and temperatures should
be in accordance with terminal requirements. This will help maximum discharge rates to be
achieved.
Before the discharge operation begins, the pre-operational ship/shore procedures should be
carried out along similar lines to the loading operation previously outlined. The method of
discharging the ship will depend on the type of ship, cargo specification and terminal storage.
Three basic methods may be used:
• Discharge by pressurising the vapour space
• Discharge with or without booster pumps
• Discharge via booster pump and cargo heater
These methods are discussed below.
2.9.3.1 Discharge by Pressurising the Vapour Space
Discharge by pressure using either a shore vapour supply or a vaporiser and compressor on
board is only possible where Type ‘C’ tanks are fitted. It is an inefficient and slow method of
discharge and is restricted to small ships of this type. Using this system, the pressure above
the liquid is increased and the liquid is transferred to the terminal. An alternative method is to
pressurise the cargo into a small deck tank from which it is pumped to the shore.
2.9.3.2 Discharge by Pumps
Starting Cargo Pumps
A centrifugal pump should always be started against a closed, or partially open, valve in
order to minimise the starting load. Thereafter, the discharge valve should be gradually
opened until the pump load is within safe design parameters and liquid is being transferred
ashore.
As the discharge proceeds, the liquid level in the cargo tanks should be monitored. Discharge
and ballasting operations should be carefully controlled, bearing in mind ship stability and
hull stress.
Removal of liquid from the cargo tank may cause changes in interbarrier space pressures and
these should be monitored throughout the discharge.
Discharging by centrifugal cargo pumps, either alone or in series with booster pumps, is the
method adopted by most ships and an understanding of the centrifugal pump characteristic is
essential for efficient cargo discharge. Figure 2.14 shows a cargo pump Q/H curve (flow
against head) superimposed on a system resistance curve (or system characteristic). The
graph shows the head or back pressure in mlc (metres liquid column) in the terminal pipeline
system against flow rate measured in cubic metres per hour. Increasing the flow rate
increases the back pressure. This varies approximately as the square of the flow rate, giving
the shape of system characteristic curve as shown. The point where the two curves intersect is
the flow rate and head at which the pump will operate.
Fig.2.14: Combined ship and shore cargo pumping characteristics - single pump
Fig. 2.15: Illustrations of static head and friction head

Some of the above points are further demonstrated by inspection of Figure 2.15. This diagram
shows a gas carrier alongside a jetty discharging to shore storage set at some elevation. The
elevation of the tank introduces the concept of static head - this being the back pressure
exerted at the pump even when pumps are not running. It can be seen that the static head
changes as the ship moves up and down with the tide and as the level in the shore tank alters.
The diagram also indicates that the friction head loss is largely dependant on the length of the
pipeline system.
Fig.2.16: Combined ship and shore cargo pumping characteristics - parallel pumps
Consider now the situation where pumps are run in parallel, as would be the normal case for a
gas carrier discharge. Figure 2.16 shows the pump characteristics using one pump and when
using two, three or four similar pumps in parallel.
Superimposed on the pump characteristics are a number of system characteristics labelled
‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’. System characteristic ‘A’ indicates a small diameter shore pipeline, ‘B’ a
larger diameter pipeline and ‘C’ a very large diameter pipeline with shore tanks situated
nearby. The latter provides the least resistance to cargo flow.
The actual system characteristic applicable at any terminal should be known to shore
personnel and they should have such curves available. In preparing such graphs, personnel
should note, as mentioned above, that the system characteristic can vary with the size of the
chosen pipeline and with variation in the pipe-lengths from the jetty when alternative shore
tanks are used. If a range of pipelines and tanks are available at any one terminal, then, it
may be appropriate for terminal personnel to have a number of system characteristics, already
pre-calculated and available, for use during pre-transfer discussions.
In any case, during the pre-transfer discussions, such matters should be covered and the
optimum transfer rate should be agreed.
To clarify some of these issues, two of the system characteristics, as shown in Figure 2.16,
are covered in detail below.
If a ship, having the pumping characteristics as shown in Figure 2.16 (numbered 1, 2, 3, and
4), is discharging to a terminal presenting only minor restrictions to flow, then the shore
system characteristic may be equivalent to ‘C’.
Fig.2.17: Discharge without vapour return
Fig.2.18: Discharge with vapour return
The operating point of the ship/shore system moves from points C1 through to C4 as the
number of cargo pumps in operation is increased from one to four. Under such conditions, the
total flow achieved (when using four pumps) is only marginally less than the total theoretical
flow (assuming no resistance). With such a shore pipeline system, it is therefore probable that
all four pumps (and maybe more) can be run to good effect.
In the case of system characteristic ‘A’, where flow restrictions are high, it can be seen how
little extra flow is achieved by running more than two pumps. By running three pumps the
operating point moves from A2 to A3, achieving some extra throughput. By running four
pumps the operating point moves from A3 to A4, achieving an increased flow of virtually
zero. In such cases, much of the energy created in the additional pumps is imparted to the
cargo. This is converted to heat in the liquid and results in an increase in cargo temperature.
This increases flash-gas boil-off as the liquid discharges into shore storage and this excess
must be handled by the shore compressors. If the shore compressors are unable to handle the
additional flash-gas, the terminal will require a reduction in flow rate to avoid lifting the
shore relief valves. Therefore, the net effect, in restricted circumstances, of running an
unnecessary number of pumps can be to decrease rather than to increase the overall discharge
rate.
Observing pressure gauges at the manifold will give a good indication if it is worthwhile
running, say, four pumps or six pumps. The discharge rate should not be reduced by
throttling valves at the ship’s cargo manifold if the shore cannot accept the discharge rate.
Throttling in this manner further heats up the cargo. However, those gas carriers with only
limited recirculation control may have to use manifold valves to throttle pumps.
It also may be desirable to throttle a cargo pump discharge when it is used in conjunction
with a booster pump. This may be done in order to reduce the pressure in the booster module.
Any additional control of flow, however, should be carried out by throttling the booster pump
discharge, by opening the main pump recirculation or by a combination of the two. It should
be noted that control of flow solely by throttling the main pump discharge may cause loss of
booster pump suction.
As liquid is being pumped from the ship, tank pressures tend to fall. Boil-off due to heat flow
through the tank insulation takes place continuously and this generates vapour within the
tank. The boil-off is usually insufficient to maintain cargo tank pressures at acceptable levels
but this ultimately depends upon discharge rate, cargo temperature and ambient temperature.
Where vapours produced internally are insufficient to balance the liquid removal rate, it is
necessary to add vapour to the tank if discharge is to continue at a constant rate. This vapour
may be provided, either by using the ship’s cargo vaporiser, or from the terminal (via a
vapour return line).When using the cargo vaporiser, the liquid is normally taken from the
discharge line and diverted through the vaporiser. Figure 2.17 shows a discharge operation
without the vapour return facility; Figure 2.18 depicts a similar operation but with a vapour
return in use.
2.9.3.3 Discharge via Booster Pump and Cargo Heater
Where cargo is being discharged from a refrigerated ship into pressurised storage, it is
necessary to warm the cargo (usually to at least 0°C). This means running the cargo booster
pump and cargo heater in series with the cargo pump. To operate the booster pump and
heater, it is necessary to first establish sea water flow through the heater. Thereafter, the
booster pump and heater may be slowly cooled down (prior to full operation) by very slow
throughput of liquid from the cargo pump discharge. Once cooled down, the discharge valve
can be opened until the desired outlet temperature is reached. It is important to ensure that the
cargo pumps maintain adequate flow to the booster pump at all times. Figure 2.19 shows the
usual layout.
Fig.2.19: Pipeline diagram of a cargo booster pump and heater
Heating cargo during discharge always entails a risk of freezing the circulating water in the
heater. In addition to checking the cargo outlet temperature and the booster pump suction
during operation, attention should also be paid to the sea water inlet and outlet temperatures
and pressures. The sea water outlet temperature must not be allowed to fall below the
manufacturer’s recommended limit. A low temperature switch should stop cargo flow
through the heater in case of low sea water discharge temperature.
As will be noted, this method of cargo heating depends on a suitable sea water temperature.
In cold sea water areas, the efficiency of the system can be seriously affected and slow
discharge rates can result and if sea water temperatures are below 5°C the risk of freezing
becomes much greater. To cover such possibilities, sometimes thermal oil heaters are fitted
to ships.
On completion of discharge, liquid cargo must be drained from all deck lines and cargo hoses
or hard arms. Such draining can be done from ship to shore using a cargo compressor.
Alternatively, it may be carried out from shore to ship, normally by blowing the liquid into
the ship’s tanks using nitrogen injected at the base or apex of the hard arm. Only after
depressurising all deck lines and purging with nitrogen should the ship/shore connection be
broken.
2.9.4 Aerating / Gas Freeing
Removal of cargo vapours, after discharge, with inert gas is carried out to reduce gas
concentrations to a level where aeration can take place without the tank atmosphere passing
through the flammable envelope. After this procedure has been addressed, the cargo tanks can
be ventilated with air. The air is supplied using compressors or air blowers and air dryers in
the inert gas plant. This should continue until the oxygen content of the whole tank is at 21
per cent and hydrocarbon levels are at the zero percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit. In
order to ensure uniformity in the tank atmosphere, various levels and positions in the tank
should be monitored prior to tank entry. Figure 2.20 shows a pipeline set up for aerating
tanks.
It is important to note that ventilation with air should only take place once the ship’s tanks are
warmed to ambient conditions. If the tank is still cold when air is allowed inside, any
moisture in the air will condense on tank surfaces. This can cause serious problems when
preparing the tank for new cargoes. If condensation is allowed to form, its removal can be a
protracted and costly operation.
Aeration should continue not only until oxygen levels are satisfactory but also until safe
levels of carbon monoxide are established.
Fig.2.20: Aeration of cargo tanks
2.10 Reliquefaction Plants and Boil-off Control

With the exception of fully pressurised gas carriers, means must be provided to control cargo
vapour pressure in cargo tanks during cargo loading and on passage. In the case of LPG and
chemical gas carriers, a reliquefaction plant is fitted for this purpose. This equipment is
designed to perform the following essential functions:
• To cool down the cargo tanks and associated pipelines before loading;
• To reliquefy the cargo vapour generated by flash evaporation, liquid displacement and boil-
off during loading; and
• To maintain cargo temperature and pressure within prescribed limits while at sea by
reliquefying the boil-off vapour.
There are two main types of reliquefaction plant (indirect cycle and direct cycle) and these
are described in the following sections.
2.10.1 Indirect Cycles
Indirect cooling is used for cargoes which cannot be compressed for chemical reasons.
Indirect cycle is descriptive of a system where an external refrigeration plant is employed to
condense the cargo vapour without it being compressed. This cycle is relatively uncommon
as its use is limited to a small numbers of cargoes. The cycle has to use a very cold refrigerant
in the condenser for efficiency; the common refrigerants are hydrogen, helium and propane.
This type of reliquefaction plant is, however, required by the Gas Codes when carrying any
of the following cargoes:
• Chlorine
• Ethylene oxide
• Ethylene oxide - propylene oxide mix
• Propylene oxide
Two indirect cycle systems are shown diagramatically in Figure 2.21.
Fig.2.21: Examples of indirect cooling cycles
2.10.2 Direct Cycles

Direct cycle is descriptive of a system where the boil-off is compressed, condensed and
returned to the tank. This is the most common system, but may not be employed for certain
gases.
There are three main types of direct cycle reliquefaction plant and these are described in the
following sections.
2.10.2.1 Single-Stage Direct Cycle
The single-stage direct cycle system is particularly suited to the semi-pressurised carrier. A
simplified diagram of single-compression reliquefaction is shown in Figures 2.22(a) and (b).
This cycle is suitable where suction pressures are relatively high, as in the carriage of semi-
pressurised products. Boil-off vapours from the cargo tank are drawn off by the compressor -
(a) in the diagrams. Compression increases the pressure and temperature of the vapour - to (b)
in the diagrams. The high temperature allows it to be condensed against sea water in the
condenser - at (c) in the diagrams. The condensed liquid is then flashed back to the tank via a
float controlled expansion valve - at (d) in the diagrams. The liquid/vapour mixture being
returned the cargo tank may be either distributed by a spray rail at the top of the cargo tank or
taken to the bottom of the tank to discourage re-vaporisation. The spray rail is normally used
when the tank is empty and bottom discharge when the tank is full.
Fig. 2.22(a): Single-stage direct reliquefaction cycle
Fig. 2.22(b): Mollier diagram - single-stage direct reliquefaction cycle
2.10.2.2 Two-Stage Direct Cycle

Although two-stage direct cycle equipment is relatively uncommon, it is used for those
liquefied gas carriers handling a wide range of products. For grades such as butadiene and
vinyl chloride its fitting is essential.
A simplified diagram showing two-stage reliquefaction is given in Figures 2.23(a) and (b).
The two-stage cycle with inter-stage cooling is used where suction pressures are low and, as a
result, compression ratios high (assuming sea water condensing) compared to the single-stage
cycle. Two-stage compression (with inter-stage cooling) is necessary to limit the compressor
discharge temperature which increases significantly with the higher compression ratio. This is
particularly important for cargoes such as butadiene and vinyl chloride.
Fig. 2.23(a): Two-stage direct reliquefaction cycle with inter-stage cooling
Fig. 2.23(b): Mollier diagram - two-stage direct reliquefaction cycle
The vapour from the first stage discharge - (b) in the diagrams - is taken to an interstage
cooler where its superheat is reduced - (c) in the diagrams. The cooling medium is cargo
liquid flashed down to intercooler pressure from the sea water-cooled condenser. The
remaining parts of the cycle are similar to the single-stage cycle.
2.10.2.3 Cascade Direct Cycle
The cascade cycle is used for fully refrigerated cargoes where a special refrigerant such as
R22 is used to obtain the lower carriage temperatures. Furthermore in these systems,
refrigeration plant capacities are not so affected by sea water temperature changes compared
with other reliquefaction cycles. For the carriage of ethylene this type of equipment is
essential.
Fig. 2.24: Simplified cascade reliquefaction cycle
The cascade system uses a refrigerant such as R22 to condense cargo vapours; a simplified
diagram for this system is shown in Figure 2.24. The single-stage compression of cargo
vapour is identical to the single-stage direct cycle, but the cargo condenser is cooled using
R22 instead of sea water. The cargo, in condensing, evaporates the liquid R22 and the R22
vapour is then taken through a conventional R22 closed refrigeration cycle, condensing
against sea water - hence the term cascade.
2.10.3 Alarms & Safety Devices on Re-liquefaction Plant of Fully Refrigerated LPG
Carriers
Alarms and Emergency Stops of LPG reliquefaction Compressor are listed below:
 1st stage suction pressure abnormal low
 2nd stage discharge pressure abnormal high
 Oil differential pressure abnormal low
 2nd stage discharge temperature abnormal high
 Expansion valve outlet pressure abnormal high
 Condenser sea water inlet pressure abnormal low
 Glycol pump discharge pressure abnormal low
 Instrument air pressure abnormal low
 Knockout drum liquid level abnormal high
 Receiver liquid level abnormal high
 Intercooler liquid level abnormal high
 Over current of compressor motor
 Mechanical ventilating fans stop
 Cargo tanks pressure abnormal low
 Glycol pump stop
 Emergency stop signal
2.11 Cargo Compressors and Associated Equipment
The compressor is the heart of the reliquefaction plant. As far as LPG ships are concerned
there are two main types of compressor: these are the reciprocating type and the screw type.
2.11.1 Reciprocating Compressors
Older compressors were sometimes not of the oil-free type. This attracted the problems
because many liquefied gases can adversely affect the quality of the lubricating oil used in
the machines. In using these older compressors, very careful control is required. In particular,
sump heating systems are often fitted in order to evaporate any dissolved gases. In addition,
the changing of lubricating oil between cargoes is usually necessary. Full data on the
operation of these compressors should be available from manufacturers’ handbooks. For
these reasons, the vast majority of reciprocating cargo compressors now found on board gas
carriers are of the so-called oil-free type.
Fig.2.25: Sulzer oil-free compressor
In the Sulzer oil-free compressor shown in Figure 2.25, sealing between the piston and
cylinder wall, and between the piston rod and gland, is achieved by the use of machined
labyrinths. Consequently, no lubrication is needed for those spaces in the compressor swept
by cargo vapours. The absence of any contact at the seals limits wear and lubricating oil
consumption is minimal. The oil-free side of the compressor and the lubricated crank are
separated by oil scraper rings mounted on the piston rod. The rod also carries a ring which
prevents any residual oil film from creeping up the rod. The distance between the crank and
gland is such that the oily part of the piston rod cannot enter the oil-free gland. Should any
gas leak through the gland, it is returned to the suction side. The crankcase and separation
space are kept under suction pressure. Where the crankshaft leaves the case, it is fitted with a
shaft seal operating in oil.
Although the Sulzer compressor is oil-free in the compression chamber, it is common
practice to change the lubricating oil with each change of cargo. This is to cover the question
of compatibility of the lubricating oil grade with the next cargo.
Fig.2.26: Linde oil-free compressor

Capacity control of the compressor is achieved by lifting suction valves during the
compression stroke. The plate lifters are normally hydraulically operated with the fluid
pressure being provided by the lubricating oil pump. When the compressor is shut down, the
cargo vapour in the crankcase can condense, giving rise to lubricating problems. To avoid
this, provision must be made for crankcase heating when the compressor is idle. When the
compressor is running, cooling must be provided for the crankcase, for the crossheads and for
the guide bearings. Normally, a closed cycle glycol water system provides for the heating -
when the compressor is shut down - and for cooling, when the compressor is running.
Another common type of reciprocating oil-free compressor is shown in Figure 2.26. This
machine is manufactured by Linde. Such a compressor has PTFE piston rings instead of the
labyrinth piston in the Sulzer machines. Volumetric efficiencies tend to be higher with the
PTFE ring design.
2.11.2 Screw Compressors
Screw compressors for use with liquefied gas cargoes can be either dry oil-free or oil-flooded
machines. In the dry machines, the screw rotors do not make physical contact but are held in-
mesh and driven by external gearing. Due to leakage through the clearances between the
rotors, high speeds are necessary to maintain good efficiency (typically 12,000 rpm). Figure
2.27 is a diagram of a typical rotor set with the common combination of four and six lobes.
The lobes inter-mesh and gas is compressed in the chambers numbered 1, 2, 3, in the diagram
which are reduced in size as the rotors turn. The compressor casing carries the suction and
discharge ports.
The oil-flooded machine relies on oil injection into the rotors and this eliminates the need for
timing gears. Drive power is transmitted from one rotor to the other by the injected oil. This
also acts as a lubricant and coolant. Because the rotors are sealed with oil, gas leakage is
much less and, therefore, oil-flooded machines can run at lower speeds (3,000 rpm). An oil
separator on the discharge side of the machine removes oil from the compressed gas.
Capacity control of screw compressors can be achieved in a number of ways. The most
common is the use of a sliding valve which effectively reduces the working length of the
rotors. This is more efficient than suction throttling. Screw compressors consume more power
than reciprocating compressors.
Fig.2.27: Typical rotor for an oil-free screw compressor
2.11.3 Compressor Suction Liquid Separator
It is necessary to protect cargo vapour compressors against the possibility of liquid being
drawn in. Such a situation can seriously damage compressors since liquid is incompressible.
It is normal practice, therefore, to install a liquid separator on the compressor suction line
coming in from the cargo tanks. The purpose of this vessel is to reduce vapour velocity and,
as a result, to allow any entrained liquid to be easily removed from the vapour stream. In case
of over-filling, the separator is fitted with high-level sensors which set off an alarm and trip
the compressor.
2.11.4 LNG Boil-Off and Vapour-Handling Systems (Fuel for Boilers and IC Engines)
The older LNG ships use steam turbine-driven compressors to handle boil-off vapours.
Newer designs incorporate electrically driven equipment. Boil-off vapours are produced
during cool-down, loading and during the loaded and ballast voyages. Normally, a low-duty
compressor handles the boil-off whilst on passage; a high-duty compressor handles cargo
vapours produced during cool-down and loading, returning these vapours to shore.
When a ship is at sea, the low-duty compressor collects the boil-off gas from a header
connected to each cargo tank. It then passes the boil-off through a steam heater and into the
engine room. The pipeline is jacketed from the point at which it enters the engine room or the
accommodation up to the boiler front. The annular space (between the gas pipeline and its
jacket) is either pressurised with nitrogen or exhaust-ventilated with air giving at least 30
changes per hour. The gas pipeline must be purged with inert gas before and after gas-
burning operations.
There are a number of automatic protective devices built into the system to ensure safe
operation and these must be regularly inspected and maintained. Protective systems include
continuous monitoring for leakage and automatic shut-down in the event of system
malfunction or leak detection. These systems are described in some detail in the IGC Code.
The compressors are provided with surge controls and other protective devices. LNG is the
only liquefied gas product allowed by the Gas Codes to be burnt in the ship’s boilers. The
other gases, having densities heavier than air, are considered to be hazardous for this purpose.
2.12 LNG Boil-Off as Fuel for Boilers and IC Engines
Although it is feasible to reliquefy LNG boil-off vapours, the equipment required is complex
and expensive and, to date, full-scale equipment has not been installed on board ships. As
methane vapours, at ambient temperature, are lighter than air, boil-off is used as fuel for the
ship’s main propulsion during sea passages. LNG is the only cargo which is permitted to be
used as fuel in this manner. The equipment and safety devices used for this operation are
described in 2.11.4.
Daily boil-off rates during the loaded voyage vary with changes in barometric pressure
(unless absolute pressure control is adopted), ambient temperature and sea conditions. For
this reason, a close watch must be kept on tank pressures and inter-barrier space pressures.
On no account should cargo tank pressures be allowed to fall below atmospheric. Typical
figures for LNG carrier boil-off rates are from 0.10 to 0.15 per cent of the cargo volume per
day during the loaded voyage and 0.10 per cent per day for the ballast voyage. It should be
noted that LNG often contains a small percentage of nitrogen, which will boil-off
preferentially, thus reducing the calorific value of the boil-off gas at the beginning of the
loaded voyage.
Normally, the compressors used on LNG ships have shaft seals pressurised with nitrogen.
Thus, an adequate nitrogen supply must be available at all times when the compressor is
running. Furthermore, as with LPG compressors, care must be taken to avoid liquid from
being carried into the compressor via the vapour suction line.
Receiving terminals often require cargo tank pressures on arrival to be below a certain value
and this must be provided for by regular disposal of the boil-off through the voyage.
2.12.1 Dual Fired (Oil & LNG) Boilers
The middle of 1960s saw the introduction of sea transport for liquefied natural gas (LNG)
and it was soon realized that economies in transport would be affected if the heat in the
natural ‘boil off’ gas was converted into propulsive effort rather than wasting it by venting it
to atmosphere.
To burn this gas in the boilers of a steam-turbine-installation was one obvious answer, and
with this object in view Foster Wheeler, in conjunction with the requirements of
Classification Society, set about designing their first ESD dual fired boilers. The design
called for very careful consideration particularly from the safety aspect.
LNG (methane) is transported aboard ship in large insulated tanks built into the vessels’
hulls. The LNG at about -162 deg C is pumped into these built in tanks, whose degree of
insulation is such that the ‘boil off’ rate is less than 0.10 to 0.15% per day.
The ‘boil off’, being at the same temperature as the liquid, has then to be heated before being
fed to the boiler burners. The heaters are provided for this purpose. In initial design of these
dual fired boilers careful consideration was given to:
 Safety
 The need to operate on oil alone or any combination of oil and gas
 Wide burner turn down to cope with maneuvering conditions
 Boilers to be suitable for installation in an engine room
The first pair of dual fired boilers was of the ESD II type with front firing. These boilers were
designed for a normal output of 22,250 kg/hr and maximum of 33,200 kg/hr each, at 41 bar
and 454 deg C.
In common with most other dual fired boilers subsequently designed by this company, the
furnaces were bounded by tangent tubes, although at the present times preference is for
monowall construction.
As a safety precaution, all dual-fired boilers designed by Foster Wheeler are entirely double
cased, the air flow from the forced draught fans passing through the double casing. This
ensures that any leakage through the actual furnace walls are only of air into the boiler
furnace, and not gases outwards into the machinery space.
As a safeguard against furnace explosions an open vent is fitted at the top of the boiler
furnace which during the pre-ignition purge effectively clears away any possible
accumulation of gas into the boiler uptake (methane is lighter than air).
Fig. 2.28 shows a modern design of large dual-fired unit, from which it will be noted that:
 Roof firing is employed
 The boiler is monowall encased
 The steam drum position has been altered so that the upper section of the furnace can
be directly vented into the boiler uptake
 Buckstays are fitted between monowalls and outer casing, as extra wall support
 Refractory is only used on floors and over lower drum.
One of the initial requirements for dual-fired units was that they would be able to burn oil and
gas through the same register at the same time. The burners designed after development and
testing proved satisfactory in service and is still being used although for larger outputs other
burners have been developed.
The above is a brief summary of the dual-fired boilers. Fig. 2.28 shows a typical gas supply
and safety venting arrangement in dual-fired boilers. There are many additional requirements
and controls necessary to comply with the Classification Societies.
Fig. 2.28: Typical gas supply & safety venting arrangement of oil & LNG-boil-off boiler
2.12.2 The Dual Fuel Engine (MAN B&W ME-GI)
In order to make it possible to use the Boil Off Gas from an LNG Carrier as fuel in low speed
diesels as well, a leading manufacturer (MAN B&W) has readdressed this technology based
on our ME engine concept.
The benefits of the greater control given by the ME engine range further enhance the
operational reasons for introducing this option.
Some years ago, MAN B&W developed the MC range of engines for dual fuel. These were
designated MC-GI (Gas Injection). The combustion cycle was initiated by the injection of
pilot fuel oil, followed by the main gas injection. The fuel injection timing on these dual fuel
engines was mechanically controlled, but in the electronically controlled version, like all ME
engines, it can be user-defined and is subject to greater control and flexibility, thereby
allowing the dual fuel concept to be further optimised.
The efficiency of the ME-GI duel fuel engines is the same as an ordinary ME engine, due the
diesel cycle. The system efficiency will be higher than that of other gas consuming
propulsion system, incl. dual fuel diesel electric even considering the compressor power.
Full redundancy as required by International Association of Classification Societies’ (IACS)
can be met with one compressor, one reliquefaction unit or one oxidizer. The internal and
external systems configuration for dual fuel operation is shown in Fig. 2.29.
Fig. 2.29: MAN B&W ME-GI engine and boil-off gas handling units
The gas supply line is designed with ventilated double-wall piping including HC sensors for
safety shutdown. For control of the gas engine, the GI control and safety system added to the
well proven ME control system.
Apart from these systems on the engine, the engine itself and its auxiliaries will comprise
some new units. The most important ones, apart from the gas supply system, are listed below.
 Ventilation system for venting the space between the inner and outer pipe wall of the
double-wall piping.
 Sealing oil system, delivering sealing oil to the gas valves separating control oil and
gas. This system is fully integrated on the engine, and the shipyard no longer needs to
consider this installation.
 Inert gas system that enables purging of the gas system on the engine with inert gas.
 Control and safety system, comprising a hydrocarbon analyser for checking the
hydrocarbon content of the air in the double-wall gas pipes.
The GI control and safety system is designed to fail to safe condition. All failures detected
during gas fuel running, including failures of the control system itself, will result in a gas fuel
stop and change-over to HFO fuel operation. Blow-out and gas-freeing purging of the high-
pressure gas pipes and of the complete gas supply system follows. The change-over to fuel oil
mode is done without any power loss on the engine. Recent tests have shown that a normal
gas stop takes place completely bumpless, i.e. it is simply not possible to hear which type of
fuel is being burned.
2.13 Inert Gas and Nitrogen Systems
Gas carriers use various forms of inert gas and these are listed below:
• Inert gas from combustion-type generators
• Nitrogen from shipboard production systems, and
• Pure nitrogen taken from the shore (either by road tanker or barge)
Unlike oil tanker inert gas systems, which have their design and operation established by
extensive regulations and guidelines, the fitting of inert gas systems to gas carriers is subject
to limited advice in the Gas Codes, special consideration by administrations and the particular
demands of the trade. In general, for gas carriers, the production of combustion generated
inert gas will be covered in new-building specifications at about one per cent oxygen.
LNG ships were once provided with storage facilities for liquid nitrogen but newer designs
include a nitrogen generation plant. However, up to now, the quantity of nitrogen produced
on board has not been of sufficient volume for tank-inerting operations. It is fitted mainly for
inter-barrier space inerting. Where cargo tank inerting is required on LNG ships, nitrogen
from the shore, or combustion-generated inert gas is used.
As can be seen from the foregoing, most ships, barring only the smallest pressurized gas
carriers, have the capability of generating their own inert gas. Furthermore, all LNG ships
have the capability of producing nitrogen for hold space and inter-barrier space inertion - this
is a necessary specification as the carbon dioxide in inert gas would freeze when in close
proximity to the cargo. The methods of producing the inert gases, as listed at the beginning of
this section, are covered below.
Quality of Inert Gas Used for Atmosphere Control on Board LPG Carriers
Inert gas used for atmosphere control should be suitable for the intended purpose, regardless
of source. In particular it should:
 be chemically compatible with the cargo and the materials of construction throughout the
full range of operating temperatures and pressures;
 have a sufficiently low dew point to prevent condensation, freezing, corrosion, damage to
insulation etc. at the minimum operating temperature;
 have an oxygen concentration not exceeding 5%, but as low as 0.2% if the cargo can react
to form peroxides;
 have a low concentration of CO2 to prevent it freezing out at the anticipated service
temperature;
 have minimal capacity for accumulating a static electrical charge.
2.13.1 Inert Gas Generators
The Gas Codes require continuous oxygen monitoring in the inert gas stream and the oxygen
content should normally be no more than about one per cent. High oxygen content can trigger
an alarm; however, the generator is not normally shut down on this alarm but the gas is
diverted to atmosphere via a vent riser.
The main advantages of the on board inert gas generator are as follows:
• The cost of inert gas is less than the purchase of liquid nitrogen
• The inert gas plant capacity is available either at sea or in port
The disadvantages of the combustion-type generator centre on the quality of gas produced.
Combustion must always be carefully adjusted to avoid the production of toxic carbon
monoxide and soot. Also, even under good operating conditions, the volume of oxygen in the
inert gas may be unsuitable for use with the chemical gases. Accordingly, given that an
oxygen-critical gas is to be loaded, as a preliminary operation, pure nitrogen must be taken
from the shore.
Inert gas produced by the careful combustion of diesel or gas oil, results in reduced oxygen
content in the products of combustion. In the inert gas generator, the resulting gases are
further treated to give an inert gas of acceptable standard. Apart from plant operation, the
final quality of the inert gas also depends on the fuel used and generally fuel of low sulphur
content is preferred. In this regard, experience often dictates that gas oil should be used in
preference to marine diesel oil but bunker prices also have a bearing on the final choice.
The quality of the inert gas produced, however, is very dependent on the conditions under
which the generator is operated and, in this respect, the manufacturer’s guidance should be
closely followed. A particular point to watch is that poorly maintained plant can produce
significant quantities of carbon monoxide or soot such that, even after aerating, carbon
monoxide levels in a tank may be unacceptable.
The mode of operation is shown in Figure 2.30. Here it will be seen that the inert gas
generator has three main parts. These are as follows:
• A combustion chamber with scrubbing and cooling (the generator),
• A refrigerated drier - cooled normally by R22, and
• An absorption drier.
Combustion Chamber
Combustion-type generators must be located outside the cargo area and are usually installed
in the ship’s engine room. It is usual to find the inert gas main permanently piped into the
cargo holds and temporary connections are provided between the inert gas main and the cargo
system for tank inerting operations. When not in use, these must be disconnected and blanks
fitted. Two non-return valves (or equivalent) are fitted in the inert gas main to prevent any
back-flow of cargo vapours. When not being used for high capacity tank inerting operations
the inert gas plant is used from time to time to top up hold and inter-barrier spaces.
Within the combustion chamber, the burner is designed to ensure good combustion so
producing a minimum of oxygen residue in the inert gas. Operationally, however, there is a
fine balance to be achieved in generator adjustment as minimising oxygen output tends to
increase the production of carbon monoxide: and further adjustment can result in the
overproduction of soot. The combustion chamber itself is water-jacketed. After combustion,
the inert gas enters the washing section of the generator at a very high temperature and is
cooled and scrubbed by spraying with sea water. This is also carried out for the removal of
soluble acid gases such as sulphur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen. The inert gas is then
filtered to remove solid particles. The gas leaves the generator at approximately five degrees
Centigrade above sea water temperature and by this time it should be essentially free from
sulphur oxides formed by burning the sulphur present in the fuel - but it is saturated with
water vapour. Accordingly, it is then further cooled and dried (as covered below) and
delivered to the cargo tanks.
Fig. 2.30: Flow diagram of an inert gas generator

The Refrigerated Drier
In the refrigerated drier, the inert gas is cooled to approximately four degrees Centigrade,
resulting in the condensation of much of the water vapour. Figure 2.31 shows the content of
water vapour in saturated inert gas as a function of temperature. From this diagram, the
reduction in water vapour content can be seen as the temperature is reduced.
The Absorption Drier
The absorption drier consists of two vessels filled with activated alumina or silica gel. One
vessel is on drying duty while the other is being regenerated. Typically, the cycle time is six
hours.
Fig. 2.31: Saturated water content of inert gas
Drying in the absorption drier reduces the dew point of the inert gas to –40°C or below. A
layer of molecular sieves can be added to the bottom of the drying tower to improve the dew
point. In order to ensure stable combustion in the generator, the pressure in the drying system
must be kept constant and this is achieved by means of a pressure control valve as shown in
Figure 2.32.
Fig.2.32: Drying of inert gas
2.13.2 Nitrogen Production on Ships
The most common system utilised for the production of nitrogen on ships is an air separation
process. This system works by separating air into its component gases by passing compressed
air over hollow fibre membranes. The membranes divide the air into two streams - one is
essentially nitrogen and the other contains oxygen, carbon dioxide plus some trace gases.
This system can produce nitrogen of about 95 to 97 per cent purity. The capacity of these
systems depends on the number of membrane modules fitted and is dependant on inlet air
pressure, temperature and the required nitrogen purity. Figure 4.21 shows one such system.
Fig.2.33: The membrane system for producing nitrogen

2.13.3 Pure Nitrogen from the Shore
The quality of inert gas produced by shipboard systems is usually inadequate for oxygen-
critical cargoes. Bearing in mind the components in the inert gas, this may create restrictions
on use if tanks have been previously gas-freed for inspection; and this is often necessary
when a change in grades is involved. Under these circumstances, and prior to loading, it is
normal for shipmasters to arrange for cargo tanks to be inerted with pure nitrogen, taken from
the shore. This is usually delivered by road tanker or barge. As deliveries are in liquid form,
where immediate inerting is required, a nitrogen vaporiser is needed.
2.14 Various Controls of Deck Equipments (Including Pneumatic & Electronic Equipments)
Control/Instrumentation is an important part of gas tanker equipment and is required for the
measurement of cargo level, pressure and temperature. It is also used for gas detection.
Instrumentation must be carefully selected and well maintained.
2.14.1 Liquid Level Instrumentation
The Gas Codes and Classification Society rules require every cargo tank to be fitted with at
least one liquid level gauge. Specific types of gauging system are required for certain cargoes
as defined in Chapter 19 of the IGC Code.
The IMO classification for gauging systems is as follows:
• Indirect systems - these may be either weighing methods or flow meters
• Closed devices which do not penetrate the cargo tank - here ultrasonic devices or radio
isotope sources may be used
• Closed devices which penetrate the cargo tank - such as float gauges and bubble tube
indicators
• Restricted devices which penetrate the tank but which release small volumes of liquid or
vapour to atmosphere when in use, such as fixed or slip-tube gauges. When not in use, the
restricted device should be kept completely closed
In the LPG trade the most common types of level gauging are the last two described, while in
the LNG trade, the closed devices are more usual.
Float Gauges
The float gauge is widely used on all gas carriers. It consists of a float attached by a tape to
an indicating device which can be arranged for local and remote readout. Figure 2.34 shows a
typical float gauge installed in a tubular well. Alternatively guide wires may be fitted. Float
gauges have gate valves for isolation so that the float can be serviced in a safe atmosphere.
The float must be lifted from the liquid level when not in use; if left down, liquid sloshing,
while at sea, will damage the tape-tensioning device. Float gauges cannot normally register a
liquid level of less than ten centimetres from the tank bottom.
Fig.2.34: Float level gauge
Nitrogen Bubbler Gauges
Nitrogen bubbler gauges measure the pressure necessary to displace liquid cargo from a small
bore tube mounted vertically in a tank. A sufficient pressure of nitrogen is introduced into the
tube to displace the liquid and to commence bubbling at the bottom. The pressure necessary
to do this is measured and is a function of the liquid level and the liquid density. For cargoes
of known density the level readout is obtained directly. By installing two such tubes, one
alongside the other and with their lower extremities a known vertical distance apart, the
density of the cargo can also be determined. Figure 2.35 shows the principle of the bubbler
gauge.
Fig.2.35: Nitrogen bubbler level gauge

The use of such instruments in connection with the carriage of ethylene is not recommended.
Ethylene has a strict specification for nitrogen contamination and the use of such equipment
could damage the cargo.
Differential Pressure Gauges
Differential pressure gauges operate on pressure differences between liquid and vapour. The
signal lines for the instrument are normally purged with inert gas. This type of gauge can
only be used on ships when the cargo tank is situated completely above deck, thus such
measuring equipment is more generally found in use on shore in terminal tanks. Figure 2.36
shows the principle of the differential pressure gauge.
Capacitance Gauges
Capacitance gauges measure the change in electrical capacitance between two probes as
cargo liquid, rather than vapour, takes up the space between them. Figure 2.37 illustrates just
such a device in which the two probes are enclosed within an open protective tube. This tube
extends throughout the depth of the tank and provides a continuous indication of liquid
content at all levels. For single preset level indication, as for a high-level alarm or overfill
shut-off, a short probe sensor may be fitted at the precise level required. The electrical
circuits are, of course, intrinsically safe. The devices, having no moving parts, are usually
reliable but must be kept free from dirt, rust, water and ice since such contaminants can cause
inaccuracy.
Fig.2.36: Differential pressure level gauge
Fig.2.37: Electrical capacitance level gauge
Ultrasonic Gauges
Ultrasonic gauges operate on a similar principle to echo sounders. They measure either the
ullage or the liquid depth by reflecting sound waves from the liquid surface. The tranceiver
may be mounted either in the tank dome or at the tank bottom, depending on whether the
ullage depth or liquid dip is to be measured.
Ultrasonic gauges fitted on gas carriers can be unreliable. There can be problems in obtaining
satisfactory readings when loading tanks by the spray line. Other points of inaccuracy can
develop as cargoes of differing types are loaded. Furthermore, readings can vary, depending
on temperature and pressure changes.
Radar Gauges
Another type of tank gauging equipment is that designed to operate on the principle of radar.
Such equipment works at very high frequencies – approx. 11 gigahertz. Radar type liquid
level gauges have now been specially developed for liquefied gases and their usage on gas
tankers. The equipment provides measurements adequate to meet industry requirements.
All the above devices are classed as closed devices. This means that, when in use, no cargo
liquids or vapours are released to the atmosphere during level measurement. The slip-tubes,
which are described in the following paragraph, are classed as restricted devices and have
some disadvantages over the equipment described previously.
Slip-Tubes
As defined in the Gas Codes, slip-tubes constitute a restricted type of gauging device - so
named because a small amount of cargo vapour or liquid is released to atmosphere during
level measurement. Some terminals disallow the use of this type of equipment - depending on
cargo type - because released gases can have harmful effects on personnel working nearby.
Slip-tubes have an orifice at their upper end through which liquid or vapour can be released.
The Gas Codes limit the size of this orifice to 1.5 millimetres in diameter, unless an excess
flow valve is fitted. The lower end of the slip-tube is open to the cargo tank environment. The
device slides up and down through a gland fitted in the tank dome. The observed differences
between either liquid or vapour venting from the orifice gives an indication of when the
liquid level has been reached and, by reading from the markings on the tube itself, the actual
liquid level is read-off. Because of the considerable depth of many tanks, it is usual to find
that a number of slip-tubes are fitted, with each individual unit covering a certain range of
tank level measurements.
Slip-tubes represent a simple and direct method of measurement but, because of a certain
amount of high-pressure spray released to the atmosphere, special precautions must be taken.
These include the wearing of protective clothing. Furthermore, operational procedures should
be established to direct the spray away from personnel. As described earlier in this section,
the use of slip-tubes is limited to backup of the closed devices (described above) and to Type
‘C’ tanks only.
2.14.2 Level Alarm and Automatic Shut-Down Systems
With the exception of Type ‘C’ tanks having a capacity of less than 200 cubic metres, every
cargo tank must be fitted with an independent high level sensor giving audible and visual
alarms. The float, capacitance or ultrasonic sensors may be used for this purpose. The high-
level alarm - or other independent sensor - is required to automatically stop the flow of cargo
to the tank.
During cargo loading, there is a danger of generating a significant surge pressure if the valve
stopping the flow closes too quickly against a high loading rate.
2.14.3 Pressure and Temperature Monitoring
The Gas Codes call for pressure monitoring throughout the cargo system. Appropriate
positions include cargo tanks, pump and compressor discharge lines, liquid crossovers and
vapour crossovers. In addition, pressure switches are fitted to various systems to protect
personnel and equipment by operating alarms and shut-down systems.
The Gas Codes also require at least two devices for indicating cargo tank temperatures. One
is placed at the bottom of the tank and the second near the tank top, but below the highest
allowable liquid level. Ships’ officers should be aware of the lowest temperatures to which
the cargo tanks can be exposed and these values should be marked on the temperature gauges
- especially those at the cargo manifold.
Where cargo is carried in tanks requiring a secondary barrier at a temperature of below –55°
C, the Gas Codes call for temperature-indicating devices within the insulation or on the hull
structure adjacent to the containment system. The thermo-couples should be set to provide
adequate warning prior to the lowest temperature for the hull steel being approached.
The Gas Codes also recommends more thermometers to be fitted to at least one tank in order
to monitor the cargo system during cool-down and warm-up operations. This is to avoid
undue thermal stress.
2.14.4 Gas Detection Systems
The provision of gas detection systems on board gas carriers is of importance. The Gas Codes
require gas carriers to have a fixed gas detection system with audible and visual alarms.
These must be fitted in the wheelhouse, in the cargo control room and at the gas detector
readout location. Detector heads are normally provided in the following spaces:
• Cargo compressor room
• Electric motor room
• Cargo control room (unless classified as gas-safe)
• Enclosed spaces such as hold spaces and inter-barrier spaces (excepting hold spaces
containing Type ‘C’ cargo tanks)
• Airlocks
• Burner platform vent hoods and engine room gas supply pipelines (LNG ships only)
The detector heads should be sited having regard to the density of cargo vapours. This means
that for heavier-than-air vapour, the detector heads should be sited at a low level and for
lighter-than-air vapours, at high level. The sensing unit for the gas detection system is
normally located in the cargo control room or the wheelhouse. Provision should be made for
regular testing of the equipment: span gas of a certified mixture for calibration purposes
should be readily available and permanently piped, if possible.
Sampling and analysing from each detector head is done sequentially. The Gas Codes call for
sampling intervals from any one space generally not exceeding 30 minutes. Alarms should be
activated when the vapour concentration reaches 30 per cent of the lower flammable limit.
In addition to the fixed gas detection system, every ship must have at least two sets of
portable gas detection equipment adapted to the cargoes listed in the Fitness Certificate.
Means for measuring oxygen levels in inert atmospheres are also required.
Gas carrier crews should be familiar with gas detection equipment and its operating
principles. Manufacturer’s instructions should always be followed.
2.14.5 Integrated Systems
Some gas carriers relay read-outs from cargo instrumentation to an on-line computing
system. This allows the ship immediate access to cargo quantities and cargo tank conditions
at any stage of loading or discharging. To permit this system to function a shipboard method
of density determination is required, but such determinations should not be confused with
density values which may be noted on the Bill of Lading used for custody transfer.
2.14.6 Calibration
Instrumentation, as sophisticated as it can be, is only accurate if properly calibrated.
Calibration can be done on board by the crew, using calibration instruments, or it can be done
by service engineers carrying their own calibration instruments. Calibration instruments must
be calibrated at regular intervals in specialised facilities and carry a calibration certificate.
The ISM Code, in Chapter 9 of SOLAS, recommends that each ship carries a calibration
procedure and that confirmation of compliance with that procedure is available on board.
2.15 Hydrate Formation
Propane and butane may form hydrates under certain conditions of temperature and pressure
in the presence of free water. This water may be present in LPG as an impurity or may be
extracted from cargo tank bulkheads if rust is present. Rust which has been dehydrated in this
way by LPG loses its powers of adhesion to tank surfaces and may settle to the tank bottom
as a fine powder.
LPG hydrates are white crystalline solids which may block filters and reliquefaction
regulating valves. Furthermore they may damage cargo pumps.
Hydrate inhibitors such as methanol or ethanol may be added at suitable points in the system
but nothing whatsoever should be added without the consent of the shipper and ship
operator. It should be noted that in some countries the use of methanol is banned. In addition,
some chemical gases may be put off specification by the addition of methanol. Care must be
taken if a hydrate inhibitor is added to a polymerisable cargo as the polymer inhibition
mechanism may be negated. Since methanol is toxic, care should be taken regarding its safe
handling.
2.16 Glycol Systems
The use of water alone as a cooling or heating medium in low temperature cargo systems is
impracticable because it can freeze and cause blocked or burst pipes. Where cooling or
heating coils are essential to plant operations for certain cargoes a mixture of ethylene glycol
and water is normally used.
For ships carrying cargo down to -55 deg C, a 60% volume mixture of glycol in fresh water
should be adequate for all purposes. If the glycol content is less than 60% the mixture may
freeze, but excess glycol will provide no practical advantage.
The ethylene glycol mixture is usually circulated through a tank fitted with electric heating
coils and sea-water cooling coils by means of a pump to maintain it at the required
temperature. It may be used in the following applications:
 as a cooling system for cargo compressor bearings;
 in a cargo compressor suction gas superheating unit to prevent pre-compression
condensation;
 for heating jackets on differential pressure transmitters fitted to condensers and receivers
to prevent freezing;
 as a means of heating compressor lubricating oil, to vaporise refrigerant which may
contaminate the oil;
 for cargo compressor cylinder head cooling; or
 for cooling at two-stage compression intercoolers.
2.17 Abbreviations
LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas
LNG: Liquefied Natural Gas
TLV: Threshold Limit Value
ESD: Emergency Shut Down
NPSH: Net Positive Suction Head
MARVS: Maximum Allowable Relief Valve Setting
BLEVE: Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion
SIGGTO: Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators Limited
***
Reference
1. McGuire and White, Liquefied Gas Handling Principles on Ships and in Terminals, SIGTTO, Witherby
Publishers, London, 2000
2. International Chamber of Shipping, Tanker Safety Guide – Liuefied Gas, ICS, London, 1995
3. Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation, Instruction Book for Cargo Reliquefaction Plant –Crystal Marine,
Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation, 2002
4. J.H. Milton and RM Leach, Marine Steam boilers, 4th ed, Butterworths, London, 1980
5. MAN Diesel & Turbo, ME-GI Dual Fuel MAN B&W Engines – A Technical, Operational and Cost-effective
Solution for Ships Fuelled by Gas, MAN Diesel & Turbo, Denmark, 2014
6. MAN Diesel & Turbo, LNG Carrier propulsion by ME-GI Engines and/or Reliquefaction, MAN Diesel &
Turbo, Denmark
7. Dongging Ye, IGC Code, Ch-2, Retrieved from https://wenku.baidu.com/view/71afb122aaea998fcc220e76.html
Questions
1. Expand following abbreviations:

BLEVE, TLV, SIGGTO, LNG, MARVS, ESD, NPSH [IMU]
2. Sketch and describe how LPG boil off gas is re-liquidified and condensate returned to cargo tank.
[IMU 2017, 8-M]
3. Explain ESD system on gas carrier. [IMU 2017, 6-M]
4. Discuss safety arrangements of Cargo Compressors and Electric Motors on Gas Carriers. [IMU 2017, 6-M]
5. Name the various insulation materials used in Gas Carriers. [IMU 2016, 3-M]
6. Draw the Mollier Diagram for a single stage direct re-liquefaction cycle of a semi-pressurised gas carrier.
[IMU 2016, 3-M]
7. With a simple sketch, explain the arrangement of “compressor room/electric motor room” on a Gas carrier.
[IMU 2016, 9-M]
8. Explain briefly ESD (Emergency Shut - down) systems as used on Gas Carriers. [IMU 2016, 5-M]
9. Explain BOG Compressor parallel mode operation. [IMU 2015, 3-M]
10. (a) Explain with neat sketches construction of different types of cargo tanks used on LNG Carrier.
(b) Justify selection of materials for the tank and insulation. [IMU 2015, 10+4 M]
11. (a) Discuss fixed piping arrangements in a LPG tank .
(b) Explain with simplified diagram Gas Freeing / Aerating of a LPG tank. [IMU 2015, 6+8 M]
12. (a) In a LNG Carrier where is Nitrogen Gas used and why ?
(b) With neat diagram explain Membrane Type Nitrogen Generating System. [IMU 2015, 4+10 M]
12. What should be the quality of inert gas used for atmosphere control on board LPG carriers? [3M]
13. Explain hydrate formation on gas carriers.
14. (a) What is “cargo containment system” of a liquefied gas carrier? [3 M]
(b) Make a labelled sketch of prismatic self-supporting Independent Type ‘A’ Tank suitable for a fully
refrigerated LPG carrier. [5M]
(c) Describe prismatic self-supporting Independent Type ‘A’ Tank suitable for a fully refrigerated LPG carrier.
[6 M]
15. (a) What is the purpose of fitting reliquefaction plant on liquefied gas carriers? [4 M]
(b) What is indirect cooling cycle as used on liquefied gas carriers? [4 M]
(c) Sketch labeled diagrams of two indirect cycle systems used on liquefied gas carriers? [6 M]
16. Describe briefly ‘Fully Pressurised Gas Carrier.’
17. With reference to a gas carrier,
(a) Draw a labeled flow diagram of an inert gas generator. [7 M]
(b) Explain how inert gas of acceptable standard is produced by it. [7 M]
18. With reference to a gas carrier,
(a) Sketch a labeled diagram of compressor and electric motor room for reliquefaction plant. [6 M]
(b) Why deepwell or submersible pumps are used for cargo discharge on gas carriers? [2M]
(c) Explain the safety features of compressor and electric motor room for reliquefaction plant. [6 M]
19. What is 3G type Liquefied Gas Carrier, as per IGC code? [IMU 2018, 3 M]
20. Why Glycol used in LPG re-liquefaction system? [IMU 2018, 3 M]
21. (a) Sketch and describe cross section of LNG cargo tank and label all important elements.
(b) List different types of cargos carried on Gas carriers. [IMU 2018, 10+4 M]
22. (a) Sketch and describe re-liquefaction arrangement on fully refrigerated LPG carrier.
(b) List all alarms and safety devices on above system. [IMU 2018, 10+4 M]
Chapter 3
Chemical Tankers
3.1 Brief History of Chemical Tankers
Organic and inorganic chemicals were first synthesised on an industrial scale using coal,
limestone, cellulose or molasses as raw materials in the early 1900s. The first petrochemical
plants were developed in the United States in the 1920s, in tandem with the early oil
refineries.
Bulk shipment of liquid chemicals began in the mid-1940s using standard oil product tankers.
At about the same time, some traditional cargo ships were equipped with deep tanks suitable
for carrying vegetable oils as part of their liner cargo service. The first tanker to be specially
designed to carry chemicals in bulk was the Marine Dow-Chem, a twin-screw steam turbine
ship built in 1954 in the USA.
Fig. 3.1: SS Marine Dow-Chem (built 1954 in Quincy USA)

Since that time, the range of chemicals shipped in bulk has increased enormously and a
special class of ships has been developed to meet this need - the chemical tanker. Most early
chemical tankers were slightly modified product tankers, in which the main variation was
coating of the cargo tanks. Although many of the products shipped could be carried quite
safely in uncoated mild steel tanks, the need to maintain product quality, to minimise the
potential for discoloration, and to facilitate tank cleaning between cargoes led to tank surfaces
being coated with an impervious material.
As the shipment of bulk chemicals developed, different countries involved with the trade
developed regulations to minimise the risk to the ship, its crew and the environment, and
applied them to their own ships and ships trading to their ports. These regulations were not all
the same, and it was extremely difficult for a ship and its crew to comply with them all. To
establish an international standard for the safe design, construction and equipment of
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Chemical Tankers * Compiled by Anirudh Kumar *Page 78
chemical tankers, IMO developed the Bulk Chemical Codes. It was a major step forward. A
ship that complies with the IMO Codes is issued with a Certificate of Fitness that is
recognised internationally, and enables the ship to trade worldwide carrying the cargoes for
which it is approved.
The cargoes now carried in these ships range from petrochemicals used as feedstock for
plastics or synthetic rubbers and fibres, industrial acids and alkalis, alcohol and solvents,
highly refined lubricating oils and lubricating oil additives, to detergents, animal and
vegetable oils, and edible products such as fruit juices or wine. Furthermore, certain refined
petroleum products that were previously considered to be oils are now classified as chemicals
under IMO marine pollution or toxicity regulations, and must only be carried by chemical
tankers.
3.2 Chemical Tanker Cargoes
Chemical tanker cargoes may be divided into four main groups:
Petrochemicals: This is the collective name for organic chemicals derived from crude oil,
natural gas and coal. Organic chemicals are those produced from living or once-living
organisms, petroleum and natural gas (marine animals and plants) and coal (plants). It is now
possible to synthesise organic chemicals from inorganic chemicals to the extent that 'organic
chemicals' really means those compounds based upon the element carbon. But the term does
not include the simplest carbon compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and the
carbonates.
Alcohols and carbohydrates: Alcohols may be derived from hydrocarbons or produced by
fermentation.
Vegetable and animal oils and fats: Derived from the seeds of plants and from the fat of
animals and fish.
Acids and inorganic chemicals: Inorganic chemicals are those that are not produced from
living or once-living organisms. However, a number of inorganic chemicals such as sulphur
and ammonia can be manufactured using petroleum as the raw material. Acids may be
organic or inorganic.
3.3 Categorisation of Chemical Cargoes (NLS) as per MARPOL Annex II
The revised Annex II was adopted in October 2004 which entered into force on 1 January
2007. It includes a new four-category categorization system (X, Y, Z and OS) for chemical
cargoes (noxious liquid substances).
Category X: Noxious liquid substances which, if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning
or deballasting operations, are deemed to present a major hazard to either marine resources
or human health and, therefore, justify the prohibition of the discharge into the marine
environment.
Category Y: Noxious liquid substances which, if discharged into the sea are deemed to
present a hazard and therefore justify a limitation on the concentration and quantity of the
discharge into the marine environment.
Category Z: Noxious liquid substances which, if discharged into the sea, are deemed to
present a minor hazard to either marine resources or human health and therefore justify less
stringent restrictions on the quality and quantity of discharge into the marine environment.
Other Substances (OS): Substances which have been evaluated and found to fall outside
Category X, Y or Z because they are considered to present no harm to marine resources,
human health, amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea when discharged into the sea. The
discharge of bilge or ballast water or other residues or mixtures containing these substances
are not subject to any requirements of MARPOL Annex II.
3.4 CAS Numbers (or CAS Registry Numbers or CAS RN)
CAS Numbers are universally used to provide a unique, unmistakable identifier for chemical
substances. CAS Number itself has no inherence chemical significance but provides an
unambiguous way to identify a chemical substance or molecular structure when there are
many possible systematic, generic, proprietary or trivial names. CAS Numbers are used in
many other public and private data bases as well as chemical inventory listings and, of
course, are included in all CAS-produced databases.
CAS is a division of the American Chemical Society and is dedicated to improving people’s
life through the transforming power of chemistry and by organizing publically disclosed
chemistry information.
3.5 Types of Chemical Tankers
A modem chemical tanker is primarily designed to carry some of the several hundred
hazardous products now covered by the IMO Bulk Chemical Codes. The following general
types of chemical carriers have developed since the trade began:
Sophisticated parcel chemical tankers: They are typically up to 40,000 tonnes deadweight
with multiple small cargo tanks (up to 54) each with an individual pump and a dedicated
pipeline, to carry small parcels of high grade chemicals. These ships have a significant
proportion of the cargo tanks made with stainless steel, allowing maximum flexibility to carry
cargoes that need their quality safeguarded.
Product/chemical tankers: They are of similar size to parcel tankers but with fewer cargo
tanks, mostly of coated steel rather than stainless, and less sophisticated pump and line
arrangements. Such ships carry the less difficult chemicals, and also trade extensively with
clean oil products.
Specialised chemical carriers: They are small to medium sized ships, often on dedicated
trades and usually carrying a single cargo such as an acid, molten sulphur, molten
phosphorus, methanol, fruit juice/ palm oil or wine. Cargo tanks are coated or stainless steel
according to the trade.
Fig. 3.2: Double hull chemical tanker with 37 integral cargo tanks & additional deck tank
3.6. Construction
Fig. 3.3: A chemical tanker (cut away view)
Segregated ballast tanks

Slop Tanks: No regulatory requirements for a slop tank, any tank can be nominated.
Fig.3.4: Cargo area of a Chemical Tanker
The hazardous nature of many, but not aIl, of the cargoes carried in chemical tankers has
resulted in various rules and regulations relating to tanker construction in order to safeguard
both the ships and the environment.
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has produced a 'Code for the Construction
and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk’. This code provides a basis
for all such vessel designs and an IMO Certificate of Fitness must be obtained from the flag
state administration to indicate compliance. Also, Annex II of the Marpol 73/78 Convention
and Protocol is now in force and applies to hazardous liquid substances carried in chemical
tankers.
Fig.3.5: Ship arrangement of a chemical tanker
3.6.1 IMO Ship Types –Chemical Tankers

The IMO Code sets out three ship types-I, II and III, which correspond to different classes of
hazardous chemicals and the suitable location of the vessel’s tanks. The length L and breadth
B are defined in the ‘International Convention on Load Lines 1966’ and the configurations
are given in Figure 3.6. Damage considerations following collision, stranding and minor ship
side damage and also survival assumptions were the criteria considered in producing the tank
configurations. Ship type I is designed to provide maximum preventive measures with respect
to the escape of it’s cargo under the assumed conditions. Ship type II requires significant
preventive measures. Ship type III is for products of a sufficient hazard to require a moderate
degree of containment.
Type I Ship – Specialised Chemical Tankers
The regulation states for type I chemical tankers that:
- The wing tank should be minimum of B/5 or 11.5 m (whichever is less)
- The double bottom should be a minimum of B/15 or 6 m (whichever is less)
- In no case should these distances be less than 760 mm
Type II Ship – Complex Parcel Chemical Tankers
The regulation states for type II chemical tankers that:
- The wing tank should be minimum 760 mm
- The double bottom should be a minimum of B/15 or 6 m (whichever is less)
- In no case should these distances be less than 760 mm
Type III Ship – product Chemical Tankers
- No requirements
Fig.3.6: Chemical Tankers IMO ship types
3.6.2 Ship Structure - Chemical Tankers

The number of tanks, their volume and layout, will further be determined by the required
frame spacing in the cargo space. The tanks must be designed to withstand the dynamic
forces within partially filled tanks and also the high specific gravity of some cargoes.
The bottom structure may be either single or double bottom throughout or a double bottom
beneath the centre tanks and a single bottom beneath the wing tanks. The choice will be
influenced by the fact that IMO types I and II must have a double bottom and double bottom
ballast lank capacity is needed for trimming and heeling.
Bulkheads may be either horizontally or vertically corrugated or plane with stiffeners on the
outside of the tank to facilitate tank cleaning. Sandwich or double skin bulkheads have also
been used to provide easily c1eaned tank surfaces in both wing and centre tanks.
The hull structure may be single or double skin. IMO Type II cargoes require a double hull
and cargoes requiring heating or cooling can benefit from the insulating effect of a double
skin.
Deck structure can be conventional with stiffeners in the tank space or may use a double skin
or cofferdam in order to provide plane surfaces within the tanks. Single decks with stiffeners
outside the tank space have been used.
3.6.3 Tank Coatings and Construction Materials
Protection of the structural components is important and various types of coating are used in
the cargo tanks. Tanks may be constructed of mild steel, clad steel or stainless steel. The
choice of paint or other coating will depend upon the various cargoes to be carried and
compatibility is essential. The main types of coatings used are epoxy, phenolics, zinc silicate
and polyurethane. Rubber coatings are used in tanks carrying liquids such as hydrochloric
acid.
Stainless steel is an ideal material for construction of cargo tanks, pipelines and pumps
because it has the greatest overall resistance to corrosive attack by chemicals. However it is
expensive and is vulnerable to attack by a few substances. The tanks of some chemical
tankers are of plain steel but for greater resistance to corrosion, ease of cleaning and
reduction of iron absorption by some chemicals and solvents tanks may be of steel with a
protective coating of epoxy, polyurethane, zinc silicate or phenolic resins. Some tanks have
been constructed with stainless steel cladding.
Epoxy coatings are suitable for alkalis, glycols, animal fats and vegetable oils but the acidity
of the last two should be limited. Alcohols tend to soften the coating as do esters, ketones and
chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Polyurethane coatings are suitable for the same types of cargoes as epoxies and some of the
solvents compatible with zinc silicate.
Fig.3.7: Tank construction material and coatings
Zinc silicate is used for aromatic hydrocarbon solvents, alcohols and ketones but not for acids
or alkalis.
Phenolic resins have good resistance to strong solvents and most of the substances acceptable
to the other coatings.
All materials used for construction of tanks associated pipings, valves, and pumps must be
resistant to the cargo carried. Mild steel is the normal material used in the construction of a
chemical tanker. Mild steel is resistant to most chemicals, but its propensity to rust makes it
unsuitable for chemical cargoes.
Rust makes tank cleaning more difficult and may also contaminate the cargo. In order to
avoid contamination and to obtain a smooth surface on tank structures, mild steel cargo tanks
on chemical tankers are always coated internally with paint that is resistant to group of
chemicals. No coating is resistant to all chemicals and a ‘coating resistance table’ supplied by
the manufacturer of the coating must invariably be consulted prior to loading a chemical
cargo.
Most chemical tankers have their cargo tank section divided into some coated and some
stainless steel tanks.
Stainless steel may be ‘clad’ or ‘solid’. ‘clad steel’ consists of a mild steel plate with a
‘veneer of stainless steel’ of about 2 mm thickness. Stainless steel is resistant to almost all
chemicals, but it must be emphasized that it is not ‘stainless’ or ‘corrosion-resistant’ unless it
is handled properly. The steel manufacturer’s or owner’s instruction for maintenance of
stainless steel tanks and piping must be strictly followed by ship’s person.
Fig.3.8: Tank layout and various tank coatings
3.7 Pumps for Chemical Tankers

Pumprooms in chemical tankers are very dangerous because of the risk of leakage from pump
glands, of toxic/flammable vapour and corrosive or otherwise harmful Liquids. The practice
of positioning submersible or deep-well pumps within cargo tanks eliminates pumproom
dangers. Having individual pumps also reduces the risk of mixing cargoes and contamination.
Types of pumps used in chemical tankers are: centrifugal pumps (submerged pumps,
deepwell pumps), piston pumps, screw pumps etc.
3.7.1 Submerged Cargo Pump (hydraulically driven)
Figure 3.9 shows a submerged pump based on a type produced by Frank Mohn AS. Pump
elements, casing and pipework, are of stainless steel, which although expensive, will
withstand the corrosive effects of most chemicals. Obviously, where a chemical tanker is to
be engaged on a particular trade it may be possible to use cheaper materials. Working
pressure for the hydraulic circuit is up to about 170 bar and return pressure about 3 bar. The
high pressure oil supply pipe for the hydraulic motor is placed central to and is surrounded by
the return pipe. The return pipe and hydraulic motor casing are provided with a protective
outer cofferdam to give complete separation of hydraulic oil and cargo. The arrangement of
three concentric tubes used for this arrangement is shown in Figure 3.9.
Fig.3.9: Submerged cargo pump (Frank Mohn type)
The pump suction is positioned close to the bottom of the tank well for good tank drainage.
Nevertheless, when pumping is completed, the vertical discharge pipe will be left full of
liquid. Stopping the pump would allow the considerable amount of liquid in the discharge, to
fall back into the tank so that clearing the tank of cargo remains or water used in tank
cleaning, would be a constant problem. The remedy is provided by purging connections fitted
to clear the discharge pipe. Purging is effected by closing the deck discharge valve as the tank
clears of liquid, then with the pump left running to prevent cargo fallback, the purge
connection is opened. Compressed air or inert gas at 7 bar will clear the vertical discharge
pipe by pressurizing it from the top and forcing liquid cargo up through the small riser to the
deck main. There is a small valve on the riser, to be opened before and closed after this
operation.
The safety cofferdam around the hydraulic pipes and motor is connected to the drainage
chamber between the motor and pump. Seals, above and below the chamber, exclude ingress
of low pressure hydraulic oil and liquid cargo, respectively. The bottom seal is subject only to
pressure from the head of cargo in the tank, not to pump pressure.
The cofferdam can be pressurized while the pump is operating to check for leakage. Any
liquid (oil or cargo) which collects in the chamber is forced up by the compressed air purge to
the telltale, where it can be identified.
3.7.2 Deepwell Pump
Deepwell pumps are centrifugal pumps driven, through a long vertical shaft, by a hydraulic
or electric motor mounted at deck level above the cargo tank top. An electric motor for this
duty would be a cage induction motor of the increased safety (Ex e) type. The multi-stage
deepwell pump (Figure 3.10) is designed for liquefied gas cargoes and features an oil filled
gas seal at deck level. The oil within the seal chamber is maintained constantly one bar above
cargo tank pressure by an accumulator containing a plunger which is operated by air or
nitrogen pressure.
The drive shaft is located within the pump discharge pipe and is supported in carbon
bearings. The shaft is protected by way of the bearings by stainless steel sleeves. Positioning
of the shaft within the discharge pipe allows the liquid cargo to lubricate and cool the
bearings. It is essential that this type of pump is not allowed to run dry or with a throttled
discharge valve as there is a risk of overheated bearings. A pressure cut-out or thermal switch
may be arranged.
The weight of the pump shaft and impellers is considerable and one or more carrier bearings
are fitted. Prevention of lift of the shaft due to ship movement or impeller surge makes a
thrust bearing necessary.
The number of stages in the multi-stage pump shown is dictated by the discharge head
required. The diffuser rings around each impeller serve to increase discharge pressure; this
type of pump is often referred to as a turbine pump. As an alternative to the multi-stage unit
and its high power drive through a long line shaft, a single stage pump can be installed to lift
the liquid to deck level, where a booster pump is fitted to assist transfer of the cargo ashore.
The inducer frequently fitted to the pump shown, is an archimedian screw, attached to the
drive shaft just below the impeller at the pump suction. It improves the flow of volatile
liquids into the pump. Teflon shaft bearings are used for chemical pumping.
3.7.3 Submerged Electrically Driven Pumps
The pump and its electric motor are positioned at the bottom of the discharge pipe, within the
cargo tank. The cage type induction motors used for this duty are safe in an environment
where no air is present and are also basically safe because there are no brush contacts or other
sources of sparks. The arrangement can give problems with ammonia cargoes. Ammonia
tends to corrode the electrical contacts.
Fig. 3.10: Typical deepwell pump
3.7.4 Stripping System
To enable older chemical tankers to comply with anti-pollution legislation, various stripping
setups have been designed for retrofit. The drain tank for the retrofit system (Figure 3.11) can
be fitted beneath the cargo tank, in the double bottom. Cargo remains drain through some
type of automatically closing ball valve, to the drain tank below, and are then forced out
through a discharge riser to deck level, by air or gas pressure. The procedure is repeated until
the tank is empty. The discharge pipe is then blown dry. Complete cargo discharge is possible
using this method, without the need to finish with a water wash to clear remains.
Fig 3.11: Cargo tank stripping arrangement

3.7.5 Screw Pump
Screw pumps (Fig. 3.12) are common on small chemical tankers. In small ships, it is possible
to draw the liquid from the tank bottoms directly to deck level where the pumps are located.
Other typical uses are for viscous products, such as molasses and asphalt. The great
advantage with screw pumps lies in their self priming properties. All different types of shaft
seals are being used depending on the product to be pumped. Screw pumps are somewhat
sensitive to very light products such as gasoline and even water, which may cause scoring
between the screws.
3.7.6 Piston Cargo Pumps
Piston cargo pumps are still being installed in chemical tankers, mainly for stripping
purposes.
Fig. 3.12: Screw pump
Fig. 3.13: Piston type pump
3.8 Cargo Pumping Arrangement of One Cargo Tank in a Chemical Tanker

3.8.1 Cargo Information
Information about cargoes to be handled is essential to the safety of the vessel and her Crew
such information may be found on ICS or other Cargo Data Sheets for each product, which
also include all necessary data for the safe handling and carriage of the cargo. Cargo
information for most tanker cargoes is kept on board and available for all concerned. The
cargo will not be loaded unless sufficient information necessary for its safe handling and
transportation is available. The responsible officer will see to it that the necessary cargo
information is posted on the notice board prior to cargo operations. All personnel engaged in
cargo operations should familiarize themselves with the cargoes by studying the ICS or other
Cargo Data Sheets. Cargo operations on chemical tankers may involve simultaneous loading,
unloading and tank cleaning.
3.8.2 Loading
All personnel must follow standing instructions at all times whether or not the cargo to be
loaded is dangerous. Personnel on watch or involved in the loading operation should wear
appropriate protective clothing, as indicated in the ICS or other Cargo Data Sheets, when
handling dangerous cargoes. Cargoes are stowed according to a stowage plan that was
prepared before loading. Prior to loading, cargo tank are inspected for cleanliness and
suitability for cargo according to the stowage plan. Prior to the loading of cargoes which
present a major fire hazard, tanks are purged with nitrogen to remove air so that the
atmosphere above the cargo will be non-flammable. Such cargoes are kept under nitrogen
“padding” during the voyage. Cargo is routed from the manifold to tanks on a chemical
tanker with separate lines for each tank. Cargoes giving off vapours, which present a major
health hazard, are loaded in a “closed circuit”, requiring a vapour-return line. In order to
check for impurities, cargo samples are taken from lines and tanks. During loading, a vessel’s
trim, list and stability may be adjusted by filling or emptying ballast tanks. All events during
cargo operations are recorded
Fig. 3.14: Tank section of a product/chemical tanker with deepwell pumps

3.8.3 Unloading
All personnel must follow standing instructions at all times during unloading, whether or not
the cargo is considered dangerous. Personnel on watch or involved in the unloading operation
should wear appropriate protective clothing, as indicated in the ICS or other Cargo Data
Sheets, when handling dangerous cargoes. Cargoes are unloaded according to a planned
sequence of emptying tanks. Prior to unloading, cargo samples from each tank and from
cargo lines are analyzed to check if a product has been contaminated on board during
passage.
Fig. 3.15: Unloading arrangements of a Chemical tanker

3.9 Pressure Surge
A pressure surge is generated in a pipeline system when there is any change in the rate of
flow of liquid in the line. The surge can be dangerous if the change of flow rate is too rapid.
Pressure surges are most likely to be created during cargo transfer as a result of one of the
following actions:
 closure of an automatic emergency shutdown (ESD) valve;
 rapid closure or opening of a manual or power-operated valve;
 slamming shut of a non-return valve; or
 starting or stopping of a pump.
If the total pressure generated in the pipeline exceeds the strength of any part of the pipeline
system upstream of the valve which is closed, there may be a rupture leading to an extensive
spillage. There are similar risks if a valve is opened rapidly to fill a downstream system.
It is a golden rule of tanker operations that a valve should never be shut against a liquid flow.
Pressure surges can be created when the flow in a liquid is stopped too quickly. The potential
hazards of pressure surges (shock pressure, known as water hammer or liquid hammer)
resulting from rapid operation of valves should be emphasised to all personnel engaged in
cargo transfer. The hazard is greatest when cargo is being transferred over long distances and
at high velocity. If a valve is shut too quickly under these conditions the deceleration of the
large column of liquid in the line sets up shock waves which can travel up and down the line
causing extremely high surge pressures. The cargo hose is most vulnerable to failure in these
circumstances.
The following precautions should be taken to avoid pressure surge during cargo transfer:
 Shutdown procedures should be in place, with the intent that pumps are stopped and
upstream valves are closed first. Except in an emergency, unplanned shutdowns should be
avoided. Special care is needed with automatic high level shutdown valves, which may
close due to loss of power, or as a result of an external event unrelated to the ship.
 During loading, when flow is diverted from one tank to another, the valves on the tank
about to receive cargo should be fully opened before the valves on the tank being isolated
are shut. When loading is completed, the flow should be stopped by the terminal using
shore valves to prevent overstressing the cargo hose.
 During discharge, pump discharge valves should be shut or the pump stopped before
manifold valves are closed or valves in the shore pipeline or tank farm are shut down.
3.10 Tank Cleaning Procedures
Tank cleaning is essential on a chemical tanker, but it must be recognised as a potentially
hazardous operation, and rigorous precautions should be observed throughout the process.
Together with gas freeing, it is probably the most hazardous operation routinely undertaken
on a chemical tanker.
The additional risk created by cargo gases expelled from the tanks cannot be over-
emphasised. Depending on the most recent cargo carried in tanks that are to be cleaned,
vapours that are toxic, flammable and corrosive should be expected to be released onto and
around the cargo deck area. It is therefore of utmost importance that every possible care is
exercised during all operations connected with tank cleaning and gas freeing, and that the
operations are carried out using the approved procedures and arrangements for the ship.
Personnel involved should be fully aware of the dangers and take necessary precautions,
because the consequences of an inadvertent error can be very serious and far reaching.
3.10.1 Preparations
Before any tank cleaning or gas freeing operations begin, the responsible officer should
confirm that all necessary equipment is available, and that adequate checks are made to
establish that all equipment to be used is in good working condition. Both before and during
tank cleaning and gas freeing operations, the responsible officer should be satisfied that the
appropriate precautions set out in this chapter are being observed. All personnel on board
should be notified that tank cleaning or gas freeing is about to begin, and only those
personnel involved in the operations should be allowed into the cargo tank area.
If other craft are alongside the tanker, their personnel should be notified that tank cleaning
operations are about to commence, and their compliance with all appropriate safety measures
should be confirmed.
When gas freeing or tank cleaning, while alongside at a terminal, the precautions for cargo
handling should be observed where appropriate. Before starting, the permission of the port
authority and terminal operator should be obtained, and the appropriate personnel ashore
should be consulted to confirm that conditions on the jetty do not present a hazard, and to
obtain agreement that operations can start.
The following checks should be made before operations commence:
 That essential protective clothing and respiratory protection equipment are being worn if
so required.
 That fresh water shower and eyewash arrangements are ready for immediate use in the
event of contamination of personnel.
 That work not related to cargo operations, and not otherwise essential, is avoided in the
cargo area during tank cleaning operations.
 That cargo pipelines serving set of cargo tanks are isolated from the tanks to be cleaned or
gas freed, unless all tanks in that set are to be cleaned.
 That tanks served by a common vent system are properly isolated.
 That cargo tank lids, tank washing openings, ullage openings and sighting ports in
uncleaned tanks are kept closed until they are to be cleaned.
 That all sea and overboard discharge valves connected to the cargo and ballast systems
are shut and secured when not in use.
 That pumproom precautions are being observed and will continue to be observed
throughout tank cleaning and gas freeing operations.
 That firefighting equipment is ready for immediate use.
3.10.2 Cargo Tank Washing and Cleaning
Water is the most common washing medium for flushing the bottoms of cargo tanks, or for
cleaning them using tank washing machines. It is readily available in large quantities, it is an
efficient cleanser and on most chemical tankers the wash water can be heated when
necessary. Nevertheless, it is sometimes necessary to use small quantities of chemical
additives or detergents as a cleaning agent in order to improve the cleaning effect.
However, in some situations water will not be used. Water must not be used in the case of
chemicals that react with water, and a washing medium other than water may also be used for
commercial reasons. It may be permissible to use ventilation to remove cargo residues and
gas free a cargo tank after a highly volatile cargo has been carried. In every case, the full
safety aspects of the operation should be considered.
When tank cleaning in port, relevant regulations and limitations established by the port
authority and terminal, should be complied with.
After carrying a low flash point cargo, a flammable vapour mixture should always be
suspected until tests have established that the atmosphere is non-flammable. Equal care is
necessary after carrying a non-volatile flammable cargo at a temperature above its flash point,
or after discharge of any cargo or ballast that had been loaded into a tank that was not free of
flammable vapour. Toxic vapour in harmful concentrations should also be assumed after
unloading cargo which has a vapour inhalation hazard.
Cargo vapour, toxic or flammable, should be suspected in cofferdams or any other space
within the cargo area into which such cargoes may have leaked.
3.10.3 Tank Washing Atmospheres
Tank washing may be carried out in one of the following atmospheres:
 Inert - An atmosphere made incapable of burning by the introduction of inert gas, and
thereby reducing the overall oxygen content. For the purposes of this guide, the oxygen
content of an inert tank atmosphere should not exceed 8% by volume.
 Non-inert - An atmosphere which is undefined.
3.10.4 Precautions When Tank Washing in an Inert Atmosphere

Although the atmosphere in a properly inerted tank is incapable of burning, the following
precautions should be observed:
 When portable washing machines are used, all hose connections should be made up
before the washing machine is introduced into the tank. Connections should not be broken
until after the machine has been removed from the tank. However, to allow draining of a
hose, a coupling may be partially opened and then re-tightened before the machine is
removed.
 The tank should be kept drained during washing. Washing should be stopped to clear any
build-up of wash water.
When there is a need to maintain an inert atmosphere during tank washing, the following
points should be observed:
 The purity and pressure of the inert gas being delivered during the washing process
should be monitored.
 Before each tank is washed, the oxygen level in the tank should be determined both at a
point about 1 metre below the deck and at the middle level of the ullage space. At neither
location should the oxygen level exceed 8% by volume.
 If during washing the oxygen level in the inert gas supply exceeds 8% by volume or the
pressure of the atmosphere in the tank is no longer positive, washing should be stopped
until satisfactory conditions are restored.
Some cargoes carried under an inert blanket are not flammable but the atmosphere is inerted
for cargo quality reasons. In this case, gradual decay of the inert atmosphere during cleaning
is acceptable. In all other cases, if the inert atmosphere is not maintained then the procedures
used and precautions taken should be as for an undefined atmosphere.
3.10.5 Precautions When Tank Washing in an Undefined Atmosphere
Most tank cleaning on chemical tankers is conducted in an undefined atmosphere. In all cases
after carrying a flammable cargo, the atmosphere in an empty tank should be treated as
flammable. The only way to guarantee that an explosion cannot occur during washing in an
undefined atmosphere is to make certain that there can be no source of ignition.
Good tanker practice will avoid all normal sources but, in addition, the following precautions
should be taken if the risk from static electricity is to be eliminated:
 Before washing, the tank bottom should be flushed with water and stripped. The piping
system, including cargo pumps, crossovers and discharge lines, should also be flushed
with water. The flushing water should be drained to the tank designated to receive slops.
This operation may not be necessary if the ship is fitted with an efficient stripping system,
and the cargo tank and pipelines have been stripped as detailed in the ship's Procedures
and Arrangements Manual.
 When portable washing machines are used, all hose connections should be made up
before the washing machine is introduced into the tank. Connections should not be broken
until after the machine has been removed from the tank. However, to allow draining of a
hose, a coupling may be partially opened and then re-tightened before the machine is
removed.
 Ropes made of synthetic fibres should not be used to support the tank cleaning machines.
 No machine may have a throughput greater than 60 m3 per hour, and no nozzle may have
a throughput greater than 17.5 m3 per hour.
 The total water throughput per cargo tank should be kept as low as practicable and must
in no case exceed 110 m3 per hour.
 The tank should be kept drained during washing. Washing should be stopped to clear any
build-up of wash water.
 Recirculated wash water should not be used, because it may increase the generation of
static electricity.
 Sounding rods and other equipment must be introduced through a sounding pipe reaching
close to the bottom of the tank and earthed to it. If a sounding pipe is not used then the
additional precautions should be followed.
 No other material that may create a spark or static electricity should be lowered into the
tank.
 Steam should not be injected into the tank.
3.10.6 Special Cleaning Methods
Water washing may be inadequate or inappropriate after the carriage of certain products,
because tanks can only be adequately cleaned by special cleaning methods or cleaning agents.
Where it is decided to use a special cleaning method, and well documented experience
indicates that it is safe to do so, thorough company guidance should be provided that
describes the procedures for the ship to follow.
Where a special cleaning method is to be used in port, local authorities may impose
additional safety or environmental requirements.
Some cargoes may react with certain cleaning agents and produce large amounts of toxic or
flammable vapours, or render equipment such as pumps inoperable. The choice of a tank
cleaning agent should be made with full knowledge of the cargo characteristics.
If a special method involving cleaning agents is to be used, it may create an additional hazard
for the crew. Shipboard procedures should ensure that personnel are familiar with, and
protected from, the health hazards associated with such a method. The cleaning agents may
be added to the wash water or used alone. The cleaning procedures adopted should not entail
the need for personnel to enter the tank.
If, however, the only practical means of cleaning involves personnel entering the tank then
the relevant precautions should be strictly followed. No one should enter any cargo tank
unless express permission to do so has been received from the responsible officer, and all
appropriate precautions taken. The tank atmosphere should be safe for entry and an entry
permit issued. Chemical absorption detectors should be used for detecting the presence of
specific gases and vapours at TLV levels.
In exceptional circumstances the requirement might arise for wiping down product residues
from the tank walls by using a chemical solvent in a localised area. The amount used should
be small, and the personnel involved should be aware that its use may modify the
atmosphere. The introduction of the solvent into the tank might also generate additional risks
such as toxicity or flammability. Such risks should be carefully evaluated before starting the
operation, which should not be undertaken unless the personnel involved can be effectively
protected from those risks. Data sheets for the chemical solvent used should be available on
board.
In addition, manufacturer's instructions or recommendations for the use of commercial
products should be observed, and the resulting slops disposed of in accordance with the ship's
P&A Manual.
3.11 Inert Gas Systems for Chemical Tankers
3.11.1 Introduction
In the context of chemical tanker operations and chemical cargoes an inert gas system may
have three distinct uses: preventing a fire, preventing a chemical reaction or maintaining
cargo quality.
Flammable gases normally encountered in chemical tankers cannot bum in an atmosphere
which is deficient in oxygen, and an inert gas is understood to be a gas used to produce such
an atmosphere by displacing air. SOLAS specifies the standards necessary to do this. It may
be achieved by using either nitrogen or oil fired flue gas, with a portable or fixed piping
arrangement to supply the inert gas to the cargo tanks and, if applicable, the places
surrounding the cargo tanks. Mandatory safety requirements for tank atmosphere control are
given in the IBC Code; for example the system must be able to compensate for normal
transportation losses and maintain an overpressure of at least 0.07 bar gauge at all times.
There are several types of inert gas systems that can be used on chemical carriers. The most
common are:
• stored compressed nitrogen;
• stored liquid nitrogen;
• gaseous nitrogen supplied from shore;
• nitrogen generators using pressure swing adsorption (PSA);
• nitrogen generators using membrane separation;
• oil fired inert gas generators.
There are occasions when inerting is not appropriate for safety reasons, because exclusion of
oxygen could create hazardous situations with a number of chemicals when shipped in
monomer form. Such chemicals (e.g. acrylic acid, styrene and vinyl acetate) have added
inhibitors to prevent polymerization during transportation. In order to be effective, the
inhibitors require the presence of oxygen dissolved in the monomer, and that oxygen is
obtained from the air in the ullage space. Inhibited monomers must therefore be carried in
tanks where the atmosphere has an oxygen level sufficient for the inhibitor to fulfill its
purpose.
3.11.2 Quality
Most nitrogen used as inert gas on chemical tankers is not used for safety reasons but for
cargo quality control. Shippers often have their own special requirements to ensure cargo
quality, which can require inert gas of extreme purity, and may specify that nitrogen for
initial inerting of cargo systems prior to loading a cargo will be supplied from the loading
terminal.
Smaller amounts of pure nitrogen can come from compressed or liquid nitrogen containers
stored on board, and refilled from shore when required, but a very high quality can be
produced on board by nitrogen generators based on membrane separation, or swing
adsorption generators.
When using an oil fired inert gas generator, an oxygen level of less than 5% can generally be
obtained, depending on the quality of combustion control and the load on the boiler. The gas
must be cooled and scrubbed with water to remove soot and sulphur acids before being
supplied to the cargo tanks. But certain cargoes, for instance chemically reactive cargoes, are
sensitive to oxygen concentrations as low as 2.0% by volume. Some cargoes react with
carbon dioxide in Hue gases. Other cargoes are highly sensitive to moisture, or are liable to
discoloration. For these reasons oil fired flue gas systems are rarely used on chemical carriers
when carrying chemical cargoes, because demands for strict control of atmosphere standards
cannot be met. The following is an indication of potential problems that may occur:
• acid catalyzed hydrolysis (e.g. with esters, acetates or acrylates);
• acid catalyzed polymerisation (e.g. with allyl chloride);
• formation of carbonates (e.g. with amines);
• increased acidity (e.g. contamination of toluene and xylene by carbon dioxide);
• reaction with water (e.g. with acetone or ethanol);
• de-activation of polymerisation inhibitors (e.g. with vinyl acetate);
• sulphur contamination (e.g. with methanol);
• high chloride ion levels (e.g. because of sea water carry over from the scrubber/water seal
which could affect the catalyst in subsequent reactions).
Because of these real and potential problems with such cargoes, charterers now prefer that
dry nitrogen is used for inerting a tank, and when preparing a tank atmosphere for loading.
3.11.3 Gaseous Nitrogen Supplied from Shore

Supplies of pure nitrogen, for initial inerting of cargo tanks prior to loading a cargo, will
generally be provided direct from the loading terminal. Occasionally, shore supplied nitrogen
is also used for maintaining an inert gas overpressure while unloading. Such nitrogen is in
gaseous form, and can be provided at high flow rates, greatly exceeding normal liquid flow
rates.
Although the operation is an important stage in cargo handling, it is also potentially
hazardous because high pressure gas is being introduced into a tank not designed to withstand
internal pressure, and the structure of the tank may fail due to overpressure.
3.11.4 Compressed Nitrogen Stored on Board
High pressure gaseous nitrogen can be stored in steel cylinders; the common size is 50 litres
capacity, pressurised to 200 bar, which will supply 10 m3 of gaseous nitrogen. It can be used
to compensate for normal transportation losses and to maintain the required overpressure.
A typical installation on a ship consists of a number of such cylinders connected in parallel to
form a battery, which uses a pressure regulator that is set to maintain the required positive
pressure in the cargo tanks without lifting the tank pressure relief valve. Compressed nitrogen
can be obtained in several grades of purity.
3.11.5 Liquid Nitrogen Stored on Board
Nitrogen can be stored on board in liquid form, at the cryogenic temperature of -196°C. It is
stored in insulated tanks made from cold-resistant material, usually stainless steel pressure
vessels. The cryogenic tank has an outer casing of steel, protected by several layers of anti-
corrosion paint. The space between the inner and outer tanks is kept under vacuum and is
filled with a non-flammable, high efficiency insulation which allows nitrogen to be stored
over extended periods without appreciable losses.
Liquid nitrogen storage tanks fitted on chemical tankers are refilled in port from shore
resources. When gaseous nitrogen is required for use in cargo tanks, the liquid is converted
back to gas using a finned tube evaporator that obtains the necessary heat for vaporisation
from the ambient air.
Nitrogen of the purity required is typically with an oxygen content variable between 0.1%
and 2% by volume, with water and carbon dioxide contents below 5ppm. Oxygen enriched
air is vented as a waste gas, which must be exhausted to a safe area.
3.11.6 Oil Fired Inert Gas Generator
Oil fired inert gas is generally acceptable for use with petroleum products but it has been
found that the quality of the inert gas generated by this type of system is not suitable for use
with many chemical products, because it can affect the cargo quality.
It is therefore recommended that when inerting or padding is required by the IBC Code for a
particular cargo, nitrogen is used to inert or pad that cargo unless the shipper or supplier has
stated that oil fired inert gas is acceptable for such purposes.
The basic principle of oil fired plants is that the oxygen content of the air is converted to
carbon dioxide by combustion of oil while the nitrogen content remains largely unchanged.
The oil fuel is burnt in a combustion chamber and the combustion (or flue) gas is passed
through a water tower (or scrubber) to cool it and remove most of the sulphur dioxide,
particulates and impurities. This requires contact between the flue gas and large quantities of
sea water.
The gas may then be dried by being passed either through a cooler or an alumina bed dryer
(or even both). Chemical tankers are usually fitted with two non-return valves in series as an
equivalent to a deck water seal, thereby avoiding the risk of water carry over into the cargo.
As a further safeguard against backflow, there is usually an isolating valve or a spool piece at
each branch connection.
The inert gas produced by oil fired generators depends on the quality of the fuel oil and the
efficiency of the combustion and scrubbing processes. These factors influence, for example,
the amount of sulphides in the inert gas produced - which is why the sulphur content of the
fuel is limited in the plant specification. Likewise, inefficient combustion can cause soot,
which clogs the scrubber and, in particular, the dryer system, thereby producing wet and dirty
inert gas.
If the plant is efficiently burning good quality fuel, the inert gas can be expected to have
approximately the following composition:
Carbon dioxide 15%
Oxygen 1.0%
Carbon monoxide 0.1%
Oxides of nitrogen 120 ppm
Hydrogen l00 ppm
Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide 120 ppm
Nitrogen Balance
Dewpoint -25°C
Fig. 3.16: Oil fired inert gas generator
3.12 Controls & Safety Devices Associated with Loading & Discharging; Tank Gauging
Systems
3.12.1 Introduction
Much of the monitoring and measurement during cargo operations on chemical tankers
remains reliant on human interpretation of information, and subsequent decisions are made
on the basis of training and experience. Those factors will continue to be fundamental to safe
carriage of chemicals by sea. Modern measurement instrumentation has achieved an
improved flow of information at a consistent standard and modern control technology permits
exact management of operations. However, in order to be able safely to take full advantage of
the gains available, there is a need to understand the capability of the instruments and,
equally, their limitations. The best source of detailed information about a particular system
can be found in the manufacturer's advice, in particular regarding calibration or maintenance
requirements.
Fig. 3.17: Monitoring & measurement instruments for cargo operations on chemical tankers
3.12.2 Alarms and Shut Down Circuits

An important feature of many modem measurement and control instruments is the ability to
signal a particular situation. This can be a main operational alarm that gives an indication of a
pre-set situation such as liquid level in a tank, or a malfunction alarm indicating a failure
within a sensor's own operating mechanism. The designs and purposes of alarm and
shutdown circuits vary widely, and their operating system may be pneumatic, hydraulic,
electrical or electronic. Safe operation of plant and systems depends on the correct operation
of these circuits and a knowledgeable reaction to them.
The following precautions should be observed:
• where provided, test facilities should be used before cargo operations commence, to check
that the circuits and their alarms are operating: any instrument fault should be rectified;
• wiring inside and outside cabinets should be checked for chafing, condensation, insulation
deterioration, bad connections etc;
• watchkeepers should be instructed how to distinguish between each audible alarm and what
action is necessary;
• the accuracy of all inputs to alarm circuits should be checked;
• if an alarm is activated, the cause must be investigated and necessary remedial action taken;
• if an alarm circuit becomes defective during cargo operations, it should be repaired as soon
as possible.
Defective circuits may be by-passed temporarily in case of an emergency, but this action
should only be taken with the full agreement of the responsible officer and the decision
should be recorded. Completion of the repair work should also be recorded.
3.12.3 Liquid Level Gauges
3.12.3.1 General
The accuracy required of chemical carrier level gauges is high because of the nature and
value of the cargo. To limit personnel exposure to chemicals or their vapours while cargo is
being handled or during carriage at sea, the IBC Code specifies three methods of gauging the
level of a liquid in a tank - open, restricted or closed - according to the health hazard of the
product. Many chemical cargoes may not be gauged by manual dipping because to do so
requires an opening to the atmosphere during operation. The use of completely closed
gauging systems is necessary, so that no vapour is emitted. Examples of closed systems are
float gauges or radar systems. Indirect measuring methods such as flow metering may also be
used.
Many more chemicals, although still hazardous, do not require quite such rigorous controls,
and restricted gauging accepts that a very small amount of vapour may escape during
gauging. An example is using a sounding pipe that reaches right into the liquid. Virtually all
toxic cargoes require either restricted gauging or closed gauging.
However, other cargoes can be gauged through openings in the ullage space. This is called
open gauging.
3.12.3.2 Float Gauges
These are closed gauges, and consist of a float which rises vertically on the liquid. It is
attached by a tape to an indicating device for local reading, with provision for a drive
mechanism for remote read-out. Particular attention is drawn to the following:
 floats should be secured when at sea, except briefly during measurement of tank contents.
If the float remains unsecured at sea it will almost certainly be damaged due to sloshing
of the cargo;
 remote and local readings should be compared frequently to determine discrepancies;
 readings may need to be corrected to allow for tape and tank expansion or contraction,
and ship trim and heel. Tables are normally provided for this purpose;
 tapes should be checked regularly for free vertical movement of the float, and if damaged,
should be replaced. Particular care is necessary with the rewind mechanisms which are
carefully balanced: if obstructed, the gauge readings will be inaccurate;
 when tapes are renewed, or a gauge reassembled after maintenance, allowance should be
made for the level at which the float begins to lift. Manufacturer's instructions should be
consulted;
 parts should be securely assembled: special care is necessary with tape-to-float and tape-
to-reel attachments.
Other designs of gauges use floats that rise and fall on the outside of a closed pipe which
penetrates the main deck. Inside the pipe are fixed magnets and a series of switches that
transmit a signal to a display unit, usually in the cargo control room.
Fig. 3.18: Types of gauging for Chemical Tanker liquid level
3.12.3.3 Radar, Ultrasonic or Microwave Gauges
Fig. 3.19: Typical radar ullage gauge
These are also closed gauges, and work on the principle used by a radar set or an echo
sounder. Pulses are transmitted from the top of the tank and the time taken for them to be
reflected back is measured, and displayed as an ullage or depth. Special arrangements may be
made to reduce interference by internal tank structure Radar gauges are generally reliable,
and most maintenance can be performed from outside, with the tank in the closed condition.
Particular care is necessary to protect the delicate transmitters and receivers, and when
calibrating this type of gauge.
3.12.3.4 Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges make use of the difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure in
the liquid near the tank bottom. Sometimes an additional sensor is mounted near mid-depth in
a tank to improve accuracy and reliability. In some cases a system can adjust for cargo
density by use of sensors at known levels, and in other cases a correction factor associated
with specific gravity is necessary. A thermometer is usually included in the sensors, but a
disadvantage of pressure gauges is that the cargo temperature may vary widely in a tank and,
because correct density is dependent on temperature, an error in readings may develop. The
delicate nature of sensors and their susceptibility to cargo leakage makes regular servicing
essential.
Fig. 3.20: Pressure gauge system
3.12.3.5 Tape Gauge Systems

These systems use a tape to check the level of cargo in a tank. The measuring probe may be
inserted into the tank through a small diameter pipe with a ball valve at the end, and portable
units can be attached or released from this valve by a screwed adapter to minimise the
amount of cargo released. They sometimes have an interface detector, and a temperature
sensor built in, with appropriate indicators in the displays. A system employing this type of
connection can also be used to take cargo samples.
Fig. 3.21: Tape gauge system
3.12.4 Overfill Detection System

3.12.4.1 High Level Alarms
Certain cargoes require the designated tank to be fitted with a separate high level alarm to
give warning before the tank becomes full. The alarm may be activated by either a float
operating a switch device, a capacitive pressure transmitter, or an ultrasonic or radioactive
source. The activation point is usually pre-set at 95% of tank capacity.
The high level alarm must be independent of the normal gauging system. High level alarms
must be maintained according to maker's instructions and tested as required before cargo
operations begin.
3.12.4.2 Tank Overflow Control Systems
A better name for this would be a tank overflow prevention system. It is required for
particular cargoes designated in the IBC Code. The system should come into operation when
the normal operational procedures fail to stop the tank liquid level exceeding the normal full
condition. The activation point is usually set at 98% of tank capacity. Operation of the system
is required to be independent of the high level alarm described above. On activation, the
system should give a visual and audible alarm and a signal in sufficient time to permit
sequential shutdown of onshore pumps and/or valves, and the ship's valves. The shutdown
can be dependent or independent of the intervention of operators.
Particular care must be exercised with regard to automatic shutdown systems that are
independent of operator intervention. Express approval for their use is required from both the
flag administration and the port state authorities. Automatic shutdown systems are normally
designed to shut the main cargo tank filling valve if the liquid level rises above the maximum
level permitted. Great care should be taken to ensure that the activation point is set
accurately, and that the operation of the device is checked by simulation whenever the system
is recommissioned. If the ship and shore shutdown circuits are to be linked their operation
should be checked before cargo transfer begins; if not, the terminal should be informed of the
closing rate of the ship's valves.
3.12.5 Pressure Indicating Devices
3.12.5.1 General
Pressure gauges are fitted at various points in the cargo system, on pumps, in pipelines and in
tanks, some of which are specified in the IMO Codes. They may be used to indicate pressure
in a liquid being pumped into or out of a tank, or static pressure such as inert gas
overpressure. They can indicate negative as well as positive pressure, and can be linked to
shutdown or alarm systems.
It is important that procedures exist for ensuring that pressure gauges are checked and
calibrated in accordance with manufacturer's instructions.
3.12.5.2 Bourdon Tubes
These instruments measure pressure by the movement of a coiled or helical tube, the amount
being directly proportional to the applied pressure. The movement is used to drive a pointer
for local readings, or to control a gas pressure valve or to alter a variable resistance that will
serve indirect readings. Indirect readings may be necessary to avoid direct connection
between safe and dangerous areas.
The following precautions should be observed:
 the indicator should be periodically checked for zero calibration;
 the gauge should not be used to consistently indicate pressures beyond 75% of its
maximum reading if the expected pressure is steady, or 60% if it is fluctuating;
 Bourdon tubes may be damaged by vibration or by excessive pressure pulsations; the
latter can be eliminated by the use of a flow restrictor.
3.12.5.3 Capacitive Pressure Transmitters
Pressure in vapour spaces of cargo tanks (and elsewhere) can be monitored by measuring the
effect of the existing pressure on sealed units that have a known internal pressure. By
establishing the reference atmosphere in the sealed units at a low pressure, for example 0.8
bar absolute or 800 millibars, it is possible to continue to measure modest underpressure
within a tank as well as overpressure. Deflection of the sealed unit is measured by an internal
capacitor, which sends an electronic signal to a remote display. An external measurement of
atmospheric pressure is necessary for the display to show gauge pressure. Alarm levels can
be set as desired.
The physical size of the sensors is quite small, and when used for inert gas monitors the
devices are often incorporated into housings of other sensors, such as radar ullage gauges.
Similar units can be used to indicate higher pressures in liquids.
Fig.3.22: Capacitive pressure transmitter
3.12.5.4 General Precautions

The following precautions apply to all pressure sensing equipment:
 Materials of construction should be compatible with the cargo. For example, brass must
not be used for pressure gauge internals for amine cargoes such as ethylenediamine. The
IBC Code gives guidance on cargoes where special attention must be paid to materials of
construction;
 before measurements are taken, all valves in the direct line should be opened and all
cross-connections shut;
 no pressure gauge should be subjected to violent pressure change;
 in ships carrying cargoes which can solidify or form polymers (e.g. phenol or styrene
respectively) it may be necessary to flush gauge lines and sensor chambers;
 if sensor lines are temporarily disconnected during maintenance they should be blanked.
3.12.6 Temperature Monitoring Equipment
3.12.6.1 General
Temperature sensors are fitted so that the temperature of the cargo can be monitored,
especially where required by the IBC Code. It is important to know the cargo temperature in
order to be able to calculate the weight of cargo on board, and because tanks or their coatings
often have a maximum temperature limit. Many cargoes are temperature sensitive, and can be
damaged by overheating or if permitted to solidify. Sensors may also be fitted to monitor the
temperatures of the structure around the cargo system.
3.12.6.2 Types of thermometers
Liquid/vapour thermometers rely on the expansion or contraction of liquid in a very fine-
bore calibrated tube or capillary. The liquids most commonly used are mercury, ethanol or
xylene. It is important to ensure that the liquid column in the instrument is continuous;
otherwise the reading will be inaccurate.
Liquid filled thermometers have a metal bulb containing a fluid which changes volume
with temperature change. The changes are transmitted via capillary tubing to an indicator or
recorder. The system is sealed under considerable pressure to overcome the effects of vapour
pressure from the liquid. Mercury filled thermometers should not be used with aluminium
and certain other materials.
Bi-metallic thermometers consist of two metals with different coefficients of expansion
which are welded together to form a bi-metallic strip. When heated, the strip will bend
because of the unequal expansion, and the flexing movement can be used to drive a pointer in
a similar manner to be Bourdon tube. Bi-metallic thermometers are susceptible to vibration
and should only be installed in positions free from this effect.
Thermocouples rely on heat applied to the junction of two dissimilar metals generating a
very small voltage which can be measured. A change will indicate a change in temperature.
Normally the voltage is sensed electronically and the read-out is remote.
Resistance thermometers use the fact that the electrical resistance of certain materials
changes with temperature, and that if it is measured it will indicate temperature. The material
normally used in resistance thermometers is fine platinum wire. Its resistance is measured by
means of an electrical resistance bridge connected to an indicator or recorder, normally by
electronic means, and the read-out is remote.
3.12.6.3 General precautions
The following precautions should be observed with all temperature indicating devices:
 the thermometers used should be suitable for the complete range of temperatures
expected;
 the sensor should make good thermal contact with the material whose temperature is to be
measured;
 if readings do not change when expected, the instrument should be checked;
 thermometers are easily damaged, especially those with capillary tubes. They should be
handled with care and protected from mechanical damage and extremes of temperature
beyond their scales/ otherwise they may become inaccurate;
 when a fixed thermometer is removed from its working location, care should be taken to
avoid loosening or removing its pocket, especially if the system is pressurised;
 when a thermometer is replaced in a working location, care should be taken that it does
not bottom in its pocket when screwed in, as this could cause damage. If the thermometer
is slack in the pocket a material with high thermal conductivity (such as a suitable
lubricating oil) can be used to ensure accurate readings;
 electrical connections should be clean, tight and correct. Care should be taken to see that
intrinsically safe leads are not cross-connected with ordinary power sources.
3.12.7 Oxygen Analysers

3.12.7.1 General
Oxygen analysers are normally used to determine the oxygen level in the atmosphere of an
enclosed space: for instance, to check that a cargo tank can be considered fully inerted, or
whether a compartment is safe for entry. There are several types of oxygen analysers. In each
case it is of vital importance that they are carefully maintained and tested, and that correct
checks are made before use. When oxygen detectors are calibrated it is essential to use clean
and uncontaminated air. If used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions,
these instruments can be regarded as reliable.
3.12.7.2 Level of Oxygen in Air

Throughout this guide the percentage of oxygen in air is referred to as 21%, since most
instrumentation in use on ships has a gauge or scale which reads to 21%. Strictly, however,
the percentage of oxygen falls several hundredths of a percent below that figure, variously
quoted between 20.85% and 20.95%.
Modern instrumentation with digital indicators can measure so accurately that the full 21%
may be impossible to obtain. If an instrument capable of such accuracy is in use, the maker's
instructions should be carefully read and understood, so that proper interpretation of the
readings can be made. It may be appropriate for the ship operator's instructions to make
reference to the level of accuracy obtainable.
3.12.7.3 Electrolytic Sensor

Analysers of this type measure the output of an electrolytic cell that is exposed to a sample of
the atmosphere being tested. The current flow is related to the oxygen concentration in the
sample, and the scale is arranged to give a direct indication of the oxygen content.
The readings may be affected by the presence of certain chemical vapours. It is important that
the manufacturer's advice is followed. An indicator which may be reliable for measuring the
oxygen content of a space after thorough ventilation may not be suitable for checking the
oxygen content in a mixture of air, inert gas and cargo vapour.
3.12.7.4 Paramagnetic Sensors

Paramagnetic instruments measure the deflection of a magnet pivoted in a symmetrical non-
uniform magnetic field. The magnet is suspended in a chamber into which the gas sample is
introduced; the deflection is directly proportional to oxygen concentration. These instruments
can be used for detecting oxygen in mixtures of other vapours.
It should be noted that some other gases, notably oxides of nitrogen, have comparable
paramagnetic properties to oxygen. This technique cannot therefore be used if such other
gases might be present in more than trace amounts.
3.12.7.5 Selective Chemical Liquid Absorption Sensors

In liquid absorption instruments a known volume of the atmosphere to be sampled is passed
through a liquid which absorbs the oxygen, causing a volume change in the liquid. The final
volume is measured on a scale which indicates the oxygen content of the original sample gas.
3.12.7.6 Personal Oxygen Monitors

Small instruments are available which are capable of continuously measuring the oxygen
content of the atmosphere. They can be attached to clothing or sometimes are supplied with
an armband. They should automatically provide an audible and visual alarm when the
atmosphere becomes deficient in oxygen, so as to give the wearer adequate warning of unsafe
conditions.
3.12.8 Cargo Vapour Detection Equipment
3.12.8.1 General
The provision and use of vapour detection equipment is required by the IBC Code for a
number of functions, including:
 measuring concentrations of gas in or near the flammable range;
 detecting low concentrations of cargo vapour in air and in inert gas, or in the vapour of
another cargo;
 measuring concentrations of oxygen in inert gas or cargo vapour, or in enclosed spaces.
Personnel should fully understand the purpose and limitations of different vapour detection
equipment, whether fixed or portable.
3.12.8.2 Combustible Gas Detectors
Combustible gas detectors are very common and are used to detect and measure combustible
gases, usually within the concentration range of 0-100% LFL; that is, up to the point of
flammability. Equipment can be fixed or portable.
A sensor containing a filament of a special metal is heated electrically and a sample of gas is
passed over it. Any combustible gas in the sample is oxidised catalytically. The heat given
out alters the electrical resistance of the filament in proportion to the gas concentration, and
this effect is displayed on a suitably marked meter. The filament can easily be de-activated by
materials such as silicones, halogenated gases, acids, water, oil and lead. Filters may
therefore be required in the sample lines.
The equipment needs oxygen to operate, and can only be relied upon to detect combustible
gas in air atmospheres, not in inerted atmospheres. If a mixture of inert gas and cargo vapour
has to be tested, either an infrared or thermal conductivity meter must be used, or a sample
must be mixed with air before a combustible gas detector can be used. A combustible gas
detector will not indicate a safe atmosphere if a toxic vapour is involved: in such a case a
different type of instrument should be used.
The instruments are calibrated against a known gas, called a span gas. Performance in use
may be affected if the gas sampled is different from that used for calibration, and an
appropriate conversion factor may have to be applied to the readings.
Portable combustible gas detectors are frequently used to confirm the state of atmospheres
believed to be free of cargo vapours/such as prior to tank entry or hot work. When used for
this purpose, readings should be taken by or under the supervision of a responsible officer
who should be satisfied that the instrument readings are correct, and are accurately
interpreted, before allowing the safety of personnel to depend upon them.
3.12.8.3 Thermal Conductivity Meters
These instruments work by measuring thermal conductivity of samples of gas. They are
sometimes called catharometers. Electrical power is applied to a heater filament which is
used as the sensing element: the filament temperature stabilises at a value depending on the
thermal conductivity of the gas around it. Any variation in the concentration of the gas affects
the filament temperature, resulting in a change in electrical resistance which is in turn
indicated by a meter. The principle is similar to that of the combustible gas detector, but the
filament temperatures are lower and the instruments can be used to detect concentrations of
gas from 0-100% by volume (compared to 0-100% LFL).
3.12.8.4 Infrared Detectors
Organic gases such as butane, methane and petroleum absorb infrared radiation. This
property is used in fixed or portable equipment to detect such gases in concentrations over the
range 0-100% LFL or 0-100% volume. Infrared radiation is passed through two tubes, one
containing a known concentration of gas, the other containing the sample to be measured.
The extent of absorption is in proportion to the gas concentration, and the output from the
two tubes is compared electronically. The electronic signal can be used to drive an indicating
meter or a pen recorder, or to trigger other equipment such as an alarm. Calibration of the
instrument is set for each gas to be measured.
Infrared detectors will not reliably detect chemical gases, and are not commonly used on
chemical tankers.
3.12.8.5 Chemical Detector Tubes
These instruments, often referred to as Draeger tubes, normally function by drawing a sample
of the atmosphere to be tested through a proprietary chemical reagent in a glass tube. The
detecting reagent becomes progressively discoloured if a contaminant vapour is present in the
sample. The length of the discoloration stain gives a measure of the concentration of the
chemical vapour which can be read from the graduated scale printed on the tube. Detector
tubes give an accurate indication of chemical vapour concentration, whatever the oxygen
content of the mixture.
3.12.8.6 General Precautions
Vapour detection is a means of measuring vapour concentrations, and great care is necessary
to ensure that the readings are accurate, especially when the lives of personnel depend upon
them. The following precautions should be observed:
 the maker's handbook should be studied before calibration or use;
 zero points should be checked regularly and reset if necessary before an instrument is
calibrated. Great care should be taken when the zero is being set to ensure that the sample
is free from any gas that would otherwise give a reading: .pure nitrogen should be used if
necessary;
 the instrument should be calibrated as often as recommended by the makers. The
concentration and composition of the gas used for calibration (known as span gas) should
be accurately known. Re-calibration should be recorded on or near the instrument;
 the same precautions must be observed when handling span gas which is toxic or
flammable as would apply if the chemical was carried as cargo;
 tubes or liquids for equipment using the chemical absorption or reaction principles have a
limited life with an expiry date;
 all sample lines should be clean, unobstructed, leak-tight and connected to the correct
point;
 all sample lines should be made of the correct material as specified by the maker.
Incorrect tubing may absorb gas from the sample and cause misleading readings;
 if upper or lower sample points are provided (for lighter than air or heavier than air
vapours respectively) the correct position should be used for the cargo;
 pumps, filters, flame screens and other components of the system should be well
maintained to ensure accurate readings;
 for fixed instruments, remote and local read-outs should be compared to detect
discrepancies;
 performance of most fixed instruments depends on flow rate, and fluctuations can cause
inaccuracy. Flows should be kept steady, and flows from separate points should be
balanced;
 the battery voltage of portable instruments should be checked frequently to ensure an
instrument will provide accurate readings.
3.12.9 Air Supply to Instruments and Controls
The performance of instruments and control systems that depend upon a supply of clean, dry
air can be degraded very quickly if the air supply is degraded or depleted. Water is a common
contaminant which can give rise to corrosion and equipment malfunction. Lubricating oil can
also cause problems. Both should be drained off regularly. Air supply pipes should be leak-
tight, and filters and dryers should be checked frequently.
3.13 Abbreviations
MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheet

IBC Code: The IMO International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships
Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk.
IMDG Code: International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
STEL: Short Term Exposure Limit
***
Reference
1. International Chambers of Shipping, Tanker Safety Guide, 3rd Ed, ICS, London,
2. Vladimir Kunichkin, Chemical Tankers Notes, Seaman International Ltd, 2006
3. BPMA, Guided Study Programme for Chemical Tanker Familiarisation Course, BPMA, Mumbai,
4. CAS, FAQs, Retrieved from https://www.cas.org/about/faqs
5. IMO, Model Course 1.01 Basic Training for Oil and Chemical Tanker Cargo Operations, IMO, 2013
6. D.A.Taylor, Merchant Ship Construction, 3rd Ed, I.Mar.E., London,1997
7. C. Baptist, Tanker Handbook for Deck Officers, 8th Ed, Brown, Son and Ferguson, 2000
8. H.D.McGeorge, Marine Auxiliary Machinery,7th Ed, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 2002
Questions
1. Differentiate between Oil tankers and Chemical tankers. [IMU 2017-4M]
2. Explain with sketch various types of pumps used in Chemical tankers. [IMU 2017-10M]
3. Explain tank cleaning operation and safety precautions on chemical tanker. [IMU 2017-6M]
4. Describe Category X, Y, Z and OS chemical cargos. [IMU 2016-3M]
5. List the advantages of using submersible type of centrifugal cargo pump in chemical tankers. [IMU 2016-5M]
6. With the help of line diagram, explain the cargo pumping arrangement of one cargo tank in a chemical
tanker. [IMU 2016-9M]
7. Explain CAS Number. [IMU 2015, 3-M]
8. With reference to chemical tanker cargo transfer, state what is pressure surge and what may lead to it? [3 M]
9. With reference to chemical tankers, discuss tank overflow control system and subsequent automatic shutdown
system. [3 M]
10. Expand the following abbreviations:
MSDS, IBC Code, TLV, IMGD Code, STEL
11. List various types of inert gas systems that are commonly used on chemical carrier ships.
12. Chemical tanker cargoes may be divided into four main groups. List them and explain briefly about each.
[4 M]
13. Enumerate the general types of chemical carriers and explain briefly about each. [3 M]
14. Classify types of Chemical carriers. [IMU 2017-3M]
15. (a) Differentiate between Oil tankers and Chemical tankers.
(b) Explain with sketch various types of pumps used in Chemical tankers. [IMU 2018-4+10M]
Chapter 4
Oil Tankers
4.1 Introduction
Ranging in size from enormous to almost tiny, transporting large quantities of petroleum
cargo, the oil tanker is of more direct concern to people all over the world than any other type
of ship afloat. Oil tankers have become indispensable to modem international industrial
economy. Dedicated to the movement of liquid commodities in bulk, these vessels demand
specialized knowledge and techniques from the personnel who take them out to sea
As late as 1920 the standard tanker had deadweight of only some 12000 tons, although there
were already some tankers of about 20000 tons. The demands for transportation of petroleum
during World War II greatly exceeded the capability of the pre-war fleet and called forth new
standards for tankers. Bigger and faster ships were essential. The United States built 532 oil
tankers of the T-2 class with deadweight of 16750 tons and a speed of 14.5 knots; these ships
proved incontrovertibly that large fast tankers were economical, efficient and as versatile as
the handy sized tankers of 12000 tons.
In the post-World War II years the Middle East developed into a major oil exporter to the
industrialized world. The industrial reconstruction in post- war Europe and UK required to be
fueled by large amounts of oil. The new supply of crude oil was now the Middle East for the
consumers to the West via the Suez Canal.
The limitations of canal draught and length dictated the average size of the tanker, during this
period. With the closure of the Suez Canal in 1956 tankers trading between the Middle East
load ports and the US and European disports were required to make their passage around the
south of Africa. To make many voyages economically viable, larger ships were built. The
average size of a tanker increased to around 47000 tons.
A design modification introduced in the 1930s gradually disappeared in the 1950s. The cargo
tanks were subdivided transversely into three tanks by installing two longitudinal bulkheads.
The free surface in the cargo tanks was just as effectively reduced and the new design
allowed greater scope in design and construction.
A quantum leap in the size of tankers took place when the Suez Canal closed for the second
time in 1967. This event provided the reasoning to the then booming tanker market to build
giant tankers very large crude carriers (VLCC) and ultra large crude carriers (ULCC). By
1979 the peak was reached with the building of the "Seawise Giant" a 458 m long ultra large
crude oil carrier of 564, 763 tons deadweight.
After several high profile ship grounding and ship collision incidents in the 1970’s and
1980’s, a new and now more common oil tanker design evolved. This incorporated the design
of ship with a double hull containing water ballast tank capacity and internal oil tankage,
generally two tanks abreast with a return to the centre line bulkhead. Though the centre line
bulkhead is more common in this double hull cross section, there are also those smaller oil
product ships with single tank internals.
Evidently every major political upheaval in the world has had a direct impact on the tanker
trade. The size of the tanker increased with each World War and so also with the first Suez
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Oil Tankers * Compiled by Anirudh Kumar * Page 114
Canal closure. Likewise it can be said that severe incidents have generated new design and
procedures to continue the evolution of this ship type.
Today oil tankers carry crude oil and refined petroleum products. With the development of
the petroleum industry, attention was focused upon the additional use of petroleum product as
a convenient, cheap and plentiful source for the manufacture of chemicals. The increasing
demand for chemicals led to the development of the sophisticated chemical tanker capable of
carrying liquid chemicals in bulk.
Fig. 4.1: General arrangement of an oil tanker
Fig. 4.2: General arrangement of an oil tanker

A by-product of petroleum production is natural gas and petroleum gas. This valuable
product used to be flared off at the production wells and refineries in the early developmental
years of the petroleum industry. When means were found to use gas as fuel and chemical
feedstock, gas recovery plants were used to collect these gases and store them in a liquefied
form. Today liquefied natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are important fuels and
chemical feedstock. Specially designed tankers carry these and other important liquefied
gases.
4.2 Types Oil Tankers
Tankers can be divided into several basic types, namely:
-Crude oil tankers
-Product tankers
-Ore/Oil carriers
-Ore/Bulk/Oil carriers and
-Bitumen carriers
Crude Oil Tankers
They are single decked vessels, generally with longitudinal bulkheads sub-dividing the tanks
into smaller tanks transversely. The older ships have double bottoms located under machinery
spaces, but not, usually elsewhere. A deep tank is nearly always fitted forward of the cargo
tanks and these are normally used for carrying bunker oil for the ship. The pump room is
usually located aft of the cargo tank system. Slop tanks are provided aft of the cargo tank
system and wing tanks for the carriage of water ballast.
The more modern and increasingly common oil tanker is double hulled throughout with water
ballast containment external to the internally protected oil tanks. Most have a single engine
room with oil bunkers forward and transfer lines running aft, though some exceptional
designs have opted for twin engine rooms, separated aft by oil bunker tanks.
The thinking behind the twin engine idea is in accordance with the statistics which have
shown most oil pollution as being in shallow coastal waters at times when the single engine
ship has had a break down and drifted onto hard rock sea beds. Associated with the twin
engine design is the central higher aspect of the oil bunker tanks to achieve two advantages of
gravity feed to the engines & prevention of sea pollution by much more persistent fuel oils.
Crude oil tankers are large ships. They are employed in transporting crude oil from the up-
stream oil fields, where it is produced, to the oil refineries. The crude oil tanker has a
relatively simple pipeline system and high capacity cargo pumps to reduce time spent in port
for discharging cargo. The pipeline system does not provide for a high degree of multi-grade
segregation of cargo. The cargo oil tanks may be provided with heating coils.
A new crude oil tanker of more than 20,000 tons dwt. and over is provided with an Inert Gas
System and Crude Oil Washing System.
Product Tanker:
In layout of cargo tanks, ballast tanks, slop tanks, pump room, engine room, double bottom
tanks, etc., product tankers are akin to crude oil tankers. They are generally smaller in size
than crude oil tankers. The tank internals are normally coated to protect against cargo
contamination by rust and corrosives of the cargo attacking the steel of the ship. The cargo
tanks are provided with a cargo tank heating system. They have a larger number of small
cargo tanks. These ships are provided with elaborate cargo piping system, so designed as to
enable the simultaneous carriage of more than one product without co-mingling of products
during handling and carriage.
The products usually carried are naphtha, motor spirit, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel, etc. The
cargo pumping system is designed to handle cargo at comparatively lower
loading/discharging rates. Lower rates are used because some products are extremely volatile,
some are viscous, and some are prone to static electrical generation. Product tankers are
provided with cargo pumps of lower capacities. A new product tanker of over 20,000 tons
deadweight will be provided with an inert gas system.
It is worthwhile noting that the product oil tanker operates in the down-stream leg from the
oil refineries to the consumers.
Ore / Oil Carriers
This is an oil tanker equipped to carry ore in its centre cargo compartments. Compared with
similar sized conventional tankers, the main difference revolves around the centre
compartments, which are located over double bottom tanks and have large, heavy steel hatch
covers. The center compartments are arranged so that the longitudinal plating slopes inwards,
providing a self-trimming factor when loading ore. The centre compartments are generally
free from all structural members, which would hinder loading or discharging ore.
If coils are required for heating the oil, these are installed in the wings or under the holds and
welded on racks to the plating near the bottom. The centre compartments contain no piping,
and are pumped out by wells let into the double bottoms and connected to the cargo piping
system through wing tanks.
The wing tanks are arranged in the same manner as a conventional tanker and are capable of
carrying oil or ballast, as required. These ships are fitted with an Inert Gas System and Crude
Oil Washing System.
Ore/Bulk/Oil Carriers
This type of vessel is designed to basically carry ore, grain and other dry bulk cargo. The
vessel has large clear holds with no between decks. The engines are located aft, as in a tanker,
and the hatches are provided with gas tight hatch covers. Hopper tanks and double bottom
tanks are used to carry ballast. To enable the OBO to load and discharge liquid cargo, the
holds are connected by a duct system or pipeline system to the pump room.
The duct keel (in a duct system) may be divided into a cargo duct and ballast duct, running
longitudinally. The cargo duct connects the cargo holds to the cargo pump room and is used
for loading and discharging liquid cargo to/from the holds. The ballast duct connects the
double bottom tanks and the lower hopper tanks to the ballast tanks and is used for ballasting
and de-ballasting these tanks.
The duct keel may, in other cases, be used as a pipe tunnel for all pipelines leading to and
from the tanks and holds. Liquid cargo is loaded in the holds only. OBOs are provided with
Inert Gas Systems and Crude Oil Washing Systems.
Bitumen Carriers
Bitumen can be described as a black to dark brown substance, which can be solid, semisolid
or a viscous liquid, according to temperature .It is derived from certain types of heavy crude
oil, and is generally classified according to its penetration number.
Bitumen is used in the manufacture of asphalt and several other similar products. It is
transported in bulk by sea, and on land by special rail cars, which are equipped to handle it,
but in some cases it is moulded in blocks and shipped as a solid.
Bitumen ships are specially built to handle this product at high temperatures. Not only are the
ships equipped with wing tanks and double bottoms, to isolate the cargo tanks from the shell,
but heating coils are rather more elaborate than in normal ships. In addition to the coils
covering the bottom of the tanks, additional mattresses or layers of coils are provided at
different levels in the tanks. Piping and pumps in the pump room as well as on deck are
provided with lagging, and the deck lines are often provided with a steam trace heater in
addition to this. Most grades of bitumen are handled at temperatures that exceed 125 deg C.
below this temperature they become hard to handle.
This type of vessel is generally equipped with two pumping systems, segregated from each
other. The bitumen cargo system is served by one system, which is used for nothing else
while the vessel is in the bitumen trade. The wing tanks and double bottoms are served by the
other system which handles the ballast while the vessel is in this trade, but can also be used to
handle cargo should the vessel carry any cargo other than bitumen. Due to the fact that
bitumen is a fairly heavy cargo, the center tanks, provide sufficient cubic capacity to give the
vessel a full cargo and bring her to her loadline marks.
4.3 Tanker Sizes and Classes
There are different tanker sizes used for the international transportation of oil, from a modest
coastal tanker to a VLCC or ULCC Supertanker. The common rule is that the volume that
can be carried in a tanker increases as a function of the cube of its length. For instance, a
ULCC is about twice the length of a coastal tanker (415 meters versus 205 meters), but can
carry about 8 times the volume (50,000 deadweight tons versus 400,000 dwt).
Fig. 4.3: Types of Oil Tankers (size-wise)
As of 2010, only 12 tankers above 320,000 dwt remained. Of this, only two “true” ULCC of
around 430,000 dwt are left in operation, the TI Europe and the TI Oceana, which were part
of a group of four ships constructed between 2002 and 2003. The other two ships, TI Africa
and TI Asia were converted into floating storage and mooring units in 2010. Because of their
mass, tankers have a large inertia, making them very difficult to steer. A loaded supertanker
could take as much as 4 to 8 kilometers and 15 minutes to come to a full stop and has a
turning diameter of about 2 kilometers. Figure 4.3 shows main tanker classes based on sizes.
4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of VLCC
Advantages
The biggest advantage of VLCCs is their efficiency in transporting crude oil. They can carry
huge quantities of crude oil in bulk, therefore economies of scale can be greatly
realized. When transporting oil in a tanker, it only costs lesser per ton-mile. There is no other
transportation method that can move so much oil at a time like an oil tanker can and because
of a VLCC’s enormous size, this advantage is even greater.
Due to economy of scale, a VLCC can generate higher profits per day after expenses. Profit
depends on a handful of factors, such as how strong the market is and tanker availability. If
there is high oil demand, VLCC owners would potentially see a large increase in profit.
Disadvantages
Oil tankers have some drawbacks, such as oil spills and fires. Due to very large capacity of
VLCC, an oil spill would pollute a large area and could destroy an ecosystem leading to a
huge lawsuit and compensations for liabilities. A double hull is required on every new tanker
to help guard against an oil spill. A double hull creates more space between the oil tanks and
the hull and makes it less susceptible to oil spill, but an accident could still occur. But it
increases the construction cost.
Fires aboard VLCCs also are a risk. Because of large quantity of oil aboard the ship, a fire
would lead to large pollution, loss of life and property. To safeguard against this, every tanker
that is 20,000 DWT and above is required to install inert gas systems. The systems fills inert
gas into the empty tanks and into the tanks partially filled with oil. The gas makes the air in
each tank virtually impossible to ignite.
4.5 Accelerated Phase-Out for Single-Hull Tankers
Under the revised regulation 13G (regulation 20 in the revised Annex I which entered into
force on 1 January 2007) of Annex I of MARPOL, the final phasing-out date for Category 1
tankers (pre-MARPOL tankers) was 2005. The final phasing-out date for category 2 and 3
tankers (MARPOL tankers and smaller tankers) was brought forward to 2010, from 2015.
Category 1 - Oil tankers of 20,000 tons deadweight and above carrying crude oil, fuel oil,
heavy diesel oil or lubricating oil as cargo, and of 30,000 tons deadweight and above carrying
other oils, which do not comply with the requirements for protectively located segregated
ballast tanks (commonly known as Pre-MARPOL tankers).
Category 2 - Oil tankers of 20,000 tons deadweight and above carrying crude oil, fuel oil,
heavy diesel oil or lubricating oil as cargo, and of 30,000 tons deadweight and above carrying
other oils, which do comply with the protectively located segregated ballast tank
requirements (MARPOL tankers).
Category 3 - Oil tankers of 5,000 tons deadweight and above but less than the tonnage
specified for Category 1 and 2 tankers.
4.6 Construction – Hull Structural Arrangement
Oil tankers above 20,000 tons deadweight are, in general, longitudinally framed over full
length of the cargo block. As shown in figure 4.4, a sloping hopper structure is arranged to
provide strength and rigidity at the double bottom-wing tank interface. Double bottom side
girders are at the central vertical keel, in way of the lower hopper connection and at
longitudinal bulkheads. Horizontal stringers within the wing tanks are arranged at about 5 m
to 8 m spacing, to provide structural support and access for inspection. Webframes spacing
ranges from about 3.5 m to 4.5 m for the Aframax tanker up to 5 m to 6 m for VLCCs.
Floors, vertical webs in the wing tanks and at the longitudinal bulkheads and deck transverses
are typically arranged at each webframe.
For VLCCs and some Suezmax tankers and shuttle tankers, two inner longitudinal bulkheads
are arranged as shown in figure. Crossties are usually provided within the centre tank, or
sometimes in the port and starboard tanks. For Suezmax and smaller tankers, the most
common arrangement has a centerline bulkhead, supported by vertical webs without the use
of crossties.
For tankers above 60,000 tons deadweight, transverse bulkheads are generally the plane type,
with vertical stiffners and horizontal stringers arranged at each wing tank stringer. Figure 4.4
shows a typical oil tight bulkhead for a Suezmax size tanker.
On Panamax tankers, the transverse bulkheads may either be the plane type, or vertically-
corrugated with stools top and bottom. For tankers under 20,000 tons deadweight, it is
common for both longitudinal and transverse bulkheads to be corrugated.
Fig. 4.4: Midship Section of an Oil Tanker
4.7 Cargo Operation
4.7.1 Pipeline Systems
Pipelines are simply what their name suggests, lengths of steel pipes which connect groups of
cargo tanks to one another and by which those tanks are loaded and discharged. Short lengths
are bolted together by means of flanges or expansion joints. The latter consists of an oil-tight
metal collar which surrounds the ends of two lengths and as the ends of the lengths do not
touch, any horizontal thermal expansion or contraction will not damage the pipeline. Lines
pass directly through bulkheads, once again being secured by oil-tight flanges, and any sharp
turns are constructed by bolting short curved lengths of pipe, known as bends, into the
system. Branch lines are short lengths of pipes which serve individual tanks, the ends of such
pipes expanding into a shape known as 'bell-mouth', 'elephant's foot', or simply 'tank suction'.
The tank main pipelines connect with cargo pumps and the deck pipelines, the diameter of the
pipes varying from 25-30 cm (10-12 in) to 91 cm (36 in) depending upon the size of the
vessel.
The various valves fitted within the pipeline system fall into five basic categories:
Manifold valves: Cargo is loaded or discharged via shore hoses or metal loading arms which
connect to athwart ships deck pipelines known as manifolds. These valves are constructed in
the lines close to the connecting flanges route the cargo as desired by the ship's officers.
Drop valves: Each of the main tank pipelines has a counterpart on deck and loading lines
which lead vertically from the deck lines to the tank lines are known as drop lines. Each main
line has one or two drop lines and drop valves control the flow of oil in those lines.
Master valves: At each place where a fore-and-aft pipeline passes through a tank bulkhead a
valve is fitted in the line. This is known as a master valve and separates tanks served by the
same fore-and-aft line. Tanks are usually constructed in sets of three transversely and are
numbered from forward, e.g. the foremost three tanks are called 'One Port' (1P), 'One Centre'
(1C), and 'One Starboard' (1S). The three tanks as a set are known as 'One Across' (1X). Thus
to separate the cargo in 1X from 2X the master valves in the lines at the athwart ships
bulkhead between the tanks must be closed.
Crossover valves: Athwartships tank lines joining the main lines are known as crossover
lines and the crossover valves separate the main lines from each other as well as separating
individual tanks. Thus 2P can be separated from 2C by a crossover valve. Briefly, master
valves separate in a fore-and-aft direction and crossovers in athwartships direction.
Tank valves: Close to each bell-mouth is located a valve which controls the flow of oil into
and out of that tank.
These valves are operated either manually from the deck above or automatically from the
cargo control room. Manual valves are operated by turning a wheel on a deck stand; this turns
a metal extended spindle rod which opens the valve in the pipeline. Automatic valves are
activated by a hydraulic oil pipeline system similar to that which operates steering gears.
Many manual valves are of the 'gate' type; a threaded spindle when turned, vertically moves a
steel plate which is fitted in grooves in the pipeline, thus opening or closing the valve.
Automatic valves are often of the 'butterfly' type; these are circular valves which turn on a
central spindle. When open the plate is parallel to the pipe direction and the oil flows past it;
when closed the plate turns across the pipe, thus preventing the flow of oil.
4.7.2. Cargo Loading & Discharging Piping Systems
A cargo pump room is arranged at the after end of the cargo tank range, containing three or
four large capacity centrifugal pumps together with between two and four smaller capacity
stripping pumps. The latter are used to clear the tanks of oil when the main, cargo pumps lose
suction. In addition, two ballast pumps may be provided. Several systems of piping are in
use, depending largely on whether it is intended to carry single grade or multi-grade cargo.
Fig. 4.5: Ring main system
There are three basic types of cargo pipeline systems:
- Ring Main System,
- Direct Line System, and
- Free Flow System.
4.7.2.1 Ring Main System

This system is now found only on older ships. It has basically a ‘square’ or ‘circular’ layout
whereby, if necessary, oil can be pumped up one side of the ship, across to the other, and then
back down that side. On vessels with midships pump rooms, one ring main serves the tanks
forward of the pump room while another ring main serves the after tanks. On ships with an
aft pump room several layouts are common. One such layout is shown in figure 4.5 whereby
one main serves the forward tanks and the outer pumps and another the after tanks and inner
pumps, both ring mains being connected with each other in three wings by short lengths of
pipes.
Ring main systems are generally found on older product carriers ('products' refers to oils such
as petrol which have been refined from crude oil) where versatility is required for the
carrying of various grades of products. Versatility is the keyword for this system; with both
ring mains being connected to each other any pump can discharge any tank (advantage). It
also assists the loading and transporting of grades as one can ensure good pipeline
segregation of cargo. A high standard of tank and line cleanliness is essential for carrying
products and the circular layout aids tank and line washing.
A major disadvantage of the system is that it is expensive to build due to the extra lengths of
piping required and the necessary proliferation of joints, bends and valves. An offshoot of
this is the problem and expense of the maintenance of joints, etc. Erosion of bends is a
problem, due to the turbulence produced by the oil changing direction, and leaks on the
external radius of bends are not uncommon on older ships. If the cargo is pumped by a
'roundabout' route line friction slows the pumping rate, e.g. in Figure 4.5 a slow rate can be
expected if the vessel discharges 5P with the starboard pump. Line washing can take longer
due to the number of pipes involved and it is essential to ensure that all crossover lines are
washed through by pumping sea water across from one main line to another.
4.7.2.2 Direct Line System

This system is common on VLCCs (very large crude carriers) as it facilitates quick loading
and discharging, the cargo being natural unrefined oil. The shorter pipe lengths and fewer
bends ensure that there is less loss of pressure due to pipeline friction during both operations
and when discharging the direct line to a pump provides better suction (Figure 4.6). The
system is cheaper to construct than ring main and requires less maintenance. Leaks are
minimized as there are fewer bends to erode and the fewer the joints the fewer should be the
leaks from that source. Line washing time is also considerably shortened. (Advantages).
However, as there is no circular system lines can often be difficult to wash and one simply
has to flush the lines into tanks with sea water. Due to the fact that one has fewer valves some
pipeline leaks will be difficult to control and the effect of such leaks cannot be as readily
minimized as with other systems. The layout lacks versatility and fewer grades can be carried
due to the problem of line and valve segregation. (Disadvantages.
Fig. 4.6: Direct line system
4.7.2.3 Free Flow System

On some VLCCs the main pipeline is not used for discharging. Gate valves (sometimes
known as sluice valve) are constructed in the tank bulkheads, and when these are opened the
stern trim causes the oil to flow to the aftermost tanks where direct lines to the cargo pumps
are located (Fig. 4.7). This is very fast method of discharging and the tanks are also
efficiently drained as the large bulkhead sluice valves permit the oil residue to readily flow
aft.
Fig. 4.7: Free flow system
4.7.3 Stripping Line

All the above layouts have stripping lines, separate from the cargo lines, incorporated into the
systems. These are small pipelines, connected to low-capacity pumps, which are used for
draining or stripping out the last few centimeters of oil in the tanks. The oil stripped out is
pumped to an aft cargo tank, known as the slop tank, and from there it is pumped ashore by a
main cargo pump. The stripping lines and pumps are also used in tank washing and ballast
operations.
4.7.4 Load on Top
MARPOL73 prohibited the discharge of any oil or oily mixture from oil tankers subject to
various conditions. The Load on Top (LOT) system meets the above regulations by using the
principle of decantation to separate oil residues from water. The sea water is then discharged
at sea while the oil residues are retained on board. Thus the tanker enters the loading port
with clean ballast, the residues are co-mingled with the new cargo, and pollution is avoided.
The operation can be divided into various stages:
1. Dirty ballast is loaded into certain tanks on the completion of cargo discharge.
2. During the voyage the tanks to be filled with clean ballast are washed, the oil water
mixture being stripped to the slop tank.
3. The clean tanks are filled with ballast.
4. During this period the oil in the dirty ballast has floated to the top. If the ship has carried
out crude oil washing, the oil skim is already on the surface. The clean water under the oil is
discharged and the oil plus some water is transferred to the slop tank.
5. The mixture in the slop tank is allowed to settle for at least 24 hours. If voyage
requirements permit, a period of several days is allowed for this process.
6. The clean water under the oil is pumped out to sea, being constantly monitored to stay
within the regulations.
7. The next cargo is loaded on top of the oil residue and the mixture is pumped ashore at the
discharge terminal.
It should be noted that the slop tank decanting process cannot be carried out within 50 miles
of the coast or within Special Areas. Ensure that the 'Oil Record Book' is correctly kept and
that a 'ROB monitoring record' is maintained.
4.7.5 Crude Oil Washing
MARPOL Regulations for COW

The IMO International Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention (TSPP) which
was held in 1978 issued Protocols to existing SOLAS and MARPOL conventions. The
MARPOL 1978 Protocol requires COW in new crude carriers of 20,000 ton dwt and above,
and existing tankers of 40,000 tons dwt and above must have either COW or SBT (segregated
ballast tanks). In accordance with the SOLAS 1978 Protocol every bow tanker must have an
inert gas system. (New ship in general means a ship for which a contract was placed after 1 June
1979, or was in an early stage of building on 1 January 1980, or was delivered after 1 June 1982.
Existing ships refers to ships which were in existence on the date of entry into force of the Protocol).
General Aspects of COW
Crude oil washing is a process whereby part of the cargo is circulated through the fixed tank
cleaning equipment to remove the waxy asphaltic deposits which the cargo has left on the
tank. This is normally carried out during discharging. COW has proved to be more effective
than water washing for this purpose because the oil acts to disperse and suspend the
sediments in the oil and tends to restore the cargo to its as-loaded condition. Water washing is
also necessary if the tank is required for clean ballast or for entry.
Effects of Sediment
1. Reduces the effectiveness of drainage.
2. Prolongs the draining operation.
3. Combines with oil, etc. to produce sludge.
4. Impedes the provision of clean ballast.
5. Makes gas freeing difficult and can cause pockets of hydrocarbon gases to form.
6. Reduces the carrying capacity.
7. Reduces ships' earnings.
Advantages of COW
1. Reduced risk of pollution.
2. Reduction in time of passage tank cleaning.
3. Reduction in the cost of tank cleaning (both routine and for dry dock).
4. Reduction in de-sludging costs.
5. Reduction of salt water discharged to the refinery.
6. Reduced corrosion as less salt water is introduced into the tanks during washing.
7. Increases the time available for maintenance.
8. Increased carrying capacity (Jess slops carried).
9. Increased discharge rates on overall stripping time.
10. Increase in the refinable material discharged.
Disadvantages of COW
1. More crew training required.
2. Increased work load in port.
3. Possible reduced discharge rate on some types of VLCC.
4. Due to the high pressure at which the oil 'jets' strike bulkheads, etc. some structural
damage to tank members may be experienced.
Requirements to Carry Out COW
1. An efficient inert gas system. Crude washing without an IGS is both dangerous and illegal.
2. Fixed tank cleaning installation of a suitable type.
3. An effective monitoring system.
Operating and Safety Procedures
The use of machines fitted within the tanks avoids the need for use of deck openings and thus
prevents the escape of oil or vapour. The machines are provided with the oil via junction lines
from the discharge lines of the main cargo pumps.
Before COW is commenced any water in the cargo which may have settled as a water bottom
should be drawn from each tank. The slop tank, if it has been used for load-on-top purposes,
should be completely discharged and refilled with fresh crude before using it for washing
purposes. Blank off any part of the washing system which extends into the engine room and
blank off the water heater if one is fitted.
The operation should only be carried out when the tank oxygen level is below 8 percent.
Before use the washing system should be pressure tested for leaks. The system should be
checked frequently during the operation, drained and flushed with water after use. A
cautionary notice should be posted where applicable: 'The tank washing lines on this ship
may contain crude oil. On no account are valves on this line to be opened by unauthorized
personnel.'
IMO has laid down specifications for the design of COW systems and operators should refer
to the manual, e.g. direct impingement of washing jets is required on 85 percent of the
vertical sides of the tank and on 90 percent of horizontal areas within the tank.
There are two basic washing methods. In the 'multi-stage' method the tank sides and structure
are washed as the cargo level falls and the bottom is washed as the tank empties.
With the 'single-stage' method the tank is first emptied, stripped and then washed in a similar
way to the conventional water-washing technique. During each discharge the tanks required
for clean ballast should be washed plus 25 percent of the other tanks on a rotational schedule.
After both methods pumps and lines should be flushed before ballast is loaded. There will be
a thin film of oil on this dirty ballast and IMO regulations require measurement of the surface
oil before the ship leaves port. The volume of oil must not exceed an agreed ratio of the cubic
capacity of the cargo tanks in which it is contained.
Personnel must be trained for the dual operation of discharging and washing at the same time.
Port authorities and terminal operators must be notified of the intention to tank wash and a
standard check list must be filled in. All COW operations should be entered in the 'Oil
Record Book'.
4.7.6 Vapour Pressure
True Vapour Pressure
All crude oils and the usual petroleum products are essentially mixtures of a wide range of
hydrocarbon compounds (i.e. chemical compounds of hydrogen and carbon). The boiling
points of these compounds range from -162ºC (methane) to well in excess of +400ºC, and the
volatility of any particular mixture of compounds depends primarily on the quantities of the
more volatile constituents (i.e. those with a lower boiling point).
The volatility (i.e. the tendency of a crude oil or petroleum product to produce gas) is
characterised by the vapour pressure. When a petroleum mixture is transferred to a gas free
tank or container, it starts to vaporise, that is it liberates gas into the space above it.
There is also a tendency for this gas to re-dissolve in the liquid, and equilibrium is ultimately
reached with a certain amount of gas evenly distributed throughout the space. The pressure
exerted by this gas is called the equilibrium vapour pressure of the liquid, usually referred to
simply as the vapour pressure.
The vapour pressure of a pure compound depends only upon its temperature. The vapour
pressure of a mixture depends on its temp, constituents and the volume of the gas space in
which vaporisation occurs; that is, it depends upon the ratio of gas to liquid by volume.
The True Vapour Pressure (TVP), or bubble point vapour pressure, is the pressure exerted by
the gas produced from a mixture when the gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing
temperature. It is the highest vapour pressure that is possible at any specified temperature.
As the temperature of a petroleum mixture increases, its TVP also increases. If the TVP
exceeds atmospheric pressure, the liquid starts to boil. The TVP of a petroleum mixture
provides a good indication of its ability to give rise to gas. Unfortunately, this is a property
that is extremely difficult to measure, although it can be calculated from a detailed
knowledge of the composition of the liquid. For crude oils, it can also be estimated from the
stabilisation conditions, making allowance for any subsequent changes of temperature or
composition. In the case of products, reliable correlations exist for deriving TVP from the
more readily measured Reid Vapour Pressure and temperature.
Reid Vapour Pressure
The Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) test is a simple and generally used method for measuring
the volatility of petroleum liquids. It is conducted in a standard apparatus and in a closely
defined way. A sample of the liquid is introduced into the test container at atmospheric
pressure, so that the volume of the liquid is one fifth of the total internal volume of the
container. The container is sealed and immersed in a water bath where it is heated to 37.8ºC.
After the container has been shaken to bring about equilibrium conditions rapidly, the rise in
pressure due to vaporisation is read on an attached pressure gauge. This pressure gauge
reading gives a close approximation, in bars, to the vapour pressure of the liquid at 37.8ºC.
RVP is useful for comparing the volatilities of a wide range of petroleum liquids in a general
way. It is, however, of little value in itself as a means of estimating the likely gas evolution in
specific situations, mainly because the measurement is made at the standard temperature of
37.8ºC and at a fixed gas/liquid ratio. For this purpose, TVP is much more useful and, as
already mentioned, in some cases correlations exist between TVP, RVP and temperature.
4.7.7 Ullage
The space above the liquid in a tank, conventionally measured as the distance from the
calibration point to the liquid surface.
When it is not possible to undertake closed gauging and/or sampling operations, open
gauging will need to be employed. This will involve the use of equipment passed into the
tank via an ullage or sampling port or a sounding pipe, and personnel may therefore be
exposed to concentrations of cargo vapour.
As cargo compartments may be in a pressurised condition, the opening of vapour lock valves,
ullage ports or covers and the controlled release of any pressure should only be undertaken by
authorised personnel.
When measuring or sampling, care must be taken to avoid inhaling gas. Personnel should
therefore keep their heads well away from the issuing gas and stand at right angles to the
direction of the wind. Standing immediately upwind of the ullage port might create a back
eddy of vapour towards the operator. In addition, depending on the nature of the cargo being
handled, consideration may have to be given to the use of appropriate respiratory protective
equipment.
Fig. 4.8: Measurement of liquid cargo
4.8 Inert Gas System

4.8.1 Regulations
The 1978 Protocol to SOLAS came into force on 1 May 1981. By the requirements of that
Protocol all existing tankers of 70,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards had to have an
inert gas system by 1 May 1983; existing crude carriers of 20,000 metric tons deadweight and
upwards, and existing product carriers of 40,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards had to
have an inert gas system by 1 May 1985. 'Existing tanker' for the purpose of the Protocol
refers to ships which were in existence on the date of entry into force of the Protocol. All new
tankers of 20,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards shall have an inert gas system. 'New
tanker' for the purposes of the Protocol means a vessel for which the contract was placed after
1 June 1979, or was in an early stage of building on 1 January 1980, or which was delivered
after 1 June 1982.
Inert gas systems are mandatory on all tankers using crude oil washing and by May 1985 all
product carriers of 20,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards fitted with tank washing
machines greater than 60 m3/hour were also required to have inert gas systems.
4.8.2 Principle of Inert Gas System (IGS)
Three factors contribute to an explosion within a cargo tank:
 Hydrocarbon gas,
 Oxygen in sufficient quantity to support combustion, and
 An ignition source.
To prevent an explosion it is necessary to obviate at least one of the factors. The introduction
of inert gas into a cargo tank reduces the oxygen content to a low level and also reduces the
hydrocarbon gas concentration in the atmosphere to a safe proportion. Thus two factors have
been made innocuous and protection against a tank explosion has been achieved.
4.8.3 Benefits of Inert Gas
 It prevents explosions in cargo compartments.
 It can be used as an extinguishing agent and thus can be installed as a fixed fire-fighting
system.
 Inerted tanks are maintained at a slight positive pressure. During discharging operations
this pressure slightly increases the discharge rate.
 The presence of inert gas in cargo tanks reduces the loss of cargo due to evaporation.
 Inert gas in a cargo tank makes it possible to transport certain cargoes which react when
mixed with oxygen, e.g. certain chemicals which can be contaminated by oxygen or
which have a violent reaction to oxygen.
 The installation of an inert gas system complies with certain mandatory regulations which
then make it possible for a ship to use the crude oil washing technique.
 The reduction of oxygen content to a certain proportion in a tank atmosphere also causes
a reduction of the corrosion process.
Ordinary air contains about 21 percent oxygen. Combustion can occur in a cargo tank if an
air/hydrocarbon mixture exists and the gas concentration is within the flammable range. If the
oxygen content of the tank is reduced to 11 percent combustion cannot occur regardless of
whatever the hydrocarbon concentration might be. To provide a good margin of safety inert
gas systems are required to maintain tank atmospheres at an oxygen content not exceeding 8
percent by volume. SOLAS 1974, as amended, requires that inert gas systems be capable of
delivering inert gas with an oxygen content in the inert gas main of not more than 5% by
volume at any required rate of flow; and of maintaining a positive pressure in the cargo tanks
at all times with an atmosphere having an oxygen content of not more than 8% by volume
except when it is necessary for the tank to be gas free.
The figure of 5 percent oxygen content is intended primarily to be a safety standard but there
is a marked reduction in tank corrosion once that proportion is attained.
The purpose or function of an inert gas system is therefore to reduce the oxygen content of
cargo compartments by the introduction of inert gas into those compartments.
The gas used is the uptake from the ship's main or auxiliary boilers which is cleaned, cooled
and distributed to the cargo tanks. Other sources of inert gas may be an independent inert gas
generator; or a gas turbine plant when equipped with an afterburner.
4.8.4 Description of Inert Gas System
A typical arrangement for an inert flue gas system is shown in figure 4.9. It consists of flue
gas isolating valves located at the boiler uptake points through which pass hot, dirty gases to
the scrubber and demister. Here the gas is cooled and cleaned before being piped to blowers
which deliver the gas through the deck water seal, the non-return valve, and the deck
isolating valve to the cargo tanks. A gas pressure regulating valve is fitted downstream of the
blowers to regulate the flow of gases to the cargo tank. A liquid-filled pressure/vacuum
breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or vacuum from causing structural damage to
cargo tanks. A vent is fitted between the deck isolating/non-return valve and the gas pressure
regulating valve to vent any leakage when the plant is shut down.
For delivering inert gas to the cargo tanks during cargo discharge, deballasting, tank cleaning
and for topping up the pressure of gas in the tank during other phases of the voyage, an inert
gas deck main runs forward from the deck isolating valve for the length of the cargo deck.
From this inert gas main, inert gas branch lines lead to the top of each cargo tank.
Fig. 4.9: A typical arrangement for an inert gas system
4.8.5 Components of Inert Gas System
Reference should be made to Figure 4.10 which shows a schematic diagram of an inert gas
plant.
Fig. 4.10: Inert gas plant
Fig. 4.11: Inert gas distribution system

Flue gas isolating valves: These valves are located in the pipes which permit the hot, dirty
flue gases to be delivered to the scrubber. The valves isolate the scrubber from the flue gas
uptakes when the plant is not in use. If the boiler gas is not required for the inert gas process
it flows up the funnel piping and is c:xpelled to the atmosphere.
Scrubber: The scrubber has a three-fold purpose:
 to cool the flue gas
 to remove most of the sulphur dioxide
 to remove most of the soot particles
The designs of scrubbers vary considerably but in all scrubbers flue gas is brought into
contact with large quantities of sea water by which the gas is cooled and cleaned. Before
entering the scrubbing tower the gas receives an initial cooling by being passed through a
water spray or by being bubbled through a water seal or 'trap'. The trap also prevents any flue
gas which may leak through the isolating valves entering the scrubbing tower so that
maintenance can be carried out in safety.
The tower can be thought of as a sort of sandwich layer cake made up of the following
components (from bottom upwards):
 venturi nozzles and slots
 perforated impingement plates
 trays of packed stone or plastic chippings
 water sprays
The flue gas enters the bottom of the tower and moves upwards through down-flowing sea
water, the layered arrangements ensuring maximum contact between water and gas.
Demister trays, which consist of polypropylene 'mattresses', are located at the top of the
tower to remove water droplets from the gas.
The sea water which cleans the gas becomes acidic and is led overboard from the bottom of
the scrubber by corrosion-resistant piping.
Blowers: These are electric motor driven centrifugal blowers which deliver the clean, cool
inert gas to the cargo tanks via the distribution system. Regulation requires that at least two
blowers shall be provided which together shall be capable of delivering inert gas to the cargo
tanks at a rate of at least 125% of the maximum rate of discharge capacity of the ship
expressed as a volume.
4.8.6 Components of Inert Gas Distribution System
Reference should be made to Figure 4.11 which shows a schematic diagram of the
distribution system. The gas is distributed through a pipe in which are fitted pressure control
arrangements to regulate the flow of gas to the main distribution pipe on deck and to prevent
any backflow of gas in the event of a mechanical failure in the plant.
Gas pressure regulating valve: This valve is usually part of an automatic re-circulating unit
whereby gas which is not required in the cargo tanks is re-routed back to the scrubber.
Deck water seal: This is the principal barrier against backflow. In the basic type of seal, the
'wet seal', the inert gas bubbles through water from a submerged inlet pipe. If the pressure of
the gas in the cargo tanks exceeds the pressure of the gas in the inlet pipe, water is forced up
that pipe and any backflow is thus prevented. The disadvantage with the wet seal is that the
gas must pass through a demister pad (which is within the seal unit) to reduce the possibility
of water droplets being carried over. Refer fig. 4.12.
Deck non-retum valve: A mechanical valve which also prevents backflow but in addition
prevents any cargo flowing to the deck seal if the cargo tanks have been overfilled.
Deck isolating valve: This isolates the deck main from the rest of the system when the plant
is shut down. It also permits maintenance work to be carried out on the non-return valve.
Pressure vacuum breakers: These liquid-filled breakers are fitted in the deck gas main to
prevent the cargo tanks from being subjected to an excess positive pressure and to an excess
negative pressure. Refer fig. 4.13. These devices require little maintenance, but will only
operate at the required pressure if they are filled to the correct level with liquid of the correct
density. Either a suitable oil or a freshwater/glycol mixture should be used to prevent freezing
in cold weather. Evaporation, ingress of seawater, condensation and corrosion should be
taken into consideration and adequately compensated for. In heavy weather, the pressure
surge caused by the motion of liquid in the cargo tanks may cause the liquid of the
pressure/vacuum breaker to be blown out.
Gas flow towards cargo tank Back pressure in cargo tanks
Fig. 4.12: Deck water seal – wet type
Fig. 4.13: Principles of liquid filled pressure/vacuum breakers

Deck supply main: This runs forward from the deck isolating valve and delivers the inert gas
during operational phases of the voyage.
Branch lines: These pipes deliver the inert gas from the deck main to individual cargo tanks.
Another branch line is in the form of a mast riser to allow the venting of gas to the
atmosphere.
Pressure/vacuum valves: Moderate pressures of 0.24 bar acting on the large surfaces in
liquid cargo tanks, are sufficient to cause damage and rupture. The pressure on each unit of
area multiplied by the total area gives a very large loading on the underside of the top of a
tank or other surface. Distortion can result or the metal plate may be ruptured. Similarly, a
vacuum within a tank can result in damage in the form of inward collapse, due to greater
atmospheric pressure on the outside. The hatches of at least one OBO (Ore-Bulk-Oil carrier)
were severely damaged when condensing steam produced a vacuum. Pressure/vacuum valves
(Figure 4.14) attached to tank vents or it1 the ventilation system, will prevent either over or
under pressure. They are set usually so that tank pressure of about 0.14 bar will lift the larger
main valve (the smaller valve will lift with it) and release excess pressure. The vapour passes
to atmosphere through a gauze flame trap. A drop in tank pressure compared to that of the
outside atmosphere will make the small valve open downwards to admit air and equalize
internal pressure with that outside.
Pressure vacuum valves can relieve moderate changes in tank pressure due to variations of
temperature and vapour quantity. A drop towards vacuum conditions as the result of the
condensation of steam will also be handled by the valve. A rapid pressure rise due to an
explosion would not be relieved nor is the pressure/vacuum valve suitable as a vent when
loading.
Gauge flame trap
Fig. 4.14: Pressure/vacuum valve
I.G. Line Oxygen Analyser: A fixed oxygen analyser determines the oxygen content of the
inert gas on the discharge side of the blower. The oxygen content is both displayed and
recorded in the cargo control room. Additionally the oxygen content is displayed in the
machinery space for the information of the officer on watch in engine room.
4.8.7 Basic Requirements of Inert Gas System
The regulations should be studied in full but each system must be capable of:
 Maintaining the atmosphere of a cargo tank at an oxygen content not exceeding 8 percent
by volume and at a positive pressure at all times.
 Delivering inert gas to cargo tanks at a rate of 25 percent more than the maximum
discharge rate of the cargo pumps.
 Delivering inert gas with an oxygen content of not more than 5 percent by volume.
At least two blowers are required to be fitted which together must be capable of delivering
the above rate of inert gas to the tanks. Instrumentation must be provided:
 To indicate continuously the temperature and pressure of the inert gas at the discharge
side of the blowers.
 To indicate continuously and record permanently:
- the pressure of the inert gas supply main forward of the non-return devices
- the oxygen content of the inert gas in the supply main on the discharge side of the
blower
 On the bridge to indicate the inert gas pressure forward of the non-return devices (this
should be in the form of a meter).
 In the machinery control room to indicate the oxygen content of the inert gas on the
discharge side of the blower (this should be in the form of a meter).
4.8.8 Audible Visual Alarms
1.Low water flow rate to the scrubber.
2. High water level in the scrubber.
3. High gas temperature at the discharge side of the blowers.
4. Failure of a blower.
5. Oxygen content in excess of 8 percent.
6. Failure of the power supply to the gas pressure regulating valve.
7. Low water level in the deck seal.
8. Low gas pressure in the deck supply main.
9. High gas pressure in the deck supply main.
Some of the above alarms also initiate automatic shut-down devices within the system.
All tankers fitted with an inert gas system must also have a closed ullage system.
4.8.9 Basic Operating Procedure of Plant
1. Open and secure the scrubber and water seal overboard discharge valves.
2. Start the water supply systems to the scrubber and deck seal at least 15 minutes before
commencing the operation.
3. Ensure that the flue gas is of a suitable quality. (oxygen analyser)
4. Open the flue gas isolating valves.
5. Open the blower suction and delivery valves.
6. Start the blowers.
7. Ensure that the gas regulating valve is open and open the deck main isolating valve.
8. Open the mast riser to allow inert gas to vent to the atmosphere in case it is of poor quality.
9. Check all monitors and when satisfied open the branch line valves to the cargo tanks and
close the mast riser valve.
When all the tanks are at the required pressure, shut the deck isolating valve, shut down the
blower and close the suction and delivery valves, and close the flue gas isolating valves. The
scrubber water should be run for an hour to flush out the tower and drain line, and the blower
impellers should be washed with the fresh-water spray to remove grime.
4.8.10 Gas Freeing Operation for Fuel Oil Tank
Main reasons for gas freeing are: tank washing, tank entry for inspection and/or repairs.
Gas freeing is the replacement of hydrocarbon vapour or inert gas by fresh air.
Accommodation openings should be closed during purging or gas freeing. After consumption
or transfer of fuel oil, hydrocarbon gas remains inside the tank. Such vapours may be mixed
with inert gas in IG fitted ships or air in ships not fitted with IG System. There is no
explosive atmosphere in an inerted tank. The atmosphere should never be allowed to become
within the flammable range when gas freeing an inerted tank (keeping in view UFL, LFL,
flammable range).
Purging with inert gas is defined as replacing the hydrocarbon vapours with inert gas.
Purging will prevent a flammable atmosphere developing within a tank. Gas freeing of a non-
inerted tank will result in tank atmosphere being in the explosive range for some time.
Gas freeing is done by portable fans or fixed ventilating systems. The I.G. System is used for
purging and may also be used for gas-freeing. Gas freed tank atmosphere may become
dangerous again if ventilation is discontinued. The inert gas supply must be blanked off, or
the valve closed in the branch piping to a gas free tank. [STPOTO, GMI, Kol.]
Alternatively following method may be also followed:
Ensure fuel tank to be gas reed is empty. Open all deck openings like manhole. Air is blown
into the tanks through some of the openings by the use of portable high-capacity blowers
powered by steam, air or water. The latter are simply water-driven turbine fans which connect
via rubber hoses with the wash deck line. Check that the fans are operating at the correct
pressure. When going at full blast they produce a high-pitched whine. Extension pieces,
shaped like open-ended cylinders (flexible air ducts), can be inserted into the deck openings
before placing the fans. These give a 'jet-like' motion to the air and thus increase the force of
the air flow. The fans can also be used as extractors but at decreased efficiency.
The forced ventilation is continued with the tank atmosphere being tested at regular intervals
for hydrocarbon gases using an explosimeter, and for oxygen using an analyser. Ventilation is
continued until the tank atmosphere is safe, i.e. a reading of 0 percent on the explosimeter
and 21 percent on the oxygen analyser. The limits which some officers use of 1 percent
hydrocarbons and 18 percent oxygen are unsafe. When testing the atmosphere, samples
should be taken at the tank bottom and at several depths, using several openings and stopping
the ventilation during the tests. Each tank should be gas free in 3-4 hours. Before entering any
tanks use the 'Enclosed Space Procedures'.
4.9 Pumping Arrangements and Safety Devices Associated with Loading & Discharging
4.9.1 Hazardous and Non-hazardous Areas

Hazardous area: Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is or may be expected to be
present, in quantities such as to require special precautions for the construction, installation
and use of electrical apparatus.
Zone 0: Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or is
present for long periods.
Zone 1: Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal
operation.
Zone 2: Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal
operation and, if it does occur, is likely to do so only infrequently and will exist for a
short period only.
Non-hazardous Area: Area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not expected to be
present in quantities such as to require special precaution for the construction, installation and
use of electrical apparatus.
Fig. 4.15: General tanker arrangement showing hazardous and non-hazardous areas
The hazardous areas include cargo tanks and the spaces above them, pump-rooms,
cofferdams and any closed or semi-enclosed spaces with direct access to a dangerous zone.
Forecastle spaces are considered hazardous if the entrance is within the area of deck which is
hazardous and only certain safe types of equipment are permitted. Selection of safe
equipment for all tanker installations must take into consideration classification as to gas type
and ignition temperature in relation to surface working temperature of the equipment.
4.9.2 Intrinsically Safe Equipment
Intrinsically Safe Equipment (Exi) are circuits, in which neither spark nor any thermal effect,
produced under prescribed test conditions (which include normal operation and specified
fault conditions), is capable of causing ignition of a given explosive atmosphere. Generally,
this means limiting the circuit conditions to less than 30 V and 50 mA. Naturally, this
restricts the use of Exi protection to low power instrumentation, alarm and communication
circuits. The design of the circuit will depend on the type of gas present (gas grouping).
In addition to apparatus in the hazardous area being rated as intrinsically safe, an electrical
safety barrier, mav also be fitted to the circuit. The purpose of such a barrier is to limit
voltages and currents in the hazardous area when faults occur on the circuit.
4.9.3 Explosion Proof Enclosure
There are a number of different constructional techniques employed in preventing electrical

equipment causing explosions in hazardous areas. Some techniques, such as flameproof
enclosures, have long been established but others, such as intrinsic safety and increased
safety, are the result of developments in material and electrical/electronic circuit design. It
has been internationally agreed that explosion protected equipment be identified by the
symbol "Ex" followed by a letter indicating the type of protection employed.
4.9.4 Pump Room Arrangements and Safety Devices
Fig. 4.16: Pump room arrangement of an oil tanker (Source: IMO MC BT-OCTCO)
Fig. 4.17: Cargo oil system (Refer the diagram below)
Safety Devices in Pump Room
Following safety devices are recommended for oil tankers’ pumprooms:
Gas Detection: It should be provided with a fixed gas monitoring and detection system
capable of continuously monitoring, as a minimum, the oxygen and hydrocarbon content of
the atmosphere within the pumproom. The system should be provided with sample points
located strategically both below the floor plates and above them. Smoke dispersion tests
should be undertaken during commissioning of all installations to ensure the optimum placing
of sensors. Sample points should also be located within the exhaust fan trunking. The system
should be provided with alarm functions which, in the case of hydrocarbon detection, could
be linked to an automatic pump shut down function.
Temperature Monitoring: All cargo pump glands or seals, bearings and casings should be
provided with a temperature monitoring system with remote read-outs, alarm and shut-down
functions. Consideration should also be given to monitoring the temperature of the bulkhead
seals of pumproom ventilation fan drive shafts.
Vibration Monitoring: It is recommended that fixed vibration monitoring equipment is
provided on all centrifugal cargo pumps. The equipment should include a remote alarm
facility. Consideration should also be given to monitoring other rotating elements within the
pumproom, such as ventilation fans.
Cargo Pump Leakage Detection: All centrifugal cargo pumps should be equipped with a
double seal arrangement designed to contain any leakage from the shaft seal and to provide
remote alarm indication of its occurrence.
Bilge Alarms: All pumprooms should be provided with bilge level monitoring devices
together with appropriately-located alarms.
Cargo System Draining Arrangements: Cargo systems shall be provided with a
comprehensive stripping arrangement to enable all lines and pumps to be effectively drained
to a cargo tank, slop tank or dedicated reception tank for subsequent discharge ashore.
Emergency Escape Breathing Devices: EEBDs are to be located within the pump room and
be readily accessible.
Fire-fighting system: In addition to the primary fire-fighting system, the cargo pump room is
to be provided with a backup fire-fighting system that complies with all applicable Rule
requirements
Trips: Manually activated trips for the main cargo pumps are to be provided at the lower
pump room level and at the top (main deck) level.
Emergency Escape Arrangements (future consideration)
In a number of pumproom incidents, personnel have been killed by the force of the explosion
as they have attempted to make an escape from the space. Consideration should be given to
providing a protected escape trunk accessible from the main working levels of the
pumproom. The trunkway should be built and stiffened to a strength equivalent to that of
adjoining bulkheads. The ladder inside should consist of a series of short lengths rising to a
number of regularly placed platforms. The trunkway should be provided with ventilation and
lighting and the top exit should be outside the pumproom deck housing.
Remote Monitoring (future consideration)
Even on new ships that are provided with the monitoring and control equipment
recommended above, it will be necessary for personnel to undertake routine inspections of
the pumproom while cargo is being worked. In order to minimise pumproom entry, further
consideration needs to be given to the possible benefits to be obtained by installing a
comprehensive remote surveillance system.
4.9.5 Pumproom Entry Precautions
Ventilation
Because of the potential for the presence of hydrocarbon gas in the pumproom, SOLAS
requires the use of mechanical ventilation by extraction to maintain the atmosphere in a safe
condition.
SOLAS requires that ships built from July 2002 be provided with continuous monitoring of
the pumproom atmosphere and an audible and visual alarm system which will activate when
the hydrocarbon gas concentration in the pumproom exceeds a pre-set level, which should not
be more than 10% LFL.
Throughout cargo handling operations, the pumproom ventilation system must be in
continuous operation and the gas detection system, if fitted, should be functioning correctly.
Ventilation should be continuous until access is no longer required, or cargo operations have
been completed.
Pumproom Entry Procedures
Before anyone enters a pumproom, it should be thoroughly ventilated, the oxygen content of
the atmosphere verified and the atmosphere checked for the presence of hydrocarbons and
any toxic gas associated with the cargo being handled.
Only where a fixed gas detection system is correctly calibrated and tested and provides gas
readings as a percentage LFL (% LFL) to a level of accuracy equivalent to portable gas
instruments, at representative locations within the pumproom, should it be used to provide
information for safe entry into the space.
Formal procedures should be in place to control pumproom entry. The procedure used should
be based on a risk assessment, and should ensure that risk mitigation measures are followed
and that entries into the space are recorded.
A communications system should provide links between the pumproom, navigation bridge,
engine room and cargo control room. In addition, audible and visual repeaters for essential
alarm systems, such as the general alarm and the fixed extinguishing system alarm, should be
provided within the pumproom.
Arrangements should be established to enable effective communication to be maintained at
all times between personnel within the pumproom and those outside. Regular communication
checks should be made at pre-agreed intervals and failure to respond should be cause to raise
the alarm.
VHF/UHF communication should not be used as a primary communication method where it
is known that reception may not be reliable or practicable due to noise. Where
communication by VHF/UHF is difficult, it is recommended that a standby person is
positioned on the pumproom top and that a visual and remote communication procedure is
put in place.
The frequency of pumproom entry for routine inspection purposes during cargo operations
should be reviewed with a view to minimising personnel exposure. Notices should be
displayed at the pumproom entrance prohibiting entry without formal permission.
4.9.6 Automatic Unloading System+
Operating Principles
Fig. 4.18: Automatic Unloading System (Hamworthy)

Advantages of AUS
Disadvantages of AUS
4.10 Cargo Oil Pump Turbine (COPT) and Its Lube Oil System+
General
Different types of prime movers may be used for driving cargo oil pumps (COP). One of
them is a model RX steam turbine as shown in figure below. It is a vertical Curtis single stage
with reduction gear unit. Its construction is simple, strong and compact and the safety device
and the governing device are composed of simple mechanism.
Exhaust Casing
The exhaust casing is solid construction with an axial flow exhaust steam bore to lead steam
flow smoothly to the exhaust steam piping for saving steam consumption.
Rotor Disc
The rotor disc is provided on the turbine shaft end by shrinkage fit. The pinion and shaft are
solid construction and teeth faces are grinded or shaved in order to operate in good efficiency
and silently. The outer circumference of rotor disc is provided with blades in two rows, and
shroud rings are provided on the blades to prevent steam leakage.
Fig. 4.19: Cargo oil pump turbine (Model RX, Shinko Ind. Ltd)
Governor Valves
The governor valve is double seat type to prevent unbalance by the effect of steam pressure
and also acts as an emergency stop valve so that this valve closes to stop the turbine when
emergency trip devices work.
Gland Seal
The turbine gland is provided with labyrinth packing.
Speed Regulating Governor
For the speed regulating governor, Woodward governor is adopted and installed on the top of
the reduction gear casing, driven by a gear at the output shaft end. The speed regulations are
as follows.
Momentary: +/- 9%
Steady state: +/- l%
Emergency Trip Device
For the purpose of safe turbine operation, the following emergency trips are provided. They
actuate automatically the governor valve, which is directly closed by linkage, thus turbine is
stopped.
Overspeed trip : 113 - 115% of rated speed
Low L.O. pressure trip : 0.5 kg/cm2 or below
High back pressure trip : 1.5 kg/cm2g
Local hand trip : Manual
Remote stop : Electric or pneumatic source
In case of driving pump, if the followings are provided their standard set values are as below
to stop the turbine.
Pump casing overheat trip : 80°C
Pump overpressure trip : 110% of rated dis. press.
Pump bearing overheat trip : 80°C (90°C for cargo oil pump)
Bulkhead stuffing box overheat trip : 80°C
Lubrication System
Forced lubrication system by turbine driven L.O. pump is adopted. Namely, after L.O,
pressure is adjusted at 1.0 - 1.5 kg/cm2g by adjusting valve, the L.O. is supplied to bearings,
reduction gear, etc. through the L.O. cooler and strainer. A part of L.O. is sent to solenoid
valve, trip servomotor and actuates as control oil for various emergency trip devices. For the
safe operation of turbine a motor driven priming L.O. pump is provided. Unless the pressure
in the L.O. line reaches 0.2 - 0.3 kg/cm2g the interlock acts so that the turbine does not start
even though the main steam valve is opened. Refer fig. 4.20.
Checks before Starting COPT
(1) Confirm if the driven machine is ready for starting.
(2) Check by opening the drain valve or removing the plug if water is in the oil tank,
Woodward governor, the L.O. cooler or the oil strainer.
(3) Check the oil level in the oil tank and the governor.
(4) Check oil in the gear coupling between the turbine and driven machine by removing the
plugs on the gear coupling. Supply of oil to the gear coupling is from the plugs.
(5) Start the priming L.O. pump and confirm oil pressure reaches above 0.3 kg/cm2g.
(6) Pass cooling water to the L.O. cooler.
Fig. 4.20: Lubrication system of cargo oil pump turbine (Model RX, Shinko Ind. Ltd)
(7) Confirm all relating equipments: such as condenser cooling water pump, condensate
pump, etc. are ready for starting the turbine.
(8) Open fully the drain valves on the drain separator, the governor valve, the exhaust casing
and the pipings and also on the pipings before the steam inlet valve and after the exhaust
valve.
(9) Open the exhaust valve fully.
(10) Turn the turbine together with the driven machine several revolutions by the turning bar
to confirm smooth turning.
(11) Set all trips on reset condition by the reset knob on the trip casing.
(12) Set the governor at the minimum speed by turning the adjusting knob counterclockwise
and fully.
(13) Supply the sealing steam to the turbine gland as follows; (In case of the exhaust is
vacuum). Open the sealing steam valve gradually till the sealing steam begins to slightly leak
from the turbine gland where the turbine shaft passes through. (The sealing steam pressure as
an idea is 0.1 - 0.8 kg/cm2g.)
(14) Open the steam inlet valve slightly to warm up the turbine. Pull the starting lever, if
fitted, to open the governor valve to supply a just sufficient steam to the turbine for its warm-
up, not so much steam as to start the turbine. Unless pulling the starting lever, if fitted, the
governor does not function and the governor valve remains closed. Moreover, unless L.O.
pressure is above 0.3 kg/cm2g by operating the priming L.O. pump, the L.O. interlock acts
and the governor valve cannot be opened.
Starting the COPT
(1) Open the steam inlet valve gradually and start the turbine. Then keep its speed at 100 to
200 rpm to warm up the turbine for 25 minutes.
(2) During that time check if there is no abnormal noise or vibration in the turbine and the
reduction gear. In case any abnormal state is felt, stop the turbine immediately and trace the
cause.
(3) Close each drain valve on making sure that the drain has been completely discharged
from each portion.
(4) Trip the turbine by operating the hand trip knob to confirm that the governor valve closes
immediately.
(5) After sufficient warm up, open the steam inlet valve further and gradually and raise the
speed up to the rated revolutions in about 5 minutes.
(6) When the governor is used for the first time, draw out air in the governor oil by opening
the needle valve on the governor and adjust the needle valve as described in the manual of
Woodward Governor.
(7) Confirm if the emergency trip mechanism actuates surely always at the time of starting.
Also at the first operation after inspection or long standstill, confirm the actuation of
overspeed trip at the specified speed.
(8) When testing the overspeed trip for the turbine, the pump must be disconnected and the
test must be to the turbine only in order to avoid dry running of mechanical seal fitted on the
pump.
Stopping the COPT
(1) Decrease the turbine speed gradually.
(2) Close the steam inlet valve. Also stopping is possible when the remote stop or the hand
trip on the turbine is actuated.
(3) When speed decreases and oil pressure falls below 0.45 kg/cm2g the priming L.O. pump
starts automatically, keeping oil pressure above 0.3 kg/cm2g.
(4) Stop the cooling water to the L.O. cooler.
(5) When the turbine has stopped, close the exhaust valve and open all drain valves on the
turbine to discharge drain completely.
(6) Keep the priming L.O. pump is in operation for more than 5 minutes after stopping the
turbine. After stopping the priming L.O. pump, confirm that the turbine bearing temperature
does not rise above 80°C.
4.11 Abbreviation
ISGOTT: International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
OCIMF: Oil Companies International Marine Forum
ALARP: As Low As Reasonably Practicable
CAS: Condition Assessment Scheme
NPSH: Net Positive Suction head
LFL: Lower Flammable Limit
LEL: Lower Explosive Limit
UFL: Upper Flammable Limit
DCP: Dry Chemical Powder
RVP: Reid Vapour Pressure
TVP: True Vapour Pressure
COW: Crude oil Washing
OBO: Oil/Bulk/Ore
***
Reference
1. H.I. Lavery, Shipboard Operations, 2nd Ed, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1998
2. IMO, Model Course - Basic Training for Oil and Chemical Tanker Cargo Operations-Note by the Secretariat,
IMO, London, 2013
3. Michael Osborne and R. Keith Michel, Ship Design and Construction, Vol-II, SNAME, NJ, 2004
4.IMO, Inert Gas System, Part I, Guidelines for Inert Gas Systems, IMO, London, 1990
5.H.D.McGeorge, Marine Auxiliary Machinery, 7th Ed.Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 2002
6. Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, The Geography of Transport System, Hofstra University, Newyork, 2019, Retrieved
from https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6877
7. Dennis T. hall, Practical marine Electrical Knowledge, 2 nd Ed, Witherby Publishers, London, 1999
8. H.D.McGeorge, Marine Electrical Equipment and Practice, 2 nd Ed, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 2000
9. ISGOTT, ICS, OCIMF,IAPH, International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals, 5 th Ed. Witherby &
Co. Ltd, London, 2006
10. OCIMF, An Information Paper on Pumproom Safety, OCIMF, London, 1995
11. Shinko Ind. Ltd, Instruction Manual – COPT, Shinko Ind. Ltd, Hiroshima, Japan, 2002
Questions
1. Expand following abbreviations:

ISGOTT, CAS, OCIMF, LFL, COW, NPSH, [IMU]
2. Explain Gas freeing operation for fuel oil tank. [IMU 2017-3M]
3. What are Requirements of Inert gas system on oil tanker? [IMU 2017-3M]
4. Differentiate between Oil tankers and Chemical tankers. [IMU 2017, ‘18-4M]
5. What is “Loading on top” for oil tankers? [IMU 2017-4 M]
6. What is MARPOL regulation for COW? [IMU 2017-4 M]
7. Explain one method of crude oil washing. [IMU 2017-6 M]
8. What are different types of cargo loading/discharging Piping systems on Oil Tanker, Explain “Free Flow
piping system” [IMU 2017-8 M]
9. What is the difference between a PV Breaker and a PV valve? [IMU 2016, ‘18-3 M]
10. What are the objectives of using Crude Oil Washing of cargo tanks in a crude carrier? [IMU 2016-3 M]
11. What is intrinsically safe equipment? [IMU 2016-3 M]
12. With reference to oil tankers, what are the hazardous and non- hazardous areas? [IMU 2016-3 M]
13. (a) Sketch and describe an Inert Gas System as installed in a Crude oil Carrier. [IMU 2016-8 M]
(b) Name all the safety equipments fitted in the above Inert Gas System. [IMU 2016-6 M]
14. (a) With reference to a crude oil tanker, sketch and describe a “Free Flow System” for cargo loading and
un-loading operations.
(b) What are the advantages & disadvantages of the above system compared to other Systems.[IMU ‘16-9+5 M]
15. Explain Explosion Proof Enclosure. [IMU 2015-3 M]
16. Explain MARPOL Tankers. [IMU 2015-3 M]
17. Explain:
(a) Stripping in Tanker Operation
(b) IG Line Oxygen Analyser
(c) Vapour Pressure & Temperature relationship
(g) PV Breaker [IMU 2015-3M each]
18. (a) Describe Oil Tanker types and classification .
(b) Explain with suitable sketches pump room arrangements with safety devices.
(c) What precautions should be taken before entering pump room? [IMU 2015-4+6+4 M]
19. (a) What is the purpose of Scrubber in IG System ?
(b) Explain with sketches Scrubber construction - used in Boiler Flue Gas IG System.
(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of VLCC? [IMU 2015-3+7+4 M]
20. List the benefits of using inert gas system onboard oil tankers.
21. Write short notes on following types of Oil Tankers mentioning their constructional details and cargoes
carried:
(a) Crude Oil Tanker [5 M]
(b) Product tanker [5 M]
(c) Ore/Bulk/Oil Carrier [4 M]
22. Define LFL and UFL. [3 M]
23. What Ullage reference to tankers is? [IMU 2018-3 M]
24. Describe “free flow cargo handling system” for crude oil tanker [IMU 2018-7 M]
25. Sketch and explain the Inert Gas System as fitted in an Oil Tanker. What all safety devices are associated
with such a system and elaborate their functions. [IMU 2018-14M]
Chapter 5
Car Carriers
5.1 Introduction
Ro-Ro or Roll-on/Roll-off ships are the ships designed to transport cargo that is capable of
being rolled-on and off the ships, thus eliminating the need for onboard or dock-side lift-
on/lift-off equipment.
Types of Cargoes
Automobiles: Cars, Trucks, Trailers, Earthmovers etc.,
Other cargoes: Pallets, Containers etc.
Types of Ro-Ro ships

1. PCC : Pure Car Carriers
2. PCTC : Pure Car and Truck Carriers
3. RO-PAX : Ro-Ro – Passenger ships
4. CON-RO : Container – Ro-Ro vessel
5. RO-LO : Roll on-Lift off vessel
Capacity
LIM : Lane-In-Metres – Total No. of Lane length in metres
CEU: Car Equivalent Units - 8.5 m2 /car representing a vehicle,
L= 4.125; B=1.55 m plus stowage margin
Largest Ro-Ro: 8000 CEU – M.V. Tǿnsberg & others
First Ro-Ro: European Highway (K-Line) -1973 – 4200 CEU
PCC & PCTC are generally having a shape of high box-like superstructure running entire
length and breadth of the hull fully enclosing cargo space and have a speed of 18-20 Knots
generally.
5.2 Development of Ro-Ro Ships
Since 1970 the market for exporting and importing cars had increased dramatically and the
number and type of RO/ROs has increased also. In 1973, Japan’s K Line built European
Highway, the first pure car carrier (PCC), which carried 4,200 automobiles. Today’s pure car
carriers and their close cousins, the pure car/truck carrier (PCTC) are distinctive ships with a
box-like superstructure running the entire length and breadth of the hull, fully enclosing the
cargo. They typically have a stern ramp and a side ramp for dual loading of thousands of
vehicles, and extensive automatic fire control systems.
The PCTC has liftable decks to increase vertical clearance as well as heavier decks for "high
and heavy" cargo. A 6500-unit car ship with 12 decks can have three decks which can take
cargo up to 136 t with liftable panels to increase clearance from 1.7 to 6.7 m (5 ft 7 in to 21 ft
10 in) on some decks. Lifting decks to accommodate higher cargo reduces the total capacity.
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Car Carriers * Compiled by Anirudh Kumar * Page 151
With the building of the Wallenius Wilhelmsen Logistics’ 8000 CEU car carrier Faust, out of
Stockholm, in June 2007 the car carriers entered a new era called the large car and truck
carrier (LCTC).
The car carrier, Auriga Leader, built in 2008 with a capacity of 6,200 cars, is the world's first
partially solar powered ship
5.3 Car Carriers
The increasing volume of car and truck production in the East (Japan, Korea and China) and
a large customer base in the West has seen the introduction and rapid increase in number of
ships specifically designed and built to facilitate the delivery of these vehicles globally.
Probably the ugliest ships afloat, car carriers are strictly functional having a very high boxlike
form above the waterline to accommodate as many vehicles as possible on, in some cases as
many as a dozen decks. Whilst most deck spacing is to suit cars some tween deck heights
may be greater and the deck strengthened to permit loading of higher and heavier vehicles.
Within such greater deck spacing liftable car decks may be fitted for flexibility of stowage.
The spacing of fixed car decks can vary from 1.85 to 2.3 metres to accommodate varying
shape and height of cars. Transfer arrangements for vehicles from the main deck are by
means of hoistable ramps which can be lifted and lowered whilst bearing the vehicles.
Loading and discharging vehicles onto and off the ship is via a large quarter ramp at the stern
and a side shell or stern ramp. The crew accommodation and forward wheelhouse, providing
an adequate view forward, sit atop the uppermost continuous weather deck. Propulsion
machinery is situated aft with bow thruster/s forward to aid mooring/manoeuvring.
The ship shown in Fig. 5.1 has an overall length of 148 metres, a beam of 25 metres and a
speed of 19 knots on a 7.2 metre draft. It can carry some 2140 units.
Fig. 5.1: Car Carrier

5.3.1 Construction
Ro-ro ships are characterized by the stern and in some cases the bow or side doors giving
access to a vehicle deck above the waterline but below the upper deck. Access within the ship
may be provided in the form of ramps or lifts leading from this vehicle deck to upper decks or
hold below. Ro-ro ships may be fitted with various patent ramps for loading through the shell
doors when not trading to regular ports where link-span and other shore side facilities which
are designed to suit are available. Cargo is carried in vehicles and trailers or in unitized form
loaded by fork lift and other trucks.
In order to permit the drive through vehicle deck a restriction is placed on the height of the
machinery space and the ro-ro ship was among the first to popularize the geared medium
speed diesel engine with a lesser height than its slow speed counterpart. The dramatic loss of
the ro-ro passenger ships Herald of Free Enterprise in 1987 and Estonia in 1994, respectively,
saw much attention directed at the damage stability of this type of passenger ship when water
entered the open un-subdivided vehicle deck space.
This has resulted in international regulation requiring, amongst other things, strengthening
and surveillance of bow doors, surveillance of internal watertight doors used at sea, enhanced
damage stability criteria (SOLAS 90) and additional simplified stability information for the
master. The Estonia loss led to further more stringent damage stability requirements adopted
on a regional basis by northern European countries (Stockholm Agreement, 1997). A midship
section of a Ro-Ro passenger/vehicle/train ferry complying with the requirements of the latter
agreement is shown in Figure 5.3.
Fig. 5.2: Arrangement of Ro-Ro ships
Fig. 5.3: Cargo Handling on PCCs
Fig. 5.4: Midship section of a Ro-Ro Carrier.
Fig. 5.5: Arrangement of Decks
5.3.2 Pure Car Carriers

Vehicles are transported all over the world on board Pure Car Carriers. This vessel type is
unique in many ways:
a) Difficulty in manoeuvring: This is due to the very high freeboard of PCCs. Ship handlers
will experience difficulty in manoeuvring this vessel because it is very susceptible to the
effects of the wind.
b) Vehicles are expensive cargoes and prone to damage: Vehicles are very expensive
commodities and are considered to be damage prone where minor dents or paint scratches
may cost thousands of dollars.
c) Specialized equipment: PCCs are uniquely equipped to transport vehicles. It has unique
doors, ramps, car decks (fixed or movable), deck lifters, lashing materials, ventilations and
ballasting system, among many others.
d) Limited time in ports: PCCs have very limited staying time in ports and even a few
minutes delay in its arrival and departure will incur cost.
5.3.3 Pure Car Carrier Outline
Pure Car Carriers are unique in many ways. These are Ro-Ro vessels with doors and ramps
for loading of wheeled and/or tracked vehicles. Ramp construction varies. This is composed
of side ramps located along the midship area, a stern or quarter ramp which maybe forward
extended or aft ward extended. The midship ramp may also be adjustable to another deck
whereas the stern ramps are fixed and with a higher axle load capacity.
The car decks are usually fitted with lashing points and internal ramps that can be adjustable
to other decks and are closed at sea. Lower and upper car decks are normally used for loading
cars and intermediate car decks can be adjusted to accommodate pick-ups trucks or high-
ceilinged vehicles.
PCCs have very high side profile which makes it susceptible to the effects of wind whether in
berth or manoeuvring. This characteristic also makes it difficult to anchor the vessel. Hence,
it may cause the vessel to drag its anchor.
The vessel also has very limited time in port. Loading or discharging operations are normally
completed within a day after which the vessel should immediately sail for the next port.
Maintaining schedules are very important as labours are normally arranged prior to arrival in
port in view that any form of delay could be costly.
The cargoes are considered dangerous because of those vehicles carrying full-tank gasoline
and are considered hazardous. The exhaust emitted by vehicles is hazardous and failure or
inadequacy of the ventilation system may cause stoppages of cargo operations.
Likewise, vehicles can be damaged easily. Minor dents, paint scratches or pilferage of radios
or other car accessories will incur cost. Crews on board must always be conscious of damage
prevention particularly in handling the vehicles during loading and discharging.
5.4 Safety Measures in Ro-Ro Ships
As per SOLAS Chapter II-2 Regulation 20 (Protection of vehicle, special category and Ro-Ro
space)
Purpose: The purpose of this regulation is to provide additional safety measures in order to
address the fire safety objectives of this chapter for ships fitted with vehicle, special category
and Ro-Ro spaces.
For this purpose, the following functional requirements shall be met:
1. Fire protection systems shall be provided to adequately protect the ship from the fire
hazards associated with vehicle, special category and Ro-Ro spaces.
2. Ignition sources shall be separated from vehicle, special category and Ro-Ro spaces.
3. Vehicle, special category and Ro-Ro spaces shall be adequately ventilated.
Precautions against ignition of flammable vapours in closed vehicle spaces, closed Ro-Ro
spaces and special category spaces:
5.5 Ventilation Systems
5.5.1 Capacity of Ventilation Systems
There shall be provided an effective power ventilation system sufficient to give at least the
following air changes:
1. Passenger ships:
Special category spaces- 10 air changes per hour
Closed Ro-Ro & vehicle spaces other than special category spaces for ships carrying
more than 36 passengers – 10 air changes per hour
Closed Ro-Ro & vehicle spaces other than special category spaces for ships carrying not
more than 36 passengers- 6 air changes per hour
2. Cargo ships- 6 air changes per hour.
The Administration may require an increased number of air changes when vehicles are being
loaded and unloaded.
5.5.2 Ventilation Requirements
On Pure Car Carriers, the following shall be observed with respect to the ventilation of the
holds in order to simplify fire fighting when, by chance, a fire breaks out in a hold.
It is of utmost importance that the ventilation system on board is kept in good order and
satisfactory condition, as this not only affect the safety of the vessel and its cargo but the
working environment of the ship’s crew and the stevedores as well.
There is a tendency that the lowest deck and spaces around the engine casing are poorly
ventilated and, in the event of intensive cargo handling operations in a small compartment,
exhaust gas of a high concentration is prone to accumulate. Undertake to ventilate cargo
holds to counter exhaust gas and measure the CO2 content, as necessary.
Deficiency in the ventilation system may cause undue delay to the vessel, as most
longshoremen will refuse to work if the atmospheric conditions inside the cargo holds will
pose a danger or risk to their health.
The ventilation system consists of powerful blowers with two modes of operation:
Port Mode: 20 air changes or more when the vehicles are running and people (crew and
stevedores) are present in the holds.
Navigation Mode: minimum 6 air changes per hour when the vehicles with fuel in their
tanks are not running and people are present in the holds.
Fans can be started in groups with automatic load control.
The ventilation fans shall normally be run continuously and give at least the number of air
changes as required, whenever vehicles are on board. One or more portable combustible gas
detecting instruments shall be carried to prove a compartment is gas free.
The system shall be entirely separate from other ventilation systems. Ventilation ducts
serving Ro-Ro or vehicle spaces shall be capable of being effectively sealed for each cargo
space (gas tight doors). The system shall be capable of being controlled from a position
outside such spaces.
The ventilation system shall be such as to prevent air stratification and the formation of air
pockets.
Means shall be provided on the navigation bridge to indicate any loss of the required
ventilating capacity.
Arrangements shall be provided to permit a rapid shutdown and effective closure of the
ventilation system from outside of the space in case of fire, taking into account the weather
and sea conditions.
Ventilation ducts, including dampers, within a common horizontal zone shall be made of
steel.
Electrical equipment and wiring, if installed in an exhaust ventilation duct, shall be of type
approved for use in explosive petrol and air mixtures and the outlet from any exhaust duct
shall be sited in a sfae position, having regard to other possible sources of ignition.
Other equipment which may constitute a source of ignition of flammable vapours shall not be
permitted.
Scuppers shall not be led to machinery or other spaces where sources of ignition may be
present.
For vehicle carriers carrying motor vehicles with compressed hydrogen or natural gas in their
tanks for their won propulsion as cargo, all electrical equipment and wiring, if installed in any
ventilation duct, shall be of a certified safe type for use in explosive methane or compressed
hydrogen and air mixtures. The fans shall be such as to avoid the possibility of ignition of
methane or compressed hydrogen and air mixtures. Suitable wire mesh guards shall be fitted
over inlet and outlet ventilation openings. At least two portable gas detectors shall be
provided to detect presence of gas fuel and be of certified type for use in the explosive gas
and air mixture.
An operation manual should be supplied and should include a plan of the ventilation system,
showing fans, supply air and exhaust air openings and doors, ramps, hatches etc. the location
of the control panel for the Ro-Ro cargo space ventilation system should also be marked.
For fire safety the ventilation system should have a safety interlock with lighting and ramp
controls. It allows cargo spaces to be ventilated for the first 5 minutes prior to switching on
the cargo lights and operating the ramps.
Under these circumstances, special attention must be kept on the following points:
a) Before entering port, make sure that all hold ventilation system is in good order, repair or
replaced defective parts, and keep the system always in good condition.
b) Before starting cargo operations, confirm whether the ventilation system is working well,
with all dampers in correct position.
c) During the cargo operations, watch the ventilation system strictly and keep it running
always in good condition.
d) Report to the stevedore foreman or the responsible person of the longshore workers
immediately if any defect or trouble is detected during the operation.
5.5.3 Ventilation Standard During Voyage
a) After loading is completed, the air tightness of each area shall be ensured by completely
closing off all openings (gas tight door/water tight door/ventilation duct/passage door).
b) Check the presence of flammable gases in the holds as occasion demands, and if there is
any gas, ventilate each area. After ventilating, again close off all openings to ensure the air
tightness of each area.
5.5.4 Servicing of Damper Operating System
The damper operating system shall be properly serviced so that it is fully capable of closing
and opening the dampers. Also, an original damper operation check list shall be prepared and
used as well as having all dampers numbered and clearly indicate which area they serve.
5.5.5 Hold Ventilation Starting Procedure
In order to make sure that the ventilation system is kept in good working order, a starting
procedure checklist must be prepared and utilized according to your own vessels procedure.
Ventilation system in car carriers is of great importance in loading and unloading operation
and knowledge of the procedure is very necessary. Most important in starting hold
ventilation;
a) The first thing to have in mind, is that you must confirm all ventilation dampers are open
(done through checklist).
b) Confirm from the engine department that all three generators are simultaneously running.
We could also determine by looking at the panel board if the lights are opened.
c) Confirm that the switch (light) is in OFF position.
d) Switch on the source supply.
e) Confirm the fans started are running completely by determining if the lights are on.
f) The fans in two zones shall not be started at the same time. Wait 10 seconds after switching
on the other fan.
g) Check occasionally the Galvanometer at switchboard rooms.
5.6 Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting
Pure Car Carrier (PCC), due to its nature, carries hazardous cargoes. As the vehicle it loads
have gasoline in their tanks. Therefore, vehicles transported by PCC are considered as
dangerous cargoes according to various government regulations.
Fire, once it breaks out on board a vessel is very difficult to bring under control. For the
safety of everyone on board fire prevention must not only be practiced diligently but must be
a way of life.
The following important precautions should be taken into account:
a) Fire/Smoke detectors. This may be a unique equipment on board your vessel, as there are
various makers. Familiarize yourself with the operation, proper maintenance and location of
the various units. This should be regularly tested and kept in good working order. Often times
this gives off false alarms that induce a crewmember to set the sensitivity to a very low level.
No adjustments should be made without the approval of your superintendent and/or the
makers. As this is not a perfect mechanism, all crew must always be alert to fire using sight
and sense of smell.
b) Fixed CO2 System (High pressure CO2 system or Low-pressure CO2 system). This is your
ultimate fire-fighting equipment. CO2 is an inert gas that is 1.5 times heavier than air. A
capacity of 30% to 45% the volume of the largest compartment must always be kept. The
operation and maintenance to keep this equipment in good working order is necessary. This
should only be used on the order of the Master and to be operated only by authorized
personnel, after completing the checklist for its usage.
Fixed Foam system (High Expansion Foam) or Water Sprinkler system may also be fitted.
Open cargo tanks require Sea water fire-fighting system.
c) Ventilation System. Should be kept in good working order and must be operated not only
during loading/discharging work but also in port or at sea at proper intervals to prevent
inflammable gas from remaining in the car holds. The dampers for ventilation must also be
kept in good order so that they can be opened/closed easily as the need arises.
d) Gas tight, Water tight and other access doors should always be kept closed at sea. This
would prevent the rapid spreading of fire and immediate flooding of CO2 to the
compartment. The Cargo spaces must be limited by Class A boundaries (Steel or equivalent
material). The spaces are subdivided into Gas tight fire zones.
e) Portable fire extinguishers, fire hoses and hydrants must be regularly checked and
maintained in good working order, they should always be in place according to the fire
control and safety plan.
f) No Smoking and No Naked lights sign is to be exhibited due to accumulation of
inflammable gas in the car holds. The no smoking/no naked lights rule should always be
enforced.
g) Gasoline safety tanks of the approved type should always be used in re-filling gasoline or
diesel on cars. Storage of gasoline/diesel in the cargo hold and near a battery charging room
must be avoided. Proper storage of gasoline/diesel is of utmost importance. In port, do not re-
fill vehicles and charge dead batteries in the same compartment.
h) Cleanliness of cargo holds, living areas and engine room. The condition and cleanliness of
such areas is a big deterrent. Often oil stained rags, sawdust and other fire hazards are the
major cause of fire.
i) Fire patrols. Regular conduction of fire rounds at least every four hours at sea. Checking by
sight and smell that any potential risk including all gas tight, watertight and access doors are
closed.
j) Regular fire drills are a must, so that in the event of such emergency, all crew are
familiarized with their duties, responsibilities and the appropriate equipments to be brought.
k) Bilges and scuppers are to be checked and cleaned frequently, so that in the event of fire,
the use of fire hoses and hydrants can be used without compromising the safety of the vessel.
i) Manually operated call points shall be spaced so that no part of the space is more than 20 m
from a manually operated call point, and one shall be placed close to each exit from such
spaces.
5.7 Stability
A Ro-Ro vessel is one of the most sought after cargo ships to work on. Providing both cargo
and passengers carrying capabilities, Ro-Ro ships reaches ports more frequently and have
shorter voyages. The flexibility, speed and the ship’s functionality to blend with other
transportation modes has made it popular among seafarers.
However, there are things that make Ro-Ro ships dangerous to work on. Ro-ro ships have
been criticized for a number of reasons, mainly because of one single reason – safety of the
ship. Safety being the primary concern of ship owner, operator, and seafarer, lately Ro-Ro
ship has become less famous to work on.
Here are eight reasons that make Ro-Ro ship is a bit dangerous to work on as compared to
other ships.
1. The Problem of Stability
If a vessel maintains its stability at sea then it is safer to sail. However, the problem with the
Ro-Ro ship is its design, which includes cargo in upper decks and accommodation at even
higher levels.
Even a minor shift of cargo in the Ro-Ro vessel can become a major threat to the stability of
the ship. Similarly, hull failure leading to flooding can result in capsize of the vessel in no
time. The effects of wind and bad weather on high accommodation can also disturb the ship’s
stability.
2. High Freeboard
In Ro-Ro ships which carry only cargo, the general arrangement of cargo access door is close
to the water line. In the event of listing, the door can get submerged leading to high chances
for ingress of water inside the ship which will lead to capsize.
3. Cargo Access Door
As discussed above the effect of listing of the ship leads to ingress of water if the cargo doors
are open or damaged. One weak point of Ro-Ro vessel is that sometimes the cargo door itself
is used as a ramp which makes the ship more vulnerable to damages.
4. Lack of Bulkheads
The subdivision of Ro-Ro ship from inside lacks from the transverse bulkheads, leading to
lower water tight integrity when water ingress or flooding takes place. Lack of bulkhead also
leads to spreading of fire more quickly as no subdivision is present to contain the fire.
5. Location of Life Saving Appliances (LSA)
When a ship is to be abandoned, life raft and lifeboats are used to leave the ship as soon as
possible. The location of lifeboat and life rafts on Ro-Ro ships is usually very high, which
makes it even difficult to lower them at sea especially when the ship is listing.
6. Weather condition
Another reason which acts externally on the Ro-Ro vessel is the rough weather, which may
result in reduction in the stability and cause heavy rolling of the ship. Heavy rolling has led to
capsizing of ships in the past.
7. Cargo stowage
Cargo stowage is very important operation on Ro-Ro vessel for any loose cargo (trailer, cars
etc.) can give rise to a chain reaction leading to heavy shift in cargo position. The trucks and
trawlers loaded on board also carry cargo inside them and any shift of that cargo can also lead
to listing of the ship.
8. Cargo Loading
It is very difficult to have a sequential loading of cargo as cargo arrives on terminals at
different intervals and due to lack of time on port. This further leads to uneven cargo
distribution, something for which nothing can be done about. Lack of proper cargo
distribution has been the reason for several ship accidents in the past.
5.8 Watertight Integrity and Flood Control of PCC/PCTC

Main deck is the freeboard deck (lower continuous watertight deck). Normally it is 5th or 6th
deck from bottom. It is watertight and gas tight.
For modern ships, mooring stations are on the upper continuous watertight decks where air
vent heads of ballast, fresh water tanks are located. It is called Mooring deck, which is
watertight around the contour of the ships and should be gastight internally. Maintaining
water tightness of this deck contour (W/T doors, hatches, goose neck flaps etc.) is a must as
flooding angle of the ship is set by Class at this level.
Above the main deck on the modern ships there are no internal bulkheads throughout the
entire length of the ship. On some ships there are no such even below the main deck.
Therefore, the free surface effect for the flooded deck is rather pronounced. To control the
risks of losing stability ship staff need to exercise flood prevention and control procedures.
5.8.1 Flood Control Arrangements
1. Weighted drain valves draining from solid decks above to the next solid deck below-
weighted lever keeps the valve in closed position until there is a head of water in the
upper length of the pipe enough to overcome the moment of the weight of the lever.
2. Cargo hold and e/r bilge drain system with bilge alarm sensors.
3. Bosun’s store, Chain locker, Bow-Thruster space, Steering flat drain systems with bilge
sensors.
4. External (side) ramp bilges with alarm sensors.
5. Watertight doors and W/T doors monitoring panel.
6. External ramps and Internal W/T bulkhead doors.
7. Damaged stability booklet and contingency procedures.
5.8.2 Gastight Doors
In Ro-Ro ships, the enclosed deck cargo spaces for wheeled cargo shall have levels of
protection equivalent to machinery spaces. The Cargo spaces must be limited by Class A
boundaries (In steel or equivalent material). The spaces are subdivided into Gastight fire
zones.
Fig. 5.6: Gastight Zones
Fig. 5.7: Gas tight door

Gas tight doors subdivide the fire zones. The doors are driven either by a hand winch,
pneumatic, hydraulic or electric motor. These doors are fitted with flame retardant packings
which seal the compartments and maintain fire integrity.
Gas tight, Water tight and other access doors should always be kept closed at sea. This would
prevent the rapid spreading of fire and immediate flooding of CO2 to the compartment.
5.8.3 Watertight Doors
In order to maintain the efficiency of a watertight bulkhead it is desirable that it remains
intact. However, in some instances it becomes necessary to provide access between
compartments on either side of a watertight bulkhead and watertight doors are fitted for this
purpose. A particular example of this in cargo ships is the direct means of access required
between the engine room and the shaft tunnel.
Fig. 5.8: Watertight door
Fig. 5.9: Watertight door

Where a doorway is cut in the lower part of a watertight bulkhead care must be taken to
maintain the strength of the bulkhead. The opening is to be framed and reinforced, if the
vertical stiffeners are cut in way of the opening. If the stiffener spacing is increased to
accommodate the opening, the scantlings of the stiffeners on either side of the opening are
increased to give an equivalent strength to that of an unpierced bulkhead. The actual opening
is kept as small as possible, the access to the shaft tunnel being about 1000 to 1250 mm high
and about 700 mm wide. In passenger accommodation the openings would be somewhat
larger.
Mild steel or cast steel watertight doors fitted below the water line are either of the vertical or
horizontal sliding type. A swinging hinged type of door could prove impossible to close in
the event of flooding and is not permitted. The sliding door must be capable of operation
when the ship is listed 15°, and be opened or closed from the vicinity of the door as well as
from a position above the bulkhead deck. At this remote control position an indicator must be
provided to show whether the door is open or closed.
Vertical sliding doors may be closed by a vertical screw thread which is turned by a shaft
extending above the bulkhead and fitted with a crank handle. This screw thread turns in a
gunmetal nut attached to the top of the door, and a crank handle is also provided at the door
to allow it to be closed from this position. Often horizontal sliding doors are fitted, and these
may have a vertical shaft extending above the bulkhead deck, which may be operated by hand
from above the deck or at the door. This can also be power driven by an electric motor and
worm gear, the vertical shaft working through bevel wheels, and horizontal screwed shafts
turning in bronze nuts on the door. The horizontal sliding door may also be opened and
closed by a hydraulic ram with a hydraulic hand pump and with control at the door and above
the bulkhead deck (see Figure 5.9). With the larger number of watertight doors fitted in
passenger ships the doors may be closed by means of hydraulic power actuated by remote
control from a central position above the bulkhead deck.
When in place all watertight doors are given a hose test, but those in apassenger ship are
required to be tested under a head of water extending tothe bulkhead deck. This may be done
before the door is fitted in the ship.
In approved positions in the upper tween decks well above the waterline, hinged watertight
doors are permitted. These may be similar to the weathertight doors fitted in superstructures,
but are to have gunmetal pins in the hinges.
Watertight doors come in a variety of types with variants suited to specific applications. Most
watertight doors are of the horizontal sliding type and are hydraulically operated. The
hydraulic rams keep closed doors pressed firmly shut against rubber gaskets that prevent
leaks. Although designed to be operated automatically, they can also be operated manually to
both open and close as necessary.
When doors are operated automatically, light and sound alarms will be activated warning
crew of the hazard. Assuming that power is available and a closed door needs to be
negotiated, the procedure may require the use of both hands making transport of any heavy or
bulky items a two-man job. If power is not available, a manual pump is provided to operate
the hydraulics but again this is not a single-handed operation.
Maintenance of doors consists of observation and checking the mechanisms to their full
operation. The rubber gaskets must be check for damage and hydraulic hoses and connections
checked for chaffing and tightness. Guides must be obstacle free and moving parts checked
for easy operation. The hydraulic ram should be checked for leaks, these can be caused by a
damaged cylinder ram. Manual pumps must have an adequate fluid level with all pipes and
connections intact and leak-free and importantly the removable handle must be readily to
hand. Finally, the manual operating switches on each side must be operational.
Some doors are not powered and are always operated manually. These are hinged doors with
locking bars or latching dogs located around the perimeter that can be operated individually
or with a control lever that is connected by chains or gears to all the latching arms. Any
moving parts on these doors need to be maintained so as to operate freely when required.
Some of the cargo doors on ro-ro decks may be top or side hinged with a sliding element at
the end. This allows the door to be opened to its full width when handling cargo but with
restricted width for opening the door at sea for crew to pass.
An open door is clearly not watertight but while SOLAS can regulate their presence, it is the
flag state that determines which if any can be left open during voyages. At MSC.88 the IMO
approved MSC.1/Circ.1380 which gives guidance on the issue. The default position is that
doors must be kept closed but ship-owners can apply to the flag state for dispensation for
certain doors. The circular describes the following categories.
* Type A - a door that is kept open, OR
* Type B - a door that shall be closed, but may be left opened for the length of time that
personnel are working in the adjacent compartment. In the case of the crew accommodation
area, the presence of a competent person, in the adjacent compartment will satisfy this
requirement, OR
* Type C - a door that shall be closed, but may be opened to permit passage.
* Type D – a door that shall be closed BEFORE the voyage commences and shall be kept
closed during Navigation. **
The final decision as to category will rest with the flag state and owners will be expected to
make a reasoned case for any requested exemption.
5.8.4 Stern and Bow Doors
Ro-Ro vessels may be fitted with stern doors of the hinge down or hinge up type which if
large are articulated. Bow doors are either of the visor type or of the side hinged type (‘barn
door’ type). These are situated above the freeboard deck and where the bow doors lead to a
complete or long forward enclosed superstructure Lloyd’s require an inner door to be fitted
which is part of the collision bulkhead. This would also be in keeping with the SOLAS
requirements for passenger ships where the collision bulkhead is to be extended weather-tight
to the deck next above the bulkhead deck, but need not be fitted directly above that bulkhead.
A sloping weather-tight vehicle ramp may be fitted in some ships to form the collision
bulkhead above the freeboard deck and the inner door is omitted. This ramp may extend
forward of the specified limit for the collision bulkhead above a height of more than 2.3m
above the bulkhead deck, i.e. above the height of a conventional tween deck space. Stern and
bow door strengths are equivalent to the strength of the surrounding structure and where they
give access to enclosed superstructures they are required to close weather-tight.
Stern doors and bow visors can be mechanically raised and lowered with wire rope and
purchase arrangements but in general they and the side hinged bow doors are hydraulically
opened and closed (see Figure 5.10).
These weathertight doors are gasketed and cleated.
Fig. 5.10: Stern doors and Ramps

Ramps
Ro-ro ships fitted with ramps usually have a stern ramp, but some vessels fitted with bow
doors may also have a bow ramp which doubles as the inner weathertight door and is lowered
onto a link span when the bow visor or side hinged doors have been opened. Ramps may also
be fitted internally to give access from deck to deck. These can be hydraulically or
mechanically tilted to serve more than one deck and can be fixed in the horizontal position to
serve as decks themselves (see Figure 5.11). In some ships they can even be raised into the
hatch space and serve as weathertight covers.
Stern ramps can be fixed axial ramps, fixed quarter ramps, slewing ramps or semi-slewing
quarter ramps (see Figure 5.12). The axial stern ramp may also serve as the stern door and
can be lowered or raised hydraulically or by wire rope arrangements. The quarter ramp was
designed for ro-ro ships using ports which are not provided with right angled quays or link
span connections. The large articulated quarter ramp is raised and lowered by wire rope
purchase arrangements to hydraulic winches. Slewing ramps serve a similar purpose to the
quarter ramp, but are more flexible. The slewing ramp moves around the stern on a curved
guide rail, the movement being affected by the lifting and lowering wire purchases which are
led to hydraulic winches.
5.8.5 Side Doors and Loaders
Side door/ramps are available for Ro-Ro operations and are similar to stern door/ramp
installations.
Fig. 5.11: Internal and external ramps
Fig. 5.12 (a): Types of ramps
Fig. 5.12(b): Stern Quarter Ramp
Fig. 5.12(c): Stern quarter ramp
Fig. 5.13(a): Stern midship ramp
Fig. 5.13(b): Stern midship ramp
5.9 Portable Decks
Portable decks are fitted in a variety of ships permitting flexibility of stowage arrangements
and allowing totally different cargoes to be carried on different voyages. An extreme example
is a 50,000 tonne deadweight bulk carrier fitted with hoistable car decks stowed under the
hold wing tanks when taking ore from Australia to Japan and lowered for the return voyage
when 3000 cars are carried. The car deck is the most common form of portable deck and
common in ro-ro ferries. Hoistable decks are lowered from and stowed at the deckhead by
hoist wires led through a hydraulic jigger winch. Folding decks stow at the sides and ends of
ship spaces and are generally hydraulically lowered into the horizontal position. Lloyd’s
Register include requirements for movable decks in their Rules and if the ship is fitted with
portable decks complying with these rules at the owners or builders request the class notation
‘movable decks’ may be assigned.
5.9.1 Scissors Lift
Cargo can be lowered or raised between decks or to the hold by means of a scissors lift which
is often fitted in ro-ro ships as an alternative to internal ramps, it taking up less room. The
hydraulic cylinder powered scissors lift is also often designed to transfer heavy unit loads.
(Figure14).
5.9.2 Liftable Car Decks
Passenger cars can be loaded on normal decks, but buses, trucks, and heavy machinery need
more headroom. However, making all the deck ceilings higher can waste space.
Modern pure car and truck carriers (PCTCs) have liftable decks, which can be pushed closer
together to maximize standard passenger car capacity or moved apart to accommodate taller
vehicles (Figure 5.14). Mobile scissor lifts onboard the ship lift the liftable decks to adjust the
deck height.
Fig. 5.14: Scissor Lifts
Fig. 5.15: Liftable car decks
Fig. 5.16: Hoistable car decks
Hoistable car decks are divided into liftable sections-panels, that can be individually operated
(hoisted and lowered). Port captain will send deck arrangement to vessel prior cargo
operations (Figure 5.16). The operations require good weather to complete.
5.10 Cargo Restraint
In Ro-Ro and container ships the lashing of cargo is an important safety consideration and
usually calls for fittings which will permit rapid and easy but effective securing of the cargo
because of short ship turnaround times.
The shipbuilder is responsible for the deck and perhaps hatch fittings for the securing devices
and will look to the ship operator for guidance on their type and positions. On the decks of
Ro-Ro ships where the direction of lashing is unpredictable and vehicles must transverse the
fitting a cloverleaf deck socket in conjunction with an elephants foot type of end lashing is
popular (see Figure 5.17).
Fig. 5.17: Method of lashing vehicles
Fig 5.18: Lashing methods of vehicles

***
Reference:
1. D.J. Eyres, G.J. Bruce, Ship Construction
2. SOLAS Consolidated Edition 2017
Questions
1. Explain stability considerations of RO-RO vessel. [IMU 2017-3M]
2. Explain water tight and gas tight doors on PCC. [IMU 2017-3M]
3. With reference to a Car carrier,
(a) Explain the ventilation arrangements provided in the car decks.
(b) With the help of a simple sketch, explain the arrangement provided for loading the vehicles on board.
[IMU 2017-7+7M]
4. Explain Liftable Decks of PCC. [IMU 2015-3M]
5. Discuss ventilation arrangement for RO-RO cargo spaces. [6 M]
6. Explain about various problem areas of a Ro-Ro ship from safety and stability point of view. [7 M]
Chapter 6
Bulk Carriers
6.1 Introduction
A Bulk Carrier is intended primarily to carry dry cargo in bulk, including such types as ore
carriers and combination carriers.
Fig. 6.1: A Bulk carrier on sea passage
6.1.1 General Features of Bulk Carriers

 Carrying capacity varying from 3,000 tonnes to 300,000 tonnes
 Average speed of 12 ~ 15 knots
 Single deck ships, i.e. no tween decks
 Small to medium sized bulk carriers (carrying capacity up to 40,000 tonnes) generally
have cargo handling gear fitted, while larger vessels use shore-based facilities for loading
and unloading
 The cargo holds are usually large, without any obstructions, with larger hatch sizes to
allow easy loading/unloading of cargoes
 Most bulk carriers have one cargo hold dedicated as a ballast hold. This can be used on
ballast voyages for improved stability. One or two further holds may be permitted for
partially ballasting but only in port
 They have hydraulic, single pull or stacking (piggy- back) type steel hatch covers
 These ships usually have four types of ballast tanks:
-Sloping topside wing tanks
-Sloping bottom side wing tanks
-Double bottom tanks
-Fore peak and After peak ballast water tank.
The first reference source for the carriage of bulk cargo should be the International Maritime
Solid Bulk Cargoes Code (IMSBC), issued by IMO. It was revised and reissued in 2009. It is
a requirement that a copy of the Code should be onboard a bulk carrier, and the revised Code
is mandatory under SOLAS from 1 January 2011.
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Bulk Carrier * Compiled by Anirudh Kumar Page 174
6.1.2 Bulk Carrier Types
1. Ore Carriers
2. OBO-Oil/Bulk/Ore carriers
3. Self-unloader bulk carriers
4. Open Hatch bulk carriers
5. Forest product carriers
a. Wood chip carriers
b. Timber carriers
c. Wood pulp carriers
6.2 Types of Cargoes Carried by Bulk Carrier

Bulk carriers generally carry solid bulk cargoes which are materials other than liquid or gas,
consisting of a combination of particles, granules or any larger pieces of material, generally
uniform in composition, and loaded directly into the cargo spaces without any intermediate
form of containment.
The cargoes carried by bulk carriers, ranging from "clean" foodstuffs to "dirty" minerals and
including those that may react with each other or with sources of contamination such as
water, mean that care must be taken to ensure that cargo spaces are properly prepared for the
particular cargo to be loaded. Cleaning must be adequate for the cargo to be loaded and will
usually require a surveyor to pass the space as suitable for loading. It is essential that residues
of a previous cargo are removed to ensure that contamination does not occur.
Damage to bulk cargoes is mainly caused by water, thus, not only must the holds be dry to
receive cargo but hatch covers must be watertight or, if necessary, sealed to prevent ingress
of water.
All fittings in the hold (ladders, pipe guards, bilge covers, etc.) should be examined to ensure
that they are in good condition and securely fitted. Such pieces of equipment might cause
serious damage to conveyor belt systems and consequent delays, for which the ship will be
held liable, should they be inadvertently discharged with the cargo.
Cargoes generally carried by bulk carriers are:
 Coal
 Iron Ore
 Mineral Concentrates
 Grain
 Cement
 Wood chips
6.3 Hazards Associated with Various Cargoes in Bulk Carriers
6.3.1 Coal
Vessels shipping coal should at all times carry on board instruments for measuring methane,
oxygen and carbon monoxide gas concentrations, so that the atmosphere within the cargo
space can be monitored. The instrument should be regularly serviced and calibrated so that it
can provide the crewmembers with reliable data about the atmosphere within the cargo space.
Care needs to be exercised in interpreting methane measurements carried out in the low
oxygen concentrations often found in unventilated cargo holds.
There are four categories of coal:
Coal Slurry
This is a mixture of solid coal containing water and is obtained as a by-product during
mining. The coal particle size is usually less than 1 mm. It is regarded as a cargo that may
liquefy due to its high moisture content.
Coal Duff
This is a mixture of coal and water with the largest coal particles around 7 mm. Less liable to
liquefaction than coal slurry, but does require its moisture content to be monitored.
Coke
Solid residues obtained by distillation of petroleum products, or half burnt coal with less gas
content but with a tendency to absorb moisture at up to 20% by weight.
Small Coal
Contains particles of coal less than 7 mm in size; small coal is likely to develop a flow state
due to its high moisture content.
According to IMO classification, coal is considered MHB (material hazardous in bulk). Three
characteristics of coal need to be considered:
Methane Emission
Most coals emit methane, which is highly explosive if a gas concentration of 5-16% is
present in atmosphere. A naked flame or spark is sufficient to ignite it. Methane is lighter
than air and so it flows towards the top empty part of the cargo compartment and may even
travel to adjacent compartments, including a hatch top. Coals that emit methane should be
monitored carefully and, if the methane level becomes unacceptable, surface ventilation
should be carried out as recommended by the IMSBC Code.
Spontaneous Combustion
Some coals are liable to spontaneous combustion due to the presence of moisture that causes
exothermic oxidation (a reaction that results in production of heat) of coal at ambient
temperature. If this heat is not dissipated, the temperature rises and the coal may ignite.
Corrosion
Some types of coal react with water to produce acids that can cause excessive corrosion of
the ship's structure, known as `cargo corrosion'. As a result of the chemical reaction during
the process of forming acid and then corrosion, colorless and odorless gases such as hydrogen
are produced.
6.3.2 Grains
One of the most difficult and dangerous cargoes to carry in bulk are grain cargoes. Most
grains have an angle of repose (slip angle) of about 20° from the horizontal, which means that
if the ship rolls more than 20° the cargo will shift. Then this happens the ship will develop a
large list, lying on her side and still rolling will obviously cause a greater shift of cargo which
in turn will capsize the vessel.
Most authorities therefore request that the master proves that his ship is capable of remaining
stable even if the grain cargo shifts. This is done by the compiling of the Grain Loading Form
which fully outlines the ships stability at the worse condition on passage.
Because grain cargoes are liable to shift, heavy emphasis is placed on the stability of ships
that carry them. The main reason is the variation in the types of grain, including its size and
its ability to develop a free flow state when loaded in bulk.
Fig. 6.2: Bulk grain loading

Each ship carrying grain has to provide grain specific stability information, including grain
heeling moments, to the terminal. This section looks at various problems, methods and
precautions that must be taken when carrying grain cargoes. Grain cargoes carried in bags are
not considered as bulk cargo.
6.3.3 Iron Ores
Iron ore may be shipped in a number of forms:
 ROM: Run of Mine, which is ore as it comes from the mine, of no particular grade;
 Fines: small screenings of ore (less than 6mm). Fines may be sintered to form large
particles, lumps or masses by heating the material to below its melting point with another
material (e.g. limestone or coke breeze) until its particles adhere together. Fines may also
be pelletised to form round pellets of ore;
 Lump: ore of larger pieces (10mm ~ 40mm);
 Concentrate: ore that has been refined to remove the bulk of waste materials.
Iron concentrates
Concentrates of iron are produced by following methods:
1. The dry method, in which high grade ore is crushed to remove waste material, leaving a
low moisture content in the powdered ore. Iron concentrates obtained by the dry method are
susceptible to spontaneous combustion because of the air already trapped within the
concentrate during the crushing process.
Due to dampness within the cargo, the sulphur can react with the oxygen to produce heat,
resulting in spontaneous combustion. Therefore, for concentrates, the holds should be kept
closed and ventilation avoided. Additionally, due to sulphur and other metallic contents
within concentrates, these may emit poisonous/explosive gases. The cargo spaces should be
treated as enclosed spaces and appropriate entry procedures followed.
2. The wet method, in which the crushed rock is washed in water to separate the sulphides.
The concentrate has a high moisture content that may liquefy and shift onboard ship. The
moisture content of these concentrates should therefore be checked prior to loading and, if
above TML, the cargo should be rejected.
Sponge Iron or Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)
This is produced from iron ore and is used in the manufacture of steel. It involves heating the
iron ore at low temperatures without allowing it to come in contact with air. It is, therefore,
important to allow the piles of sponge iron to be weathered before shipping so that its
temperature drops.
The sponge iron is separated by magnets so has little moisture content. Therefore, when it is
shipped in large quantities, if it gets damp from contact with air, it is likely to oxidise and so
is liable to spontaneously combust and/or emit toxic fumes. Sponge iron cannot be used
directly for manufacture of any consumer products as it first needs to be processed into
wrought iron. Some owners will not accept these cargoes on their vessels.
Pig Iron
When loading any of these iron ore products, care should be taken to monitor the temperature
of the cargo itself whether it is in pellet, lump or briquette form. If the temperature exceeds
65°C, it must not be loaded onboard. The alternate option is that the shipper's declaration
provides information as to whether the cargo has been sufficiently treated for oxidation/
corrosion inhibition to avoid any chance of spontaneous combustion on increase in the
moisture content.
Blended Iron-Ore
Blended iron-ore containing DRI (C) can be identified by its chemical composition, which
must include: total iron (Fe) content; metallic iron (Feo) content; and moisture content. The
information must be supported by a certificate from an independent testing laboratory and be
related to the cargo offered for shipment. The certificate should state the method and
standards followed when obtaining the tested samples (preferably ISO 10835) and when
determining the metallic iron content (preferably ISO 5416).
If a blended iron-ore cargo contains any metallic iron it should be regarded as DRI (C) and
carried in accordance with the IMSBC Code.
Problem with Mill Scale
Mill Scale, a byproduct of hot rolled steel-making, is a bulk commodity liable to liquefaction,
like iron ore fines. Mill Scale and Mill Scale Fines possess a transportable moisture limit
(TML) and have thus been confirmed as Group A cargoes, which should not be accepted for
loading without the shipper having certified the moisture content and TML. Due to the high
density of the cargo, the IMSBC Code requires that it should be trimmed flat for the voyage,
distributing the weight evenly over the tank top - wet base cargoes are prone to shifting, as
the bottom liquefies and the top of the stow becomes free to slide over the base.
6.4 Liquefication of Cargo
Certain cargoes, such as concentrates and some coals, contain moisture that can cause the
cargo to liquefy. In a fine grained, moisture laden cargo the spaces between cargo grains are
filled with both air and water. Whilst at sea the cargo is subject to forces due to the vibration
and rolling of the vessel. These forces cause the inter-grain spaces to contract. The water in
the spaces between grains is subject to a compressive force but as it is a liquid it cannot be
compressed. This has the effect of reducing the inter-grain frictional force that holds the
cargo in a solid state. Where enough moisture is present the reduction in inter-grain friction
due to the ship’s motion and vibration can be sufficient to cause the cargo flow like a liquid
i.e. to liquefy.
6.4.1 Consequences of Liquefaction
The most significant consequence for the vessel resulting from liquefaction is cargo shift
leading to loss of stability. This may produce dangerous angles of list and in some instances
the resulting loss of stability can be such that the vessel and the lives of those onboard are
lost. It is therefore imperative that seafarers are aware of the types and condition of cargo that
may give rise liquefaction.
6.5 SOLAS Requirements
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Chapter VI: Carriage of
Cargoes - provides the general framework for the carriage of all cargoes.
6.5.1 Sulphur
Sulphur has certain properties; corrosion and the emission of certain gases. A copy of the
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should be requested from the shipper prior to loading the
cargo. This will outline the characteristics of the cargo as well as any specific precautions to
be followed during handling and carriage.
6.5.2 Salt
Salt is highly soluble. In the case of ingress of water into holds, there is a risk of loss of
Stability of the ship through dissolution of this cargo (formation of a wet base and shifting of
cargo).
6.5.3 Cement
Cement is a finely ground powder which becomes almost fluid in nature when aerated or
significantly disturbed, thereby creating a very minimal angle of repose. After loading is
completed, de-aeration occurs almost immediately and the product settles into a stable mass.
Cement dust can be a major concern during loading and discharge if vessel is not specially
designed as a cement carrier or shore equipment is not fitted with special dust control.
Hazard: It may shift when aerated. This cargo is non-combustible or has a low fire risk.
6.5.4 Fishmeal
Fish meal, or fishmeal, is a commercial product made from fish and the bones and offal from
processed fish. It is a brown powder or cake obtained by drying the fish or fish trimmings,
often after cooking, and then grinding it. If it is a fatty fish it is also pressed to extract most of
the fish oil.
Fishmeal is a nutrient-rich and high-protein supplement feed ingredient that stores well, and
is used primarily in diets for domestic animals and sometimes as a high-quality organic
fertilizer.
Heating of fishmeal is due to atmospheric oxidation. The chemical process is complex and
involves a series of reactions. The amount of heat produced by these reactions varies. The
reactions producing most energy are those towards the end of the series. Antioxidant stops
the reaction chain before these later reactions can occur.
When serious heating occurs, this can result in carbonization and/or fire.
6.6 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF BULK CARRIERS:
A general arrangement of a typical bulk carrier (Fig. 6.3) shows a clear deck with machinery
aft. Large hatches with steel covers are designed to facilitate rapid loading and discharge of
the cargo. Since the bulk carrier makes many voyages in ballast a large ballast capacity is
provided to give adequate immersion of the propeller.
Fig. 6.3: Profile of a typical bulk carrier

The general-purpose bulk carrier, in which usually the central hold section only is used for
cargo. The partitioned tanks which surround it are used for ballast purposes either on ballast
voyages, or in the case of the saddle tanks, to raise the ship's center of gravity when a low-
density cargo is carried. Some of the double-bottom tanks may be used for fuel oil and fresh
water. The saddle tanks also serve to shape the upper region of the cargo hold and trim the
cargo. Large hatchways are a feature of bulk carriers, since they reduce cargo-handling time
during loading and unloading.
Fig. 6.4: General arrangement of Bulk Carriers

Bulk carrier general arrangement and size range are similar to that of tankers. Single-purpose
bulk carriers are generally designed as ore carriers, built to carry heavy cargoes stowing at 25
cubic feet per long ton or less, or dry bulk carriers, for grain and similar cargoes stowing at
45 to 50 cubic feet per ton.
Like tankers, the general arrangement of cargo spaces is dictated by the facts that the cargo is
in the form of homogeneous particles of more or less uniform size, and can be transferred by
blowers, conveyors, or grab buckets. Cargo spaces are divided into holds to meet structural
and subdivision requirements, to restrain cargo movements and resulting upsetting moments,
to permit the carrying of different cargoes simultaneously, and to provide for ballasting.
Machinery is invariably aft, and the nonperishable nature of the cargoes leads to speeds in the
12- to 16 knot range, with attendant full hull forms.
Relatively small volumes of dense ores and similar cargoes will settle a ship to her summer
load line. Holds on ore carriers are therefore quite small, bounded by broad wing tanks and
deep double bottoms. The double bottom and longitudinal bulkheads are of heavy
construction to carry the heavy ore load.
The narrow hold breadth limits transverse weight shifts and the depth of the double bottom is
sufficient to keep the center of gravity of the ore high enough to prevent stiff rolling in a
seaway. Large volume wing tanks are used for ballast.
Designed for low-density cargoes, dry bulk carriers require much greater hold volume than
ore carriers, and therefore have much shallower inner bottoms.
Fig. 6.5 : Cargo hold construction of a typical bulk carrier

In some designs the topside tanks are omitted or fitted with bolted plates in the sloping
plating facing the hold. When very light cargoes are carried, the plates are removed and the
tanks are filled along with the hold; the cargo in the tanks feeds into the hold by gravity when
discharging. Larger carriers are sometimes built with an inner side shell, which eases hold
cleaning and provides additional ballast space.
Shallow double-bottom bulk carriers are sometimes designed to carry high-density cargo, by
arranging them with alternate long and short holds. High-density cargo is loaded only in
alternate holds to keep the center of gravity high enough to prevent excessive metacentric
height.
The double-bottom structure under the holds intended for heavy cargo is augmented. The
alternating cargo distribution causes high vertical shear near the bounding bulkheads, which
may require increased shell scantlings.
With the increase in industrial demand for raw materials paralleling that for petroleum, the
design of bulk carriers, like tankers, also evolved to include larger hulls. Bulk carrier
deadweights range from quite small to over 200,000 tons.
In order to increase the proportion of payload operation above the 50-percent level typical of
most straight bulk carriers (for tankers or dry bulk carriers operating between specific ports,
cargo is often carried on only one leg of the journey), a trend toward combination carriers
began about 1950. At first, these were dual purpose ships (ore/oil, bulk/oil) which carried
different cargos on separate legs of a voyage cycle consisting of two or more legs. This
development has evolved into combination carriers known as ore/bulk/oil ships (OBO).
Despite differences, bulk carriers of all types have certain features in common:
 Single cargo deck, without ’tween decks.
 Machinery aft of cargo spaces so shaft tunnel does not interfere with discharging gear.
 Large ballast capacity.
 Double bottoms under bulk cargo holds.
To facilitate rapid cargo discharge and minimize cleaning requirements, holds are designed
with a minimum of internal obstructions that might catch and hold cargo. Bulkhead stiffening
is attained by the use of corrugated plate rather than welded stiffeners. Hold cross section, is
arranged so that cargo is self-trimming and self-loading:
 Cargo will flow outwards from the point of discharge of bucket grabs or gravity chutes to
fill the entire cargo space with a minimum of hand trimming.
 The narrowing width at the top of the hold limits transverse cargo shifts when the hold is
not completely filled.
 During discharge, remaining cargo will flow to a fairly small area where it can be picked
up by the discharging equipment.
Holds of different lengths may be distributed throughout the length of the ship for flexibility
in cargo distribution; cargoes of varying densities can be distributed so as to keep the
longitudinal bending moment within acceptable limits.
Except for equipment to open or remove hatch covers, most bulk carriers are without cargo
gear. Cargo is loaded by gravity chutes or derrick grabs and discharged by grabs, conveyor
systems, or in the case of grain and similar light cargo, by suction.
Some bulk carriers are built as self unloaders, either by the provision of derrick grabs, or by
trimming the cargo spaces to belt conveyers running under the holds to a bucket conveyer
which transfers the cargo to another belt conveyor on a long unloading boom. Conveyor type
self-unloaders are fairly common on the Great Lakes. Combination carriers are fitted with
cargo pumps and piping systems for discharging oil cargoes.
6.7 Loading of High Density Cargo and Water Ballast Distribution for Bulk Carriers
Bulk carriers are usually discharged by grabs or by suction pipes. Pouring the cargo through a
shooter or via a conveyor belt does the loading. Bulk carriers have large upper and lower
ballast tanks to give the empty vessel enough draught and a better behavior whilst in transit.
The safe operation of bulk carriers is dependent on not exceeding allowable stresses in the
cycle of loading, discharging, ballasting and de-ballasting.
Fig. 6.6: Transverse section of a typical bulk carrier
It is recommended that high density cargo be stowed uniformly over the cargo space and
trimming be applied to level the cargo, as far as practicable, to minimize the risk of damage
to the hull structure and cargo shift in heavy weather.
The distributions of cargo in a hold, and water ballast distribution, have an important
influence on the resultant stress in the hull structure. The double bottom and the cross deck
structure are designed based upon a trimmed cargo distributed symmetrically in a hold space.
Fig. 6.7: Another Transverse section view of a Bulk carrier Cargo Hold
Fig. 6.8: Grab discharging of a typical bulk carrier
6.7.1 Stress considerations with regard to Loading and Discharging
Still water shear forces and bending moments given in the ship's loading manual and the
corresponding calculations from onboard loading instruments are based on an even
distribution of cargo in a hold space, unless otherwise indicated.
Still water shear force and bending moments calculated with an onboard loading instrument
do not consider the torsional loads acting on the hull girder resulting from asymmetrical
cargo or ballast loading.
When heavy cargo is poured into a cargo space at one end of the cargo hold, the lateral cargo
pressure acting on the transverse bulkhead, as a result of the cargo piling up at one end of the
cargo space , will increase the loads carried by the transverse bulkhead structure and the
magnitude of transverse compressive stresses in the cross deck.
When the same loading pattern is also adopted for the adjacent cargo hold , the lateral cargo
pressure acting on the transverse bulkhead will be largely cancelled out. However, in this
situation, a large proportion of the vertical forces on the double bottom is transferred to the
bulkhead between the two loaded holds which could lead to shear buckling of the transverse
bulkhead structure, compression buckling of the cross deck and increased SWBM in way of
the transverse bulkhead. Cargo should always be stowed symmetrically in the longitudinal
direction, and trimmed, as far as practical.
Stowing cargo asymmetrically about the ship's center line in a cargo space induces torsional
loads into the structure which causes twisting of the hull girder. When the hull girder is
subjected to torsion, warping of the hull section occurs which gives rise to shearing and
bending of the cross-deck structure. Water ballast should always be carried symmetrically in
port and starboard tanks with equal levels of filling. The final fill level of all water ballast
tanks and holds must satisfy the requirements specified in the ship's approved loading manual
to avoid damage to the internal structure due to sloshing effects.
6.7.2 For the Ballast Water Management Plan to be effective the Master and chief
officer must ensure that it is:
 available to guide crew in safe operation of the BWM system realistic, practical, and easy
to use
 understood by everybody engaged in ballast water management, both on board and ashore
 evaluated, reviewed, and updated as necessary
 consistent with the operational ballasting requirements of the ship written in the working
language of the ship
 approved by a recognized Classification Society.
The ballasting and deballasting of port and starboard ballast tanks should be carried out
simultaneously so that the amount of water ballast in each corresponding pair of port and
starboard ballast tanks remains the same throughout ballasting or deballasting operations.
Asymmetrical distribution of water ballast induces torsional loads, causing twisting of the
hull girder.
Torsional loading of the hull girder is considered to be an important contributory factor to
recurring cracking at the hatch corners and to problems associated with hatch cover
alignment and fittings. In extreme cases, this can lead to extensive buckling of the cross deck
structure between the hatch openings.
Exceeding the permissible limits specified in the ship's approved loading manual will lead to
over-stressing of the ship's structure and may result in catastrophic failure of the hull
structure.
6.8 Condition Assessment System

6.8.1 Early Assessment of Ship’s Hull Damage - Disaster & Countermeasures
Ships of the general bulk carrier form have experienced a relatively high disaster during the
late 1980s and early 1990s giving rise to concern as to their design and construction.
Throughout the 1990s bulk carrier safety has received considerable attention in the work of
IMO, the classification societies and elsewhere.
Based on experience of accidents with lesser consequences it was concluded that the
casualties occurred through local structural failure leading to loss of watertight integrity of
the side shell followed by progressive flooding through damaged bulkheads. The flooding is
resulting either in excessive hull bending stresses or excessive trim, and loss of the ship.
Much of this work has concentrated on the structural hull details, stresses experienced as the
result of loading and discharging cargoes, damage to structure and protective coatings arising
from discharging cargoes, poor maintenance and subsequent inadequate inspection of the ship
structure.
The outcome of this work has been the introduction of a new Chapter XII of SOLAS covering
bulk carrier ship safety and enhanced survey procedures for bulk carriers. The chapter
highlighting strengthening of hatch covers in the forward part of the ship, structural
requirement, adequacy of bow heights provide additional security against cargo damage,
damage stability guideline and other requirements.
6.8.2 Condition Assessment Program: CAP
The CAP is applicable to oil tankers and bulk carriers of 15 years of age and above, and may
well be used for ships at other ages and for other types of ships.
Ship's conditions can remain of a good level throughout their service lives if they are operated
in an appropriate manner, the current state of construction and equipment of each ship or
structure are clearly understood, and inspections and maintenance are carried out regularly and
properly.
Ships should be surveyed periodically to verify that they are maintained in an acceptable
condition in accordance with international conventions, the Rules of Classification societies,
etc. Detailed ship conditions, however, cannot usually be all assessed by the regular surveys.
A detailed assessment of ship condition is very important for the owner's maintenance
program through a ship's service life.
The Condition Assessment Program (CAP) is a specialized survey program which offers
owners a detailed assessment of a ship's actual condition, based on strength evaluation, and
fatigue strength analysis as well as a detailed-on site systematic inspection of the hull,
machinery and cargo systems.
Fig. 6.9: Making Bulk Carriers safer
With the CAP, owners can be confident that they have an accurate assessment of the ships
actual condition, especially as far as the condition compares with the normal Class
requirements.
The CAP applies, in principle, to oil tankers, chemical carriers and bulk carriers, though other
types of ships may be covered, provided that the CAP is properly modified.
6.8.3 Benefits of CAP
 Provides an independent evaluation of the condition of your ship.
 Helps you demonstrate the operational reliability of your ships, regardless of their age.
 Leads to preferential chartering opportunities and the potential for increased earnings.
 Helps in the early identification of deficiencies, maximizing on-hire time and reducing
unplanned maintenance.
 Assists in maximising residual asset value
6.8.4 Major Parts of CAP

The CAP consists of two major parts:
1. CAP-HULL (Condition Assessment for Hull Structures i.e. HCAP)
HCAP is to include check of documents and records, overall, internal and close-up surveys,
thickness measurements and analysis, as well as strength assessment including longitudinal
strength calculations, re-assessment of scantlings and fatigue strength assessment.
2. CAP-Machinery/Cargo System (Condition Assessment for Machinery & Cargo Systems
i.e. MCAP)
MCAP includes a check of documents and records, an overall survey of machinery/cargo
systems, function test, oil sample analysis and vibration measurement.
Scale of Rating
CAP rating has to be justified basing on the actual technical condition of the ship. CAP rates
the vessel in accordance with a rating scale from 1 (very good) to 4 (poor).
The results of condition assessment are clearly identified and the definitions corresponding to
each rating are indicated below.
6.8.4.1 CAP-Hull Rating (HCAP)
• Rating Level 1: “Very Good Condition”
Items examined and measured found with only superficial reductions from “as new” or
current rule scantlings. No maintenance or repair required.
• Rating Level 2: “Good Condition”
Items examined and measured found to have deficiencies of a minor nature not requiring
correction or repair and/or found to have all thicknesses significantly above class limits.
• Rating Level 3: “Satisfactory Condition”
Items examined and measured either found to have deficiencies, which do not require
immediate corrective action or found to have thicknesses, which although generally above
class renewal levels, do exhibit substantial corrosion.
• Rating Level 4: “Unsatisfactory Condition”
Items examined and measured either found to have a deficiency or deficiencies which may
affect the ship’s potential to remain in class, or found to have, in some areas, thicknesses
which are at or below the class renewal levels.
General Requirements
Condition Assessment Programme for Hull Structures (HCAP) is to have a ship judged based
on the actual condition of the hull structure, in general, HCAP is to include check of
documents and records onboard the ship, visual inspection of hull structural members,
thickness measurement and analysis of TM, strength calculation and scale of rating. Hull
inspection is normally to be carried out in dry dock.
The following documents and records are to be checked prior to the commencement of
CAP survey:
1. Valid certificates of the ship (statutory certificate and class certificate)
2. Vessel repair history of the ship (including alterations or modifications, properties of
deficiencies and repair methods)
3. Vessel survey records of the ship (special survey, annual survey, intermediate survey and
docking survey)
4. Latest report of thickness measurement
5. Previous CAP reports, if any.
Plans and documents required for strength assessment of hull structures:
1. General Arrangement
2. Shell expansion
3. Transverse mid-section plan
4. Loading manual
5. Construction profile, including bulkhead
6. Records of thickness measurement at the time of assessment and other necessary plans.
The hull items assessed are:
1. Ballast tanks
2. Void spaces
3. Cargo tanks
4. Hull external structure
Structural strength
Each tank/space assessment is based on ratings of the main structural elements i.e. fore
transverse bulkhead, aft transverse bulkhead, side shell, longitudinal bulkhead, deck
(deckhead), bottom, internal structure. Strength assessment of hull structures consists of three
parts, i.e. longitudinal strength calculation and fatigue strength assessment (optional). The
overall rating for each tank/space/area is based on the overall structural/survey average rating
of each structural element. The main deck, bottom and ship sides are to be rated in a similar
way as tanks/spaces.
Thickness measurement
Thickness measurement is to be carried out by a recognized thickness measurement company
under the direction of CAP inspector.
The main purpose of the analysis of thickness measurements is to establish the extent of
general corrosion for each structural element to be rated. A statistical analysis of thickness
diminutions will be carried out against original “as-built” scantlings.
Visual assessment of structural condition
The purpose of a visual inspection is to assess the extent of defects and local corrosion
(including pitting, grooving, edge corrosion).
Void spaces are to be surveyed at least in the scope of the overall inspection. All fatigue
critical details i.e. details identified in fatigue assessment calculations are to be close-up
surveyed.
The visual inspection is divided into items:
 Cracking
 Local corrosion (including pitting corrosion, grooving corrosion and edge corrosion)
 Deformation
 The condition of anodes as applicable.
 Any other local defect.
The visual inspection rating is carried out based on the result of the above inspection. In
general, the lowest of the cracking, local corrosion and deformation rating is decisive towards
the final result of visual inspection rating.
6.8.4.2 CAP-Machinery/Cargo System Rating (MCAP)
• Rating Grade 1: “Very Good Condition”
Items and systems examined and function tested, found with no deficiencies affecting safe
operation and/or performance. Documentation and maintenance practices considered good.
No maintenance or repair required.
• Rating Grade 2: “Good Condition”
Items and systems examined and function tested, found with some minor deficiencies which
do not affect safe operation and/or normal performance. Documentation and maintenance
practices considered adequate. No immediate maintenance or repair considered necessary.
• Rating Grade 3: “Satisfactory Condition”
Items and systems examined and function tested, found with deficiencies not affecting safe
operation and/or performance. Documentation and maintenance practices considered to be of
a minimum standard. Some maintenance and repair may be considered necessary.
• Rating Grade 4: “Unsatisfactory Condition”
Items and systems examined and function tested, found with deficiencies significantly
affecting operation and/or performance. Documentation and maintenance practices
considered inadequate. Maintenance and repair required to reinstate serviceability.
General Requirements
MCAP is to include a check of documents and records, visual inspection, function test,
collection and measurement of machinery parameters, vibration measurement, oil sample
analysis and rating.
The items of inspection for MCAP include main engine/generating set prime mover,
propulsion system, boiler and pressure vessel, piping system and machinery piping system,
electric/automatic system, deck machinery and liquid cargo machinery and piping, etc.
Following documents are checked:
1. Perform check of the validity of class certificates (including statutory certificates and class
certificates).
2. Perform check of ship’s survey records.
3. Perform check of the validity of planned maintenance scheme (PMS) for machinery
(including the repair/change item in the PMS report made by the chief engineer), if the PMS
is applied.
4. Perform check of report of lubricating oil analysis record.
The documents required for check are also to include an order list or a list of machinery and
electrical equipment, specifications of main engine/generating set prime mover, a sea trial
report after delivery, records of repair and maintenance, reports of oil sample analysis, a
report of boiler water analysis and a list of spares/tools, etc.
Machinery, Electrical Installation and Cargo Related Systems, Scope of the Survey
1. Perusal of the maintenance records
2. Survey of the system and compartments
3. Running tests
4. Survey and tests of cargo related system (on tankers)
5. Internal survey of selected components
6. Measurements of wear down figures
7. Survey and tests of the safety systems, automation, and remote-control system
8. Insulation resistance test
9. Oil analysis
10. Sea trials
Photographic documentation reflecting the average condition is to be enclosed to the report.
6.8.5 CAP Reports
CAP hull report consists of following:
1. Ship Particulars
2. Statement of facts
3. General information on CAP ratings
4. Course of actions during survey, scope of surveys
5. Descriptions and ratings for main structural elements in each tank/space
6. Structural strength analysis and required measures to satisfy target rating
7. Description and photos of defects,
8. Description of repairs and upgrading works,
9. Photographic evidence of the condition in each tank/space,
10. CAP rating summary
11. Analysis of UTM data for each main structural element in each tank/space
MCAP report
The MCAP report at least consists of:
1. Ship Particulars
2. Statement of facts
3. Summary of assessment of machinery and electrical installations
4. Record of assessment of machinery and electrical installations
5. Photographic evidence of the condition of machinery and electrical installations
6. List of machinery and electrical installations
7. Sea trial records for main engine/generating set prime mover
8. Report for analysis of lubrication oil
9. Report for vibration test
10. Report for brake tests for windlass and winch as applicable.
After the completion of the CAP, the certificate of CAP indicating the ship’s comprehensive
rating (Overall Rating for CAP-HULL and/or CAP-Machinery/Cargo System) is issued.
6.8.6 CAP Certificate

A CAP Certificate is issued after completion of the Condition Assessment Program. The
certificate will contain:
1. The vessel identification data,
2. The place and period of survey,
3. A summary assessment of hull/machinery and cargo systems,
4. Comments (if any).
The certificate will give no period of validity.
6.8.7 CAP Rating Calculation
6.9 Enhanced Survey Program
Enhanced survey programme is a guideline for shipping companies and owners to prepare
their ship for special surveys to maintain the safety of the ship while at sea or at port. A
survey programme is to be prepared by the owner and is to be submitted to the recognized
authorities like classification societies, six months prior to the survey.
ESP adequately addresses the critical structural areas of the ship, the failure of critical
systems can also lead to significant incidents relating to safety of life or oil pollution.
Recognising the potentially serious impact of such marine incidents, the IMO and the
International Association of Classification Societies (IACS), and the marine industry in
general, have over the years developed legislation and guidance aimed at ensuring safe ship
operation and protection of the environment.
6.9.1 Applicability of Code on the Enhance Survey Programme
The Code should apply to all self-propelled bulk carriers of 500 gross tonnage and above
other than double-side skin bulk carriers as defined.
The Code should apply to surveys of hull structure and piping systems in way of cargo holds,
cofferdams, pipe tunnels, void spaces, fuel oil tanks, within the cargo length area and all
ballast tanks.
The Code contains the minimum extent of examination, thickness measurements and tank
testing. The survey should be extended when substantial corrosion and/or structural defects
are found and include additional close-up survey when necessary.
Ships subject to compliance with regulation XII/6.1 of the Convention should be subject to
the additional thickness measurement guidance contained in annex 11.
Ships subject to compliance with resolution MSC.168(79) should be subject to the additional
thickness measurement guidance contained in annex 15.
For bulk carriers with hybrid cargo hold arrangements, e.g. with some cargo holds of single-
side skin and others of double-side skin, the requirements of part B of annex A apply to cargo
holds of double-side skin and associated wing spaces.
The surveys should be carried out during the surveys prescribed by regulation I/10 of the
1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended.
6.9.2 Annexes of ESP and Their Parts
According to guidelines, ESP (Enhance Survey Programme) has 2 Annexes (Annex A &
Annex B)
Annex A
Code on the enhanced programme of inspections during surveys of Bulk Carriers.
Annex A is subdivided into two parts:
Part A
Code on the enhanced programme of inspections during surveys of Bulk carriers having
single-side skin construction
Part B
Code on the enhanced programme of inspections during surveys of Bulk carriers having
double-side skin construction
Annex B
Code on the enhanced programme of inspections during Surveys of Oil Tankers.
Annex B is subdivided into two parts:
Part A
Code on the enhanced programme of inspections during Surveys of double-hull oil tankers
Part B
Code on the enhanced programme of inspections during Surveys of oil tankers other than
double-hull oil tankers
6.9.3 Brief Description of Chapters

Ch 1. General
Ch 2. Renewal survey
Describes how Enhanced survey to be carried out during the periodical surveys along with
timings and conduct of enhance surveys and requirements of dry-docking
Ch 3. Annual survey
Describes enhanced inspection carried out during annual surveys which includes cargo holds
and tank pressure testing.
Ch 4. Intermediate survey
Deals with intermediate surveys in addition to the annual survey requirements.
Ch 5. Preparations for survey
Discuss the needed preparation for surveys, condition and equipment for surveys, access to
the surveyed structure and conduct of survey at sea or at anchor
Ch 6. Documentation on board
Discuss the requirement of onboard documents supplied and maintained by owner that must
be available to the surveyor and requirements for survey report file, supporting documents,
review of document by surveyor
Ch 7. Procedures for thickness measurements
Discuss the requirement of onboard documents supplied and maintained by owner that must
be available to the surveyor and requirements for survey report file, supporting documents,
review of document by surveyor
Ch 8. Reporting and evaluation of survey
Reporting and evaluation of surveys, acceptable and continued structural integrity; a
condition evaluation report of the survey and results to be issued to the owner
6.9.4 Annexes: Brief Description
Annex 1: Requirements for close-up survey at renewal surveys
Annex 2: Requirements for thickness measurements at renewal surveys
Annex 3: Owner’s inspection report
Annex 4A: Survey programme
Annex 4B: Survey planning questionnaire
Annex 5: Procedures for certification of a company engaged in thickness measurement of
hull structures
Annex 6: Survey reporting principles.
Annex 7: Condition Evaluation Report.
Annex 8: Recommended procedures for thickness measurements.
Annex 9: Guidelines for technical assessment in conjunction with planning for enhanced
surveys of double-side skin bulk carriers – Renewal Survey Hull.
Annex 10: Requirements for extent of thickness measurements at those areas of substantial
corrosion of bulk carriers with double-side skin construction within the cargo length area.
Annex 11: Strength of cargo hatch cover securing arrangements for bulk carriers.
Annex 12: Procedural requirements for thickness measurements.
6.10 Safety Considerations
6.10.1 Guidance on Early Assessment of Hull Damage and Possible Abandonment
There have been cases in the past where ships carrying bulk cargoes have been lost due to a
loss in hull integrity. This, combined with the lack of prompt action, has resulted in lives
being lost. Early assessment of the situation is therefore imperative, combined with alerting a
maritime rescue coordination centre, alerting all personnel onboard and making preparations
for evacuation. This is of particular importance for single skin bulk carriers which may not be
capable of withstanding flooding of any cargo hold.
Heavy cargoes such as iron ore or heavy break bulk cargoes, such as steel, make a ship
particularly vulnerable. This is due to the relatively small volume of cargo compared to the
large volume of unoccupied space that provides the potential for large volumes of water to
destroy the ship’s buoyancy, stability or structural integrity.
6.10.2 Assessment
Where flooding occurs, or is likely to occur, the master must rapidly assess the damage by
being alert to water ingress and its consequences. Such an assessment may be carried out by
the following:
6.10.3 Unusual Motion or Attitude
If a ship takes on an unusual trim or heel, or if her motions become changed, breach of the
hull envelope should be suspected immediately. Signs may include:
Unusual collections of water on decks maybe indicating trim or heel abnormality.
Sudden changes of heel or trim will indicate flooding or in smaller ships with lighter cargoes,
it may indicate cargo shift.
Jerky lateral motions can be indicative of large-scale sloshing as would be the case if a hold
were flooded.
On smaller ships, slowing of the ship’s roll period may indicate excessive water within the
hull – a serious threat to stability. Ships fitted with GM meters should be able to identify any
unexpected changes in GM.
Increases of water boarding forward decks may indicate flooding of a forward compartment.
Trim and freeboard changes are notoriously difficult to assess from an after bridge.
6.10.4 Methods of Detection
Hatch covers may be dislodged by pressure and/or sloshing from within a hold if flooding
occurs through side shell or bulkhead.
Sudden pressurisation of compartments adjoining those that are damaged or flooded will
indicate failure of internal subdivision, most notably bulkheads.
Spaces may be monitored, either using gauging or water ingress alarms. Forward store spaces
can also be monitored audibly using “talkback” telephones that may be fitted in forward
spaces. Anchor impacts and water in the space can be detected using telephones of the type
that remain active until switched off from the bridge.
Hull Stress Monitors, where fitted, may be able to detect unexpected longitudinal hull girder
bending. Torsional stresses may also be detected through differential changes between port
and starboard strain gauges.
Visual monitoring from the bridge using binoculars, where fitted, by closed circuit television,
can give indication of abnormal water on deck and local damage. However, assessment of
trim or freeboard using this method is difficult.
Assessment of trim changes can, in certain conditions, be detected by noting the level of the
horizon, when visible, against a known reference point on the foremast.
Draught and trim can be assessed using draught gauges. Changes are much more discernible
using this method than by visual means from above decks.
6.10.5 Early Readiness for Evacuation:
In the event of identifying, or even suspecting, that the ship may have sustained damage, the
ship’s personnel should immediately be called to their emergency stations. A high priority
should be placed on preparing equipment for evacuation. Abandonment should, however,
only be invoked on the spoken orders of the Master following assessment of the risk.
Contact with a Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre (MRCC) and the management office
should be made early if the Master has any suspicion that the ship is damaged. An urgency
(Pan-Pan) signal is justified and this should be upgraded to distress (Mayday) if the ship is
confirmed as damaged.
6.10.6 Training
Masters should place a strong emphasis on evacuation training so that donning of protective
suits and lifejackets, launching of survival craft, and operation of EPIRBs and SARTs is a
familiar process to all ship’s personnel. Also included should be shutdown procedures for
main and auxiliary machinery, which can, if left running, hinder launching of survival craft.
6.10.7 Investigation
Masters may wish to investigate any suspected water ingress more closely but preparations
for evacuating the ship should be made without delay and concurrent with any investigation.
Remote methods of observation are preferable to sending personnel onto decks, particularly
in bad weather and / or at night. Deck floodlights should be used if necessary to try and
identify abnormalities. Detrimental effects on watch keeper’s night vision are of secondary
importance in such circumstances.
When a loss of hull integrity is known or suspected, personnel should not be sent onto decks
that are being regularly submerged or deeply awash. In such circumstances the ship should be
regarded as in imminent danger and priority should be given to preparations for evacuation.
Where water ingress alarms are fitted, full instructions must be posted by the alarm panel
which will normally be located on the bridge. All officers are to be made aware of the alarm
settings, correct operation and testing of this equipment.
The aim of ship’s officers and crewmembers on board should be to prevent damage or
deterioration whilst the cargo is under their care and to deliver it, as far as possible, in as
good condition and order as it was when received aboard. If unacquainted with a certain type
of cargo you should ascertain as to its nature and any necessary precautions.
Therefore, the Master and officers of all vessels require a good working knowledge of the
various kinds of cargo they are likely to carry: their peculiar characteristics, liability to
damage, decay, or deterioration, their measurement, and the usual methods of packing,
loading and discharging, stowage, dunnaging, etc., as the Master is responsible for the safe
loading of his vessel and the proper stowage of the cargo.
The ship as carrier is obliged to care for the cargo in an expert manner to ensure it is
discharged in the same state in which it was loaded. There are many factors that need to be
considered.
6.10.8 Ventilation on Passage
Many cargo claims arise due to lack of ventilation of the cargo, particularly agricultural
products. A common procedure for ventilating hatches at sea is to `crack' them open.
Considerable care must be taken during this procedure as the ships hatch tops are not
designed to be opened during any rolling motion. When such hatches are opened they must
not be left in the jacked up position, but should be lowered onto the compression bars and
locked into position.
Under no circumstances should the hatches be left open at night while on passage. A lack of,
or improper, ventilation can lead to condensation (also known as sweating), which causes
cargo deterioration. There are two types of sweat: Cargo sweat and ships sweat
If ventilation with air which is similar in temperature to or warmer than the loaded
temperature of stable cargo is applied, at best it will serve no useful purpose; at worst there
will be a risk of wetting damage due to condensation of moisture from the ventilating
atmosphere (cargo sweat) on cold cargo surfaces possessing no or low moisture-absorptive
capacity in the interiors of stows, or there will be a risk of undesirable absorption of moisture
from the ventilating atmosphere by cargoes with substantial moisture absorption properties.
6.10.9 Thermal Capacity of Large Stows
Under no circumstances are any of the high, low and zero moisture content categories of
cargoes under consideration to be ventilated when the external air temperature is similar to or
higher than the loaded temperature of the cargo. Large stows of these cargoes generally have
enormous thermal capacity.
Hence, only peripheral regions of stows will usually warm or cool significantly from the
loaded temperature following changes in external temperatures during a voyage. The
remaining interiors of stows change in temperature from their loaded temperature much more
slowly or often remain at or very close to the loaded temperature throughout a voyage,
regardless of changing external air temperatures.
6.10.10 Fumigation Monitoring
If the cargo has undergone fumigation, which is required to continue through the passage,
checks should be made to ensure that the seals remain in position and that the fumigants do
not leak due to movement of the vessel in a seaway. Any adverse changes should
immediately be recorded in the logbook and precautionary measures taken to avoid any
further damage and aggravation of the situation.
6.10.11 Self-heating and Spontaneous Combustion
Many bulk cargoes have a tendency to heat due to the oxidation process taking place during
the voyage, which may lead to fire or explosion if the temperature rises to a level where
spontaneous ignition can take place. Cargoes liable to spontaneous combustion include some
types of coal, concentrates of lead, oil seed cakes (transported in bulk), fishmeal and scrap
metal.
Even where the type of coal is not considered a danger for self- heating, this can still occur if
stacks have accumulated over a long period ashore.
6.10.12 Temperature Monitoring
Many bulk cargoes are liable to spontaneous combustion or ship or cargo sweat. The only
possible way to obtain an early warning of the start of spontaneous combustion is by
monitoring the temperature of the cargo holds. Many ships are fitted with `temperature ports',
ie pipes that are fitted beside the cargo hold access ladders into which thermometers can be
lowered to obtain the hold temperature. The best practice is to leave the thermometers within
the ports and withdraw them when a reading is desired. However, if the ship is not fitted with
temperature ports, the sounding pipes could also be used to obtain temperatures. Whichever
method is used for measuring temperature:
i) The thermometers should be reset before introducing them into the pipes
ii) the thermometers should be left in the pipes for some time (2-3 minutes at least)
iii) the temperature should be measured at least 2-3 height levels within the hold
iv) the temperature should not be measured solely at the surface of cargo as it is likely to be
quite different from that at the bottom of the cargo hold.
Modern bulk carriers may be fitted with permanent temperature sensors providing continuous
readings. It is important to maintain records of all temperature observations and ensure
readings are taken at the same times and at regular intervals. This makes it easy to establish a
pattern for any irregularities in the observed behaviour.
6.10.13 Generation of Gases
Many bulk cargoes emit combustible gases in large quantities that may present a fire or
explosion hazard and can corrode the steel structure of a ship.
6.10.14 Oxygen Depletion
Oxidation occurs in many cargoes as a result of chemical reactions taking place within them.
This generates carbon dioxide and other gases harmful to human health. Therefore, when
entering any space containing cargo, enclosed space entry procedures must be followed.
Holds containing cargo should only be entered under exceptional circumstances.
6.10.15 Physical Inspection of Vessel
Hatch covers on a bulk carrier are weather-tight, i.e. they can withstand a certain amount of
seawater on deck and resist leakage into cargo holds. Ship's officers must ensure that the
deck, including hatch covers, is regularly inspected for any signs of leakage, slackening of
hatch cover securing devices and other loose items that may require securing. It is important
that drain valves are inspected to ensure they are free and still in position.
6.10.16 Precautions Against Heavy Weather and Safety of Personnel
In extreme weather, when damage is more likely to occur, the safety of personnel involved in
the inspection of the vessel should be given priority. In bad weather personnel should only be
allowed on deck in an emergency and during daylight. The comparatively smaller freeboard
of bulk carriers means added precautions should be taken when an inspection is required.
Organise the team for inspection. Ideally, the Master should be on the bridge, with the chief
mate in charge of the operation on deck and additional crew available as required.
If the vessel is shipping heavy seas, the ship should `heave to' to reduce heavy pitching,
rolling and excess water on deck.
Communications between the bridge and the deck teams should be established by using
portable VHF/UHF equipment.
The engine room should be kept informed about the operation. They may wish to take the
opportunity to inspect the fuel tank or other deck machinery and possibly obtain soundings of
fuel tanks.
Lifelines should be rigged on both sides of the vessel when sailing where bad weather is
expected.
Each member of the inspection team should be properly equipped with the appropriate PPE
Ideally, the inspection should take place in daylight. Otherwise, sufficient safety lights should
be used.
Tools necessary to tighten lashings, re-secure hatch covers and for any other anticipated task
should be readily available
The final orders to proceed on deck should always be given by the Master.
It is helpful to have a deck plan to mark the items checked, any observations regarding
damage or the repairs that may be required
On completion of inspection, proper entries should be made in the logbook.
6.11 Cargo Loss Prevention

There is an obligation on the Master and crew to exercise due diligence in the loading,
carriage and discharge of cargo to ensure that it is carried safely. The major causes of cargo
claims are wet damage, contamination, shortage, loss overboard, theft and physical damage.
However, should a cargo claim arise, a defence may be "inherent vice". For example, bulk
grain cargoes are accompanied by a moisture certificate prepared while the commodity is in
the silos and it is almost impossible for a duty officer to detect a small amount with excessive
moisture coming on board as loading continues 24 hours a day and holds are enveloped in
clouds of dust. However, provided the holds have been properly washed, are clean and dry,
and there is no trace of previous cargoes or taint, it should be possible to provide a robust
defence to any claim.
The Master and his officers must be vigilant in recording any abnormality or deviation from
the description of the cargo and it is essential that the Mate's Receipt reflects, as far as
practicable, the true condition. These observations should be reflected in the Bill of Lading.
Thus, the Master's Letter of Authority to agents to issue Bills of Lading on his behalf must be
explicit in the requirement for Bills to be issued in conformity with the Mate's Receipt.
P&I clubs and insurers are pro-active in identifying areas where claims arise and notifying
members and clients. This may, for example, be in the form of a circular warning of problems
with rice cargoes from the Far East, notifying a draught problem at a particular port or any of
the many problems affecting the safe and efficient operation of the ship.
On board, proper records and reports must be kept of cargo damage and how it occurred.
Most ships now carry digital cameras and photographic evidence to back up damage reports
can be invaluable in protecting the interests of the ship.
Deck logs, ventilation logs, records of inspection, maintenance records, letters of protest,
draught surveys, should also be available if required.
6.12 Stability Considerations
Requirement of stability, hull strength, draft, trim, suitability of cargo for a bulk carrier.
The ability of a vessel to return to an upright position when heeled by some external force,
such as the action of waves, is a measure of her stability. The force of gravity acting
downwards and the buoyancy force acting in opposition cause a righting lever which returns
the ship to the upright when heeled.
The magnitude of this lever is determined by the position of the Centre of Gravity within the
ship which is itself affected by the disposition of cargo, fuel, ballast, fresh water, etc. Broadly
speaking, the lower the weights in the ship, the lower the Centre of Gravity; the lower the
Centre of Gravity, the larger will be the righting lever at successive angles of heel (i.e., the
greater the ship's ability to return to the upright).
To an extent this suggests that heavier goods be stowed in the lower part of the ship with
lighter goods on top. However, it should be borne in mind that very large righting levers (an
excess of stability by virtue of a low Centre of Gravity) may give rise to excessive violent
rolling and potential damage to both ship and cargo. Some Classification Societies restrict the
maximum permissible GM. This may be known as "super stability" and restrict the
deadweight intake of closeweight cargoes. Careful loading will ensure adequate but not
excessive stability, i.e., the ship will be neither "tender" nor "stiff.
When performing stability calculations the centres of gravity of various parcels of cargo can
often only be arrived at by approximation. It is better to err on the side of safety, assuming
the centre of gravity to be higher than it probably is.
Apart from stability considerations, distribution of cargo (and to a lesser extent bunkers,
ballast and fresh water) can induce unacceptable bending moments, sheer forces and torque
particularly in larger vessels. Care should be exercised to ensure that any limits established
by her designers are not exceeded. Instances are on record of vessels having broken in two
during cargo operations; continually subjecting larger vessels to excessive loads throughout
the ship's life can give rise to structural failure in a seaway. Loading a vessel with excessive
weights at each end also tends to make her hog and sluggish in rising to a head sea and thus
liable to undue strain in heavy weather.
The conditions of stability, hull strength, draft and trim of bulk carriers at sea and on arrival /
departure at / from port and during loading / unloading cargo, bunkering and water ballast
exchange, should be worked out, ensuring safety of the vessel. Safety of the cargo vessel
depends on proper GM, stress calculation and other factors as being within appropriate
Limits.
During stowage the first consideration must be given to safety, i.e. the cargo must be stowed
so that the ship will be stable and seaworthy, and it must be secured in such a manner that it
cannot shift if the vessel encounters bad weather. The type of vessel, the cubic capacity of her
compartments destined for the cargo and the appliances on board or on shore for loading or
discharging, as well as the nature of the cargo, affect the question of how to stow the cargo in
the best possible manner.
The ship must be made neither stiff nor too tender. The next consideration is for the safety of
the cargo itself: it must not be damaged by shifting; certain commodities become easily
tainted by others, water might find its way into the hold and condensation or sweating must
be prevented. Valuable cargo may be stolen or broached.
Finally, the Chief Officer must bear in mind the various destinations of the goods the ship
carries, and arrange things, as far as he can, to see that the cargo for a certain place can be
lifted out without disturbing the other cargo. The Chief Officer must watch closely the ship's
stability (i.e. what the ship's trim is or how she is sitting).
Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will incline in any direction according to the
position of the weights placed on her. The trim, therefore, is the angle that a ship is making,
fore and aft, with the water.
The levels are read by numbers painted on the ship's stem and stem. These are called draught
marks. Another word is heel. This means a list or inclination from one side to another, caused
by loading. The Chief Officer must watch the load lines. They are welded or punched on and
then painted.
6.12.1 Check Item Confirming Stability and Hull Strength of Cargo Ship
 The GM value should be within acceptable limits as specified in the loading manual and
in compliance with IMO rules up to arrival next port.
 GZ curves of the vessel to be fully understood, and their characteristics confirmed.
 Expected weather and sea conditions, to be taken into consideration when confirming
stability & hull strength.
 Free surface effects and any sloshing effects for the planned passage to be taken into
consideration.
 Any restrictions specified in the loading manual to be taken into consideration.
 Values of bending moments, shearing forces and torsional stresses at sea to be within
acceptable limits up to arrival next port.
 The sailing draft to be within applicable load line or port/passage limits/restrictions.
 Air draft limitations due to bridges, cargo handling equipment or other obstructions to be
assessed as necessary.
 The cargo density in accordance with maximum permissible values and precautions as per
the loading manual to be followed.
 Forward draft limit (per loading manual) to prevent slamming to be confirmed.
 Propeller immersion ratio to be assured.
 Trim and draft changes during voyage in fresh or brackish water such as rivers, canals
and lakes, to be taken into consideration.
 Squat due to shallow water effect to be taken into consideration.
 Safe under keel clearance to be assured.
 Fuel oil and fresh water consumptions to be taken into consideration.
6.12.2 Guideline to Check Suitability of Loading/Unloading Solid Bulk Cargo
 Cargo holds and hatch openings are suitable for cargo operations.
 Holds are clearly numbered on hatch covers/ coamings.
 Hatch covers, hatch operating systems and safety devices are in good operational
condition.
 List indication lights, if fitted, have been tested prior to arrival and are operational.
 If applicable, loading instrument is certified and operational.
 Propulsion/auxiliary machinery is in good operational order.
 Mooring equipment is in good functional order.
***
Reference:
1. D. J. Eyres & G. J. Bruce, Ship construction
2. www.bulkcarrierguide.com
3. ABS & DNV Classification Society Rules.
4. SOLAS Consolidated Edition 2017
Questions
1. Discuss hazards associated with various cargos carried on bulk carrier. [IMU 2017-3M]
2. Draw Transverse cross section of bulk carrier and explain the construction. [IMU 2017-8M]
3. Justify Enhanced survey requirement for Bulk carriers. [IMU 2017-6M]
IBC [IMU]
5. What is condition assessment of Bulk Carriers? [IMU 2016-3M]
6. Name the cargos usually carried in a bulk carrier with associated hazards. [IMU 2016-6M]
7. Sketch and describe a cargo hold structural arrangement of a Bulk carrier. [IMU 2016-8M]
8. (a) Define a Bulk Carrier
(b) With neat sketch of mid ship section across cargo hold, explain construction of a Bulk Carrier.
(c) Discuss latest Regulations regarding Additional Safety Measures for Bulk Carrier. [IMU 2016-2+6+6M]
9. (a) Explain additional safety measures for bulk carriers. [8 M]
(b) Draw a labeled sketch of typical transverse cross-section in way of a cargo hold of a bulk carrier. [6 M]
10. What cargoes are normally carried in a bulk carrier and what are the hazards. [IMU2018-3M]
11. Discuss safety and stability considerations of bulk carriers. [IMU2018-7M]
Chapter 7
Latest Engine Technology

7.1 Intelligent Engine
7.1.1 Introduction
Both MAN Diesel and Sulzer (before being acquired by Wärtsilä) demonstrated
‘camshaftless’ operation with their research engines, applying electronically controlled fuel
injection and exhaust valve actuation systems. Continuing R&D will pave the way for a
future generation of highly reliable ‘intelligent engines’: those which monitor their own
condition and adjust parameters for optimum performance in all operating regimes, including
fuel-optimized and emissions-optimized modes. An ‘intelligent engine management system’
will effectively close the feedback loop by built-in expert knowledge.
Engine performance data will be constantly monitored and compared with defined values in
the expert system; if deviations are detected, corrective action is automatically taken to
restore the situation to normal. A further step would incorporate not only engine optimizing
functions but management responsibilities such as maintenance planning and spare parts
control.
MAN Diesel explains that to meet the operational flexibility target, it is necessary to be able
to change the timing of the fuel injection and exhaust valve systems while the engine is
running. To achieve this objective with cam-driven units would involve a substantial
mechanical complexity, which would undermine engine reliability. An engine without a
traditional camshaft is therefore dictated.
7.1.2 Concept of Intelligent Engine
Fig. 7.1: Schematic diagram of intelligent engine (MAN Diesel)
TMI * Advance Marine Technology * Latest Engine Technology * Compiled by Anirudh Kumar Page 204
The concept is illustrated in figure 7.1 whose upper part shows the operating modes, which
may be selected from the bridge control system or by the intelligent engine’s own control
system. The centre part shows the brain of the system: the electronic control system which
analyses the general engine condition and controls the operation of the engine systems shown
in the lower part of the diagram (the fuel injection, exhaust valve, cylinder lube oil and
turbocharging systems).
7.1.3 Condition Monitoring System
To meet the reliability target, it is necessary to have a system which can actively protect the
engine from damage due to overload, lack of maintenance and maladjustments. A condition
monitoring system must be used to evaluate the general condition of the engine, thus
maintaining its performance and keeping its operating parameters within prescribed limits.
The condition monitoring and evaluation system is an on-line system with automatic
sampling of all ‘normal’ engine performance data, supplemented by cylinder pressure
measurements. The system will report and actively intervene when performance parameters
show unsatisfactory deviations. The cylinder pressure data delivered by the measuring system
are used for various calculations:
 The mean indicated pressure is determined as a check on cylinder load distribution as
well as total engine output.
 The compression pressure is determined as an indicator of excessive leakage caused by,
for example, a burnt exhaust valve or collapsed piston rings (the former condition is
usually accompanied by an increased exhaust gas temperature in the cylinder in question).
 The cylinder wall temperature is monitored as an additional indicator of the piston ring
condition.
 The firing pressure is determined for control of injection timing and mechanical loads.
 The rates of pressure rise (dp/dt) and heat release are determined for combustion quality
evaluation as a warning in the event of ‘bad fuels’ and to indicate any risk of piston ring
problems in the event of high dp/dt values.
The cylinder condition monitoring system is intended to detect faults such as blow-by past
the piston rings, cylinder liner scuffing and abnormal combustion. The detection of severe
anomalies by the integrated systems triggers a changeover to a special operating mode for the
engine - the ‘engine protection mode’. The control system will contain data for optimum
operation in a number of different modes such as ‘fuel economy mode’, ‘emission controlled
mode’, ‘reversing/crash stop mode’ and various engine protection modes. The load limiter
system (load diagram compliance system) aims to prevent any overloading of the engine in
conditions such as heavy weather, fouled hull, shallow water, too heavy propeller layout or
excessive shaft alternator output. This function will appear as a natural part of future
governor specifications.
7.1.4 Electronically Controlled (MAN B&W) ME Engine
In an (MAN B&W) MC engine the camshaft mechanically controls fuel injection and exhaust
valve operation, a linkage that delivers very limited timing flexibility. Electronically
controlled (MAN B&W) ME-series engines, introduced to the market from 2001, dispense
with the camshaft and exploit hydraulic–mechanical systems supported by electronic
hardware and software for activating fuel injection and the exhaust valves. ME engines
became available in bore sizes from 500 mm to 1080 mm offering the same outputs as their
MC engine counterparts.
Fig. 7.2: MAN B&W ME engine hydraulic oil loop
Fig. 7.3: Electronically controlled fuel injection and exhaust valve actuation (ME engine)
Electronically controlled fuel injection and exhaust valve actuation (Figure 7.2 and 7.3) allow
individual and continuous adjustment of the timing for each cylinder, securing the following
key benefits:
7.1.4.1 Reduced Fuel Consumption
 Fuel injection characteristics can be optimized at many different load conditions, while a
conventional engine is optimized for the guarantee load, typically at 90–100 per cent
MCR.
 Constant Pmax in the upper load range can be achieved by a combination of fuel injection
timing and variation of the compression ratio (the latter by varying the closing of the
exhaust valve). As a result, the maximum pressure can be kept constant over a wider load
range without overloading the engine, leading to significant reductions in SFC at part
load.
 On-line monitoring of the cylinder process ensures that the load distribution among the
cylinders and the individual cylinder’s firing pressure can be maintained at ‘as new’
standard over the lifetime of the engine.
7.1.4.2 Operational Safety and Flexibility
 The engine’s crash stop and reverse running performance is improved because the timing
of the exhaust valves and fuel injection can be optimized for these manoeuvres as well.
 ‘Engine braking’ may be obtained; reducing the ship’s stopping distance.
 Swifter acceleration of the engine, since the scavenge air pressure can be increased faster
than normal by opening the exhaust valve earlier during acceleration.
 Dead slow running is improved significantly; the minimum revolutions per minute are
substantially lower than those for a conventional engine; dead slow running is much more
regular, and combustion is improved thanks to the electronic control of fuel injection.
 Electronic monitoring of the engine (based on MAN Diesel’s CoCoSEDS system)
identifies running conditions that could lead to performance problems. Damage due to
poor ignition quality fuel can be prevented by injection control (pre-injection).
 The engine control system incorporates MAN Diesel’s on-line overload protection system
(OPS) feature, which ensures the engine complies with the load diagram and is not
overloaded (often the case in shallow waters and with ‘heavy propeller’ operation).
 Maintenance costs will be lower (and maintenance easier) as a result of the protection
against general overloading as well as overloading of individual cylinders; and also
because of the ‘as new’ running conditions for the engine, further enhanced by the ability
of the diagnosis system to give early warning of faults and thus enable proper
countermeasures to be taken in good time.
7.1.4.3 Exhaust Gas Emissions Flexibility
 The engine can be changed over to various ‘low emission’ modes, its NOx exhaust
emissions reduced below the IMO limits if dictated by local regulations.
 By appropriate selection of operating modes, ships may sail with lower exhaust gas
emissions in special areas, where this may be required (or be more economical due to
variable harbour fee schemes) without having negative effects on the SFC outside those
areas.
7.1.4.4 Replacement of Components: (MAN B&W) MC to ME Engines
The following components of the conventional (MAN B&W) MC engine are eliminated in
the ME engine:
 Chain drive
 Chain wheel frame
 Chain box on frame box
 Camshaft with cams
 Roller guides for fuel pump and exhaust valve
 Fuel pumps
 Exhaust valve
 Exhaust actuator
 Starting air distributor
 Governor
 Regulating shaft
 Mechanical Lubricator
 Local control stand
These elements are replaced on the (MAN B&W) ME engine by following components:
 Hydraulic Power Supply (HPS)
 Hydraulic Cylinder Unit (HCU)
 Engine Control System (ECS)
- Starting air valves
- Start and Reversing sequences
- Governor function
- Auxiliary blowers
- Electronically Profiled Injection (EPIC)
- Exhaust valve actuation
 Exhaust valve
 Crankshaft position sensing system
 Electronically controlled Alpha Lubricator
 Local Operating Panel (LOP)
7.1.4.5 Fuel Injection System (MAN B&W ME)

A common rail servo oil system applies the cool, clean and pressurized lube oil to power the
fuel injection pump of each cylinder. Each cylinder unit is provided with a servo oil
accumulator to ensure sufficiently swift delivery of oil in accordance with the requirements
of the injection system, and to avoid heavy pressure oscillations in the associated servo oil
pipe system. The movement of the pump plunger is controlled by a fast-acting proportional
control valve (a so called NC valve), which, in turn, is controlled by an electric linear motor
that receives its control input from a cylinder control unit (Fig. 7.2 and 7.3). The fuel
injection pump features well proven technology, and the fuel valves are of a standard design.
MAN Diesel claims that the fuel injection system for the ME engines can execute any
sensible injection pattern needed to operate the engine. It can perform as a single-injection
system as well as a pre-injection system with a high degree of freedom to modulate the
injection in terms of injection rate, timing, duration, pressure or single/double injection. In
practice, a number of injection patterns are stored in the computer and selected by the control
system for operating the engine with optimum injection characteristics from dead slow to
overload, as well as during astern running and crash stop. Changeover from one to another of
the stored injection characteristics may be executed from one injection cycle to the next.
7.1.4.6 Exhaust Valve Actuation System (MAN B&W ME)
The exhaust valve is driven by the same servo oil system as that for the fuel injection system,
using cool pressurized lube oil as the working medium. The necessary functionality of the
exhaust valve is less complex than fuel injection, however, calling only for the control of the
timing of its opening and closing. This is arranged by a simple fast-acting on/off control
valve.
Well-proven technology from the established MC engine series was retained. The actuator for
the exhaust valve system is of a simple, two-stage design. The first-stage actuator piston is
equipped with a collar for damping in both directions of movement. The second-stage
actuator piston has no damper of its own and is in direct contact with a gear oil piston
transforming the hydraulic system oil pressure into oil pressure in the oil push rod. The gear
oil piston includes a damper collar that becomes active at the end of the opening sequence,
when the exhaust valve movement will be stopped by the standard air spring.
Fig. 7.4: Exhaust valve actuation system

The exhaust valve actuator replaces the cam operated exhaust valve hydraulic pump on both
make of camshaftless engines i.e MAN B&W ME and (Wartsila) Sulzer RT Flex Engine.
Both working on a similar principle, servo oil at 200 bar is used to operate a piston which
operates the exhaust valve "hydraulic push rod" The oil for operating the "hydraulic push
rod" comes from the main engine LO supply via a non return valve.
7.1.4.7 Control System (MAN B&W ME)

Redundant computers connected in a network provide the control functions of the camshaft
(timing and rate shaping). The engine control system - an integrated element of the IE -
comprises two engine control units (ECU), a cylinder control unit (CCU) for each cylinder, a
local control terminal and an interface for an external application control system. Both the
ECU and the CCU were developed as dedicated controllers, optimized for the specific needs
of the IE (Figure 7.5).
The ECU controls functions related to the overall condition of the engine. It is connected to
the plant control system, the safety system and the supervision and alarm system, and is
directly connected to sensors and actuators. The ECU’s function is to control the action of the
following components and systems:
 The engine speed in accordance with a reference value from the application control
system (an integrated governor control)
 Engine protection (overload protection as well as faults)
 Optimization of combustion to suit the running condition
 Start, stop and reversing sequencing of the engine
 Hydraulic (servo) oil supply (lube oil)
 Auxiliary blowers and turbocharging.
The cylinder control unit is connected to all of the functional components to be controlled on
each cylinder, its purpose to control the activation of fuel injection, the exhaust valve, the
starting valve, and the cylinder lubricator for a specific cylinder. Since each cylinder is
equipped with its own controller (the CCU), the worst consequence of a CCU failure is a
temporary loss of power from that particular cylinder (e.g., similar to a sticking fuel pump on
a conventional engine). The engine controller (ECU) has a second ECU as a hot standby,
which, in the event of a failure, immediately takes over and continues the operation without
any change in performance (except for the decreased tolerance for further faults until repair
has been completed).
Fig.7.5: Control system configuration for ME engine
In the event of a failure in a controller, the system will identify the faulty unit, which can be
simply replaced with a spare. As soon as the spare is connected, it will automatically be
configured to the functions it is to replace, and resume operation. As both the ECU and the
CCU are implemented in the same type of hardware, only a few identical spares are needed.
If failures occur in connected equipment - sensors, actuators, wires - the system will locate
the area of the failure and, through built-in guidance and test facilities, assist the engine
operating staff in the final identification of the failed component.
7.1.4.8 Starting Air System (MAN B&W ME)
The starting air valves on the ME engine are opened pneumatically by electronically
controlled on/off solenoid valves, which replace the mechanically activated starting air
distributor of the MC engine. Greater freedom and more precise control are yielded, while the
‘slow turning’ function is maintained.
Fig.7.6: Starting air system
7.1.5 Wartsila (Sulzer) RT-Flex Electronic Engines

Wartsila’s RT-flex system, offered as an option for most models in the RTA programme,
resulted from a project originated by Sulzer in the 1980s to develop an electronically
controlled low-speed engine without the constraints imposed by mechanical drive of the fuel
injection pumps and exhaust valve actuation. Traditional jerk-type fuel injection systems
combine pressure generation, timing and metering in the injection pump with only limited
flexibility to influence the variables. In contrast, Wartsila’s common rail system separates the
functions and gives far more flexibility for optimizing the combustion process with injection
and valve timing.
RT-flex engines are essentially the same as their standard RTA equivalents but dispense with
the camshaft and its gear drive, jerk-type fuel injection pumps, exhaust valve actuator pumps
and reversing servomotors. Instead, they are equipped with common rail systems for fuel
injection and exhaust valve actuation, and full electronic control of these functions (Figures
7.7 and 7.8). The following benefits for operators are cited for the RT-flex system:
 Smokeless operation at all running speeds.
 Lower steady running speeds (in the range of 10–12 per cent nominal engine speed)
obtained smokelessly through sequential shut-off of injectors while continuing to run on
all cylinders. Very steady running at 7 rev/min has been demonstrated.
 Reduced running costs through lower part-load fuel consumption and longer TBOs.
 Reduced maintenance requirements, with simpler setting of the engine; the ‘as new’
running settings are automatically maintained.
 Reduced maintenance costs through precise volumetric fuel injection control, leading to
extendable TBOs. The common rail fuel system and its volumetric control yields
excellent balance in engine power developed between cylinders and between cycles, with
precise injection timing and equalized thermal loads.
 Reliability underwritten by long-term testing of common rail system hardware and the use
of fuel supply pumps based on proven Sulzer four stroke engine fuel injection pumps.
 Higher availability resulting from integrated monitoring functions and from built-in
redundancy: full power can be developed with one fuel pump and one servo oil pump out
of action. High-pressure fuel and servo oil delivery pipes, and electronic systems, are also
duplicated.
 A reduced overall engine weight: approximately 2 tonnes per cylinder lower in the case of
a 580-mm-bore RT-flex engine compared with its conventional RTA counterpart.
Fig.7.7: The fuel pumps, valve actuator pumps, camshafts and drive train of the standard
RTA engine are replaced by a compact set of supply pumps and common rail fuel system on
the RT-flex engine
The common rail for fuel injection is a manifold running the length of the engine at just
below the cylinder cover level; the rail and other related pipe-work are arranged on the top
engine platform with ready accessibility from above (Figure 7.9). The common rail is fed
with heated fuel oil at a high pressure (nominally 1000 bar) ready for injection into the engine
cylinders. The fuel supply unit embraces a number of high-pressure pumps mechanically
driven from the crankshaft and running on multi-lobe cams, which increase their supply
capacity and hence reduce the number needed. A four-pump set is sufficient for a six-cylinder
RT-flex 58T-B engine. The pump design, based on fuel injection pumps used in Sulzer four-
stroke engines, has suction control to regulate the fuel delivery volume according to engine
requirements (Figure 7.10).
Fig.7.8: RT-flex electronically controlled common rail systems
Fig.7.9: Schematic layout of Wärtsilä RT-flex common rail fuel system
Fig.7.10: Three of the six fuel oil pumps for a Wartsila 7RT-flex 60C engine
Heated fuel oil is delivered from the common rail through a separate injection control unit for
each engine cylinder to the standard fuel injection valves, which are hydraulically operated in
the usual way by the high-pressure fuel. The control units, exploiting quick-acting solenoid
rail valves, regulate the timing of fuel injection, control the volume of fuel injected, and set
the shape of the injection pattern. The three fuel injection valves in each cylinder cover are
separately controlled so that, although they normally act in unison, they can also be
programmed to operate separately as necessary. The key features of the common rail system
are defined as follows:
 Precise volumetric control of fuel injection, with integrated flow-out security
 Variable injection rate shaping and free selection of injection pressure
 Stable pressure levels in common rail and supply pipes
 Possibility for independent control and shutting-off of individual fuel injection valves
 Ideally suited for heavy fuel (up to 730 cSt at 50°C) through clear separation of the fuel
oil from the hydraulic pilot valves
 Proven standard fuel injection valves
 Proven high-efficiency common rail fuel pumps.
The fuel injection pressure can be freely selected up to more than 1000 bar over the whole
load range. In combination with different injection patterns, this provides the opportunity to
optimize the engine in several ways: for example, for low emission levels or improved fuel
efficiency at non-optimum loads (Fig. 7.11).
The injection system can be adapted to different patterns such as pre-injection, with a small
part of the fuel charge injected before the main charge; triple injection, with the fuel charge
injected in three separate short sprays in succession; and sequential injection, with individual
actuation of the fuel injection nozzles so that injection timing is different for each of the three
nozzles in a cylinder. Different shapes of cylinder pressure profile during the engine cycle
can thus be created, which, with free selection of the rail pressure, allows the optimum
pattern to be selected in each case for the loads and performance optimization target of the
engine.
Selective shut-off of single injectors is valuable for low manoeuvring speeds or ‘slow
steaming’ as this facility fosters better injection and atomization of the small quantities of
fuel needed. In such modes, the common rail system is controlled to use the three injection
valves in sequence. Regulated by an electronic governor, the RT-flex engine demonstrated
very steady running at a lowest speed of 7 rev/min.
Exhaust valves are operated in much the same way as in conventional RTA engines by a
hydraulic ‘pushrod’, but with the actuating energy coming from a servo oil rail at 200 bar
pressure. The servo oil is supplied by hydraulic pumps mechanically driven from the same
gear train as the fuel supply pumps. An electronically controlled actuator unit for each engine
cylinder-operated by hydraulic pressure from the servo oil rail-gives full flexibility for valve
opening and closing timing. Two redundant sensors inform the WECS-9500 control system
of the current position of the exhaust valve.
Lube oil from the engine is used as servo oil to keep the system simple and compatible.
Before entering the servo oil circuit, the oil is directed through an additional 6-µm filter with
an automatic self-cleaning device to ensure reliability and a long lifetime of the actuator units
and solenoid valves.
All functions of the RT-flex system are controlled and monitored through the integrated
Wärtsilä WECS-9500 electronic control system. This modular system has separate
microprocessor control units for each cylinder, with overall control and supervision by
duplicated microprocessor control units, which provide the usual interface for the electronic
governor and remote control and alarm systems.
The full-load efficiency of RT-flex engines is the same as their conventional RTA engine
equivalents, but improvements in part-load fuel economy are gained. This results from the
freedom allowed in selecting the optimum fuel injection pressure and timing, and exhaust
valve timing, at all engine loads or speeds, while maintaining efficient combustion at all
times, even during dead slow running. A similar freedom in exhaust valve timing allows the
RTflex system to keep the combustion air excess high by earlier closing as the load/speed is
reduced. Such a facility is not only beneficial for fuel consumption but also it limits
component temperatures, which normally increase at low load. Lower turbocharger
efficiencies at part load normally result in low excess combustion air with fixed valve timing.
Another contribution of the RT-flex system to fuel economy cited by Wärtsilä is the
capability to easily adapt the injection timing to various fuel properties influencing poor
combustion behaviour. VIT over load had been a traditional feature of Sulzer low-speed
engines for many years, using a mechanical arrangement primarily to keep the cylinder
pressure high for the upper load range. This is much easier to arrange in an electronically
controlled engine.
Environmental performance: A very wide flexibility in optimizing fuel injection and
exhaust valve processes enables RT-flex engines to comfortably meet IMO limits on NOx
emissions. The most visible benefit cited is smokeless operation at all ship speeds,
underwritten by superior combustion.
The common rail system allows the fuel injection pressure to be maintained at an optimum
level irrespective of the engine speed. In addition, at very low speeds, individual fuel
injectors are selectively shut off and the exhaust valve timing adapted to help keep smoke
emissions below the visible limit. In contrast, engines with traditional jerk-type injection
pumps have increasing smoke emissions as engine speed is reduced because the fuel injection
pressure and volume decrease with speed and power, and they have no means of cutting off
individual injection valves and changing exhaust valve timing (Fig. 7.11).
Fig.7.11: Smoke emissions with conventional fuel injection and with RT-flex common rail technology
for engines burning heavy fuel and marine diesel oil
As all settings and adjustments within the combustion and scavenging processes are made
electronically, future adaptations are possible simply through changes in software, which
could be easily retrofitted to existing RT-flex engines. A possibility is to offer different
modes for different emissions regimes. In one mode, the engine would be optimized for
minimum fuel consumption while complying with the global NOx limit; then, to satisfy local
emissions regulations, the engine could be switched to an alternative mode for even lower
NOx emissions while the fuel consumption is allowed to rise.
7.2 Exhaust Emission and Control: Technology Incorporated
7.2.1 Introduction
Marine engine designers in recent years have had to address the challenge of tightening
controls on noxious exhaust gas emissions imposed by national, regional and international
authorities responding to concern over atmospheric pollution and its impact on human health
and climate change.
Curbing emissions has stimulated unprecedented co-operation between rival marine engine
builders/designers, most notably in the European Union-sponsored Hercules Project, which
aims at developing new technologies to significantly reduce gaseous and particulate
emissions from engines while raising their efficiency and reliability. Among the R&D tasks
are thermodynamics and mechanics of ‘extreme’ parameter engines, advanced combustion
concepts, multistage ‘intelligent’ turbocharging, ‘hot’ engines with energy recovery and
compounding, internal emission reduction methods and advanced after-treatment techniques,
new sensors for emissions and performance monitoring and adaptive control for
electronically controlled engines.
7.2.2 Emissions
Exhaust gas emissions from marine diesel engines largely comprise nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water vapour, with smaller quantities of carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen, partially reacted and non-combusted hydrocarbons (HC) and particulate material
(Figures 7.12 and 7.13).
Fig.7.12: Typical exhaust emissions from a modern low-speed diesel engine
Fig.7.13: Typical composition of the exhaust gas products of a medium speed diesel engine
burning fuel with an average 3 per cent sulphur content (MAN Diesel)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx): They are generated thermally from nitrogen and oxygen at high
combustion temperatures in the cylinder and are of special concern since they are believed to
be carcinogenic and contribute to photochemical smog formation over cities and acid rain
(and hence excess acidification of the soil) and generation of ground level ozone harmful to
vegetation, humans and civil works. NOx also has some ozone depletion potential. Internal
combustion engines primarily generate nitrogen oxide but <10 per cent of that, oxidizes to
nitrogen dioxide the moment it escapes as exhaust gas. As per Third IMO GHG Study 2014,
shipping industry produces 15% of the total global NOx emission.
Sulphur oxides (SOx): They are produced by the oxidation of sulphur in the fuel and have an
unpleasant odour, irritate the mucus membrane and are a major source of acid rain (reacting
with water to form sulphurous acid). Acid deposition is a trans-boundary pollution problem.
Once emitted, SOx can be carried over hundreds of miles in the atmosphere before being
deposited in lakes and streams, reducing their alkalinity. SOx emission is causing acid rain,
acidification of ocean and water reservoirs, damage to vegetation, diseases like asthama and
bronchitis; and is precursors to the formation of particulate matters (PM).
Sulphur deposition can also lead to increased sulphate levels in soils, fostering the formation
of insoluble aluminium phosphates which can cause a phosphorous deficiency. Groundwater
acidification has been observed in many areas of Europe; this can lead to corrosion of
drinking water supply systems and health hazards due to dissolved metals in those systems.
Forest soils can also become contaminated with higher than normal levels of toxic metals,
and historic buildings and monuments damaged. As per Third IMO GHG Study 2014,
shipping industry produces 13% of the total global SOx emission.
Hydrocarbons (HC): HC are created by the incomplete combustion of fuel and lube oil, and
the evaporation of fuel - have an unpleasant odour, are partially carcinogenic and smog
forming, and irritate the mucus membrane (emissions, however, are typically low for modern
diesel engines).
Carbon Monoxide (CO): It is formed resulting from the incomplete combustion due to a
local shortage of air and the dissociation of carbon dioxide - is highly toxic but only in high
concentrations.
Particulate Matter (PM): It is a complex mixture of inorganic and organic compounds
resulting from incomplete combustion, partly unburned lube oil, thermal splitting of HC from
the fuel and lube oil, ash in the fuel and lube oil, sulphates and water. More than half of the
total particulate mass is soot (inorganic carbonaceous particles), whose visible evidence is
smoke. Soot particles (unburned elemental carbon) are not themselves toxic, but they can
cause the build-up of aqueous HC, and some of them are believed to be carcinogens.
Particulates constitute no more than around 0.003 per cent of the engine exhaust gases.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Although not itself toxic, carbon dioxide contributes to the
greenhouse effect (global warming and climate change) and hence to changes in the Earth’s
atmosphere. This gas is an inevitable product of combustion of all fossil fuels, but emissions
from diesel engines - thanks to their thermal efficiency - are the lowest of all heat engines. A
lower fuel consumption translates to reduced carbon dioxide emissions since the amount
produced is directly proportional to the volume of fuel used, and therefore to the engine or
plant efficiency. As a rough guide, burning 1 tonne of diesel fuel produces approximately 3
tonnes of carbon dioxide.
The scope for cutting carbon dioxide emissions by raising the already high-efficiency level of
modern diesel engines is limited and other routes have to be pursued: for example, operating
the engines at a fuel-saving service point; using marine diesel oil or gas oil instead of low-
sulphur heavy fuel oil; adopting diesel–electric propulsion (the engines can be run
continuously at the highest efficiency) and exploiting advanced waste heat recovery systems
and diesel combined cycles incorporating a steam turbine. According to estimates presented
in Third IMO GHG Study 2014, international shipping emitted 796 million tonnes of CO2 in
2012, that is, about 2.2% of the total global CO2 emissions for that year. It has been discussed
in more detail later in this chapter in topics EEDI, SEEMP and EEOI.
7.2.3 Regulations and Control of SOx Emissions
Compared with land-based power installations, fuel burned by much of shipping has high
sulphur content (up to 4.5 per cent which is being reduced by IMO) and contributes
significantly to the overall amount of global sulphur oxide emissions at sea and in port areas.
SOx emissions in diesel engine exhaust gas - which mostly comprise sulphur dioxide with a
small amount of sulphur trioxide - are a function of the amount of sulphur in the fuel and
cannot be controlled by the combustion process. If the fuel contains 3 per cent sulphur, for
example, the volume of SOx generated is around 64 kg per tonne of fuel burned; if fuel with 1
per cent sulphur content is used, SOx emissions amount to around 21 kg per tonne of fuel
burned.
MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 14 limits fuel sulphur content to restrict SOx and PM
emissions, and applies to all ships in service. The regulation specifies different limits for
operating inside and outside ECAs for SOx (ECA-SOx) and these follow a stepped reduction
over time, as shown in Figure 7.14.
Four ECA-SOx - the Baltic; the North Sea (which includes the English Channel); the North
American; and the US Caribbean - are currently (as of 2015) in force.
Fig. 7.14: Sulphur content reduction of marine fuel as required by MARPOL Annex VI
 The fuel sulphur limit applicable in emission control area (ECAs) from 1 Jul. 2010 would
be 1 per cent (10000 ppm), reduced from the existing 1.5 per cent content (15000 ppm).
 The global fuel sulphur cap would be reduced to 3.5 per cent (35000 ppm), reduced from
the existing 4.5 per cent (45000ppm), effective from 1 Jan. 2012.
 The fuel sulphur limit applicable in ECAs from 1 Jan. 2015 would be 0.1 per cent (1000
ppm).
 The global fuel sulphur cap would be reduced to 0.5 per cent (5000ppm) effective from 1
January 2020, subject to a feasibility review to be completed no later than 2018. Should
the 2018 review reach a negative conclusion, the effective date would default to 1 January
2025.
Chemical and washing/scrubbing desulphurization processes can remove SOx from the
exhaust gases, systems having been developed and successfully demonstrated in shipboard
applications. The exhaust gas flow is brought into intensive contact with an alkaline fluid
(both raw sea water and freshwater mixed with caustic soda can be used for this purpose).
Exhaust gas scrubbers, however, are heavy and require significant installation space, and they
produce large quantities of wastewater and sludge. The water has to be properly treated
before discharge into the sea, and the sludge must be disposed of at reception facilities
ashore.
The simplest approach to reducing SOx emissions is to burn bunkers with low sulphur
content. (If a selective catalytic reduction [SCR] system is installed to achieve the lowest
NOx emission levels, then lower sulphur fuels may be dictated anyway to avoid premature
fouling of the system’s catalyst package.) The drastic reduction or complete elimination of
sulphur from diesel fuels also contributes to reduced formation of PM.
7.2.4 Regulations to Control NOx Emissions
Regulation 13 of MARPOL Annex VI concerns NOx emission from diesel engine and shall
apply to:
 Each diesel engine with a power output of more than 130 kW which is installed on a ship
constructed on or after 1st January 2000.
 Each diesel engine with a power output of more than 130 kW which undergoes a major
conversion on or after 1st January 2000.
 Each diesel engine with a power output of more than 5000 kW and a per cylinder
displacement at or above 90 litre which is installed on a ship constructed on or after 1 st
January 1990 but prior to 1st January 2000.
This regulation does not apply to:
 Emergency diesel engines, engine installed in lifeboats or for any equipment intended to
be used solely in case of emergency.
 Engines used solely to drive machinery dedicated to exploration, exploitation and
associated offshore processes of seabed mineral resources.
Regulation 13 of MARPOL Annex VI contains a 3-Teir approach as follows:
 Tier I
For diesel engines installed on ships constructed from 1st January 2000 to 1st January 2011,
allowable emissions of total weighted NOx depending on engine speed, n, are:
 17.0 g/kWh when n is less than 130.
 45.0 x n(-0.2) g/kWh when n is 130 or more but less than 2000 rpm
 9.8 g/kWh when n is 2000 rpm or more.
 Tier II
For diesel engines installed on ships constructed on or after 1st January 2011, allowable
emissions of total weighted NOx depending on engine speed, n, are:
 14.4 g/kWh when n is less than 130 rpm
 7.7 g/kWh when n is 2000 rpm or more.
 Tier III
Ships constructed on or after 1st January 2016 will have additional limitations when operating
in an Emission Control Area (ECA) established to limit NOx emissions; outside such ECA
the Tier II controls apply. A marine diesel engine that is installed on a ship constructed on or
after the following dates and operating in the following ECAs shall comply with the Tier III
NOx standard:
 1 January 2016 and operating in the North American ECA and the United States
Caribbean Sea ECA; or
 1 January 2021 and operating in the Baltic Sea ECA or the North Sea ECA.
Table 7.1: MARPOL Annex VI NOx Emission Limits
Tier Date NOx Limit, g/kWh

N < 130 130≤ n ≤2000 N ≥2000
-0.2
Tier I 2000 17.0 45 x n 9.8
Tier II 2011 14.4 44 x n-0.23 7.7
-0.2
Tier III 2016* 3.4 9xn 2.0
*In NOx Emission Control Areas (Tier II standards apply outside ECAs).
Fig.7.15: MARPOL Annex VI NOx Emission Limits
For Tier III ships operating in the NOx ECAs, the allowable emissions of total weighted NOx
depending on engine speed, n, are:
 3.4 g/kWh when n is less than 130 rpm
 2.0 g/kWh when n is 2000 rpm or more
Tier III limits will not apply to engines installed on a ship with a length of less than 24 meter
when it is designed and used solely for recreational purposes, or an engine installed on a ship
with a combined nameplate diesel engine propulsion power of less than 750 kW if it is
demonstrated that the ship can not comply with the standards set forth in paragraph 5.1.1 of
this regulation because of design or construction limitations of the ship.
7.2.5 NOx Technical File, EIAPP Certificate and IAPP Certificate

NOx Technical Code (2008) provides mandatory procedures for the testing, survey and
certification of marine diesel engines that will enable engine manufacturers, shipowners and
Administrations to ensure that all applicable marine diesel engines comply with the relevant
limiting emission values of NOx as specified within regulation 13 of Annex VI.
Engines have to fulfill the NOx emission limits set by the IMO curve, which is related to
engine speed. To show compliance, an engine has to be certified according to the NOx
Technical Code (2008) and delivered with an Engine International Air Pollution Prevention
(EIAPP) certificate of compliance. The certification process includes NOx measurement for
the engine type concerned, stamping of components that affect NOx formation and a NOx
Technical File that is delivered with the engine.
NOx Technical File is a record containing all details of parameters, including components and
settings of an engine that may influence the NOx emission of the engine, in accordance with
NOx Technical Code. NOx Technical Code-certified engines have a NOx Technical File,
which includes the applicable survey regime, termed the onboard NOx verification procedure.
The associated parameter check method effectively stipulates the engine components and
range of settings to be adopted to ensure that NOx emissions from the given engine, under
reference conditions, will be maintained within the certified value. These NOx emission
critical components are broadly divided into three groups:
- the combustion chamber (including piston, cylinder cover and liner);
- the charge air system (turbocharger and charge air cooler); and
- the fuel injection system (fuel pump, injection nozzle and timing cam).
The key settings are either the maximum permitted combustion pressures across the load
range or the fuel injection timing.
Consequently, although this NOx certification still allows for an engine to be operated at any
load point within the available range, including that corresponding to slow steaming, it does
not severely restrict the ability to have the engine re-optimized for lower powers than used
for the initial certification. This is particularly apparent in the case of the fuel oil injection
nozzle, a significant NOx-critical component but one which previously would have been
readily changed for a ‘slow steaming’ version with no wider implications.
For a NOx-certified engine, however, such alternative components can be fitted only if
approved within the requirements of the NOx Technical Code. In the case of alternative fuel
injection nozzles, the process would require running a full emissions test, normally calling for
input from an engine builder. Ship operators must therefore ensure that any changes to NOx-
critical components or settings are duly approved prior to installation to avoid invalidating an
engine’s certification.
An alternative route is to change from the parameter check method for the onboard NOx
verification procedure to the direct measurement and monitoring method, which checks
inputs of fuel and air to the engine and its outputs of power and exhaust emissions. Under
such an arrangement, the NOx-critical components and settings may be changed, provided
that the engine is shown by the direct method to remain compliant with the relevant NOx
emission limit.
IAPP Certificate means the International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate issued pursuant
to Annex VI of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ship,
MARPOL 73/78 (Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships) in relation to a
Vessel. An IAPP Certificate is required for all ships of 400 GT or above engaged in
international voyages. Administrations may establish alternative appropriate measures to
demonstrate the necessary compliance in respect of ships under 400 GT engaged in
international voyages.
7.2.6 Controlling NOx Emissions

With stricter controls planned by the IMO, the reduction of NOx emissions remains a priority
for engine designers whose concern is to secure environmental acceptability without
compromising the impressive gains in engine fuel economy and reliability achieved in recent
years. Considerable progress has been made and is projected (Figure 7.16).
Primary (in-engine) measures are aimed at reducing the amount of NOx formed during
combustion by optimizing engine parameters with respect to emissions (valve timing, fuel
injection and turbocharging). Emission levels can be reduced by 30–60 per cent.
Secondary measures are designed to remove NOx from the exhaust gas by downstream
cleaning techniques. Emission reductions of over 95 per cent can be achieved.
Fig.7.16: NOx emission trends for typical two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines compared
with IMO requirements (Wärtsilä)
Primary NOx reduction measures can be categorized as follows:
 Water addition: either by direct injection into the cylinder or by emulsified fuel
 Altered fuel injection: retarded injection, rate-modulated injection and a NOx-optimized
fuel spray pattern
 Combustion air treatment: Miller supercharging, turbo-cooling, intake air humidification,
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
 Change of engine process: compression ratio and boost pressure
The basic aim of most of these measures is to lower the maximum temperature in the cylinder
since this result is inherently combined with a lower NOx emission. A combustion chamber
geometry which is designed to optimize mixing of the fuel and air in the cylinder achieves
more complete and homogeneous combustion, avoiding the temperature peaks that cause
over 90 per cent of NOx formation. New low-swirl cylinder heads and high-compression re-
entrant pistons contribute to a more favourable gas flow and hence a decrease in NOx
formation.
The temperature of combustion - and hence NOx formation - can also be decreased by
retarding fuel injection, although this measure increases the specific fuel consumption (the
so-called diesel dilemma). Common rail fuel injection systems enable precise and flexible
control of injection pressure, timing and duration, helping performance, emissions and fuel
consumption to be optimized over the entire engine load and speed ranges.
The Miller cycle involves early closure of the inlet valve, causing the intake air to expand and
cool; the lower intake air temperature reduces the combustion temperature peaks responsible
for most NOx formation. Higher emissions of PM at part load are suffered, but this PM
penalty can be eliminated by adopting a variable valve timing system with the Miller process.
High-efficiency turbochargers with increased pressure ratios compensate for the shorter inlet
valve opening times associated with the Miller cycle, ensuring that the quantity of
combustion air entering the cylinder - and thus the engine performance and efficiency -
remains unaffected. Two-stage turbocharging systems are also under development to support
Miller cycle applications. Various De-NOx technology options are summarized in Fig. 7.17.
New generations of medium-speed engines with longer strokes, higher compression ratios
and increased firing pressures addressed the NOx emission challenge. The low NOx
combustion system exploited by Wärtsilä throughout its medium-speed engine programme,
for example, is based on an optimized combination of compression ratio, injection timing and
injection rate. The engine parameters affecting the combustion process are manipulated to
secure a higher cylinder pressure by increasing the compression ratio. The fuel injection
equipment is optimized for late injection with a short and distinct injection period. NOx
reductions of up to 50 per cent are reported without compromising thermal efficiency,
achieving a NOx rate of 5-8g/kWh compared with the 15g/kWh of a typical conventional
engine with virtually no effect on fuel consumption.
Low NOx combustion is based on:
 A higher combustion air temperature at the start of injection, which significantly reduces
the ignition delay
 A late start of injection and shorter injection duration to place combustion at the optimum
point of the cycle with respect to efficiency
 Improved fuel atomization and matching of combustion space with fuel sprays to
facilitate air and fuel mixing.
Some Wärtsilä Vasa 32 engines were equipped with a ‘California button’ to meet the US
regional authority’s strict NOx control. A planetary gear device allows the necessary small
injection timing retard to be effected temporarily while the engine is running when the ship
enters the Californian waters.
Fig.7.17: Methods of reducing NOx emissions from marine diesel engines (Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries)
7.2.6.1 Water Based NOx Reduction Techniques

Water-fuel emulsions injected via the fuel valve achieve a significant reduction in NOx
production. The influence varies with the engine type, but generally 1 per cent of water
reduces NOx emissions by 1 per cent. Fuel water emulsion (FWE) methods mix the fuel with
freshwater onboard the ship to form an emulsion suitable for injection into the combustion
chamber. In the case of heavy fuel oil, up to 30 per cent water can be emulsified into the fuel,
resulting in a NOx reduction of approximately 30 per cent.
FWE can be produced continuously online during engine operation (the preferred method) or
offline in batches. MAN Diesel’s continuous method is installed in a number of cruise ships
and cargo vessels, reportedly demonstrating very satisfactory long-term performance.
Moderate capital costs, compactness and minimal impact on fuel consumption are cited as
merits.
Wärtsilä notes that the proportion of water added for the water–fuel emulsion is mainly
limited by the maximum delivery capacity of the fuel injection pumps. In practice, therefore,
the engine has either to be derated or the maximum achievable NOx reduction limited to
around 10 or 20 per cent. Obtaining the maximum NOx reduction at full load also would
dictate redesign not only of the injection system but also of the camshaft and its drive. The
proportion of water added is also limited by the viscosity of the emulsion and the degree of
heating required to reduce the viscosity for injection: this is a property of the water–fuel
emulsion and cannot be addressed by engine or system design. Another aspect is that the
injection nozzle design (such as hole diameter) has to be adapted to the increased quantity of
liquid injected.
Wärtsilä explains that with such a modified nozzle design, both fuel consumption and
component temperatures may be penalized when the engine is running without water.
Although camshaft-controlled engines are restricted in the timing of injection, electronically
controlled designs (such as Wärtsilä RT-flex engines) enjoy a flexibility that is beneficial
when burning water–fuel emulsions. The electronic control system can be readily adapted to
different optimized injection characteristics for operating on emulsions or fuel alone.
Furthermore, engine settings can be optimized according to engine load and speed. The
electronic control system would also be extended to provide load dependent mixing of water
and fuel in the emulsifier.
Water can also be introduced to the combustion space through separate nozzles or by the
stratified segregated injection of water and fuel from the same nozzle. Unlike other
techniques, direct water injection (DWI) enables the water to be injected at the right time and
place to obtain the greatest NOx reduction. It thus represents one of the most efficient means
of reducing NOx emissions through internal measures.
DWI is effective in reducing NOx by adding mass and stealing heat from the combustion
process when the water is evaporated. Wärtsilä developed DWI for its medium-speed engines
after initially investigating the merits of injecting ammonia into the cylinder during the
expansion stroke. It was found that injecting water into the combustion chamber during the
compression stroke could achieve the same degree of NOx reduction as ammonia.
Wärtsilä medium-speed engines with DWI systems feature a combined injection valve and
nozzle for injecting water and fuel oil into the cylinder (Figure 7.18). The nozzle has two
needles that are controlled separately, such that neither mode (water on/water off) will affect
operation of the engine. The engine can be transferred to non-water operational mode at any
load, the transfer in alarm situations being automatic and instantaneous. Water injection takes
place before fuel injection, resulting in a cooler combustion space and hence lower NOx
generation; water injection stops before fuel oil is injected into the cylinder so that the
ignition and combustion process is not disturbed.
Clean water is fed to the cylinder at a pressure of 210-400bar (depending on the engine type)
by a common rail system, the pressure generated in a high-pressure pump module; a low-
pressure pump is also necessary to ensure a sufficiently stable water flow to the high-pressure
pump. The water is filtered before the low-pressure pump to remove all solid particles; the
pumps and filters are built into modules to ease installation.
Fig.7.18: Wärtsilä’s DWI system features a combined injection valve and nozzle for water
and fuel oil
A flow fuse installed on the cylinder head side acts as a safety device, shutting off the water
flow into the cylinder if the water needle gets stuck; immediate water shut-off is initiated in
the event of excessive water flow or leakage. Water injection timing and duration are
electronically controlled by the control unit, which receives its input from the engine output;
timing and duration can be optimized conveniently via a keyboard for different applications.
Space requirements for the equipment are minimal, facilitating retrofit applications.
Water and fuel are injected in a typical water-to-fuel ratio of 0.4-0.7:1, reducing NOx
emissions by 50–60 per cent without adversely affecting power output or engine components.
NOx emissions are typically 4–6 g/kWh when the engine is running on marine diesel oil, and
5–7 g/kWh when heavy fuel oil is being burned. NOx reduction is most efficient from 40 per
cent load and higher of nominal engine output.
Numerous applications of the above-mentioned DWI system have benefited Wärtsilä 32 and
46 medium-speed engines powering diverse ship types. Some W46 ‘Enviro Engines’
combine electronically controlled common rail fuel injection with DWI, the water then
injected into the combustion chamber separately from the side of the cylinder head through a
dedicated valve.
A DWI system developed and tested by Wärtsilä reportedly confirmed the potential of the
technology for two-stroke engines, the water being handled by a fully independent, common
rail delivery system under electronic control. The system offers the possibility of injecting
very large amounts of water and fuel with different timings. Water can be injected in parallel
with the fuel and/or during the compression stroke so that optimizing injection timing with
respect to fuel and water consumptions, NOx and other emissions is possible without
undermining engine reliability.
When DWI is applied to a Wärtsilä RT-flex common rail two-stroke engine, the fuel injection
system can be provided with different engine settings so that it can run with the water
injection turned on or off without affecting the fuel injection behaviour. There is no
restriction on the quantity of water injected. With around 70 per cent water/fuel ratio, DWI
has shown the capability to reduce NOx emissions down to around 8 g/kWh or some 50 per
cent below the IMO Tier I limit.
Wärtsilä notes that whichever system of injecting water is applied, consideration must be
given to the logistics of providing sufficient freshwater onboard. Substantial quantities will
be required when 20–50 per cent water addition is used, and there must be sufficient tank
capacity for the water and an associated handling system.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries developed a stratified fuel–water injection (SFWI) system using
a common valve to inject ‘slugs’ of fuel/water/fuel sequentially into the combustion chamber.
The system reportedly worked in a stable condition throughout extensive trials on a ship
powered by a Mitsubishi UEC 52/105D two-stroke engine, NOx emission reduction being
proportional to the amount of water injected.
7.2.6.2 Charge Air Humidification

Another way of introducing water into the combustion zone is by humidifying the scavenge
air: warm water is injected and evaporated in the air intake, whose absolute humidity is
thereby increased. An early drawback was that too much water in the air can be harmful to
the cylinder condition but the introduction of the anti-polishing ring in the liner has allowed a
much higher humidity to be accepted.
In the combustion air saturation system (CASS), which resulted from cooperation between
Wärtsilä and the Finnish company Marioff Oy, special Hi-Fog nozzles introduce water
directly into the charge air stream after the turbocharger in the form of very small droplets.
Only a few micrometres in size, the droplets evaporate very quickly in an environment of
more than 200°C and 75 m/s air velocity. Further heat for evaporation is provided by the air
cooler (but acting now as a heater), resulting in combustion air with a humidity of around 60
g/kg of air. Wärtsilä reports that with such an amount of water, experiments demonstrated it
was possible to secure NOx levels of <3g/kWh (assuming the starting value is 10–15g/kWh).
Wärtsilä’s latest WetPac H system promises NOx emission reductions of 30–60 per cent from
its four-stroke engines, applying 1.5:2 water/fuel ratios, with no substantial increase in fuel
consumption and no rise in material temperatures.
MAN Diesel has also pursued NOx reduction by increasing the humidity of the charge air
with water vapour. Based on the humid air motor (HAM) system developed by the German
company Munters Euroform (Figure 7.19), the process can reduce NOx formation by up to 65
per cent. Turbocharged combustion air is saturated with water vapour produced onboard from
raw sea water using engine heat sources. Compressed and heated air from the turbocharger is
passed through a cell that humidifies and cools the air with evaporated water, the distillation
process making it possible to use sea water rather than freshwater.
Fig.7.19: Schematic diagram of HAM system for NOx emission reduction

Over 90 per cent of NOx formation results from combustion temperature peaks. The HAM
principle is used to humidify the inlet air in order to lower these peaks. The ability of water to
decrease NOx formation is exploited in the same way as with fuel water emulsification.
However, the quantity of water added is much higher, and the heat for vaporization is taken
from the compressed air after the turbocharger or from other engine-related heat sources.
When the water vapour is mixed with the compressed charge air, two mechanisms can be
identified: an increase in the specific heat capacity of the mixture and dilution of the charge
air (water vapour replaces air). The quantity of water (in gram per kilogram dry air) which
can be injected into the inlet air depends on the temperature and the pressure of the mixture.
When the air temperature rises, so does the quantity of water it is possible to vaporize.
MAN Diesel says that HAM’s outstanding advantage is its use of the heat of the engine to
raise the sea-water temperature; no external energy source is needed. In addition to the heat
of the charge air after the turbocharger, in many applications heat from the engine coolant
and exhaust gases can be introduced into the charge air to increase its capacity to absorb
moisture. An NOx reduction level of 40 per cent is said to be achievable without using
additional heating of the intake air, with a 65 per cent reduction when additional heat is
introduced from the engine coolant or exhaust gases.
Using untreated sea water fosters very low operating costs. Further benefits cited are very
low maintenance costs, decreased lube oil consumption and high availability, with only
minimal impact on fuel oil consumption. The presence of water vapour in the combustion
chamber also yields cleaner combustion, reducing deposits in the chamber, on the turbine
side of the turbocharger and the rest of the exhaust gas tract.
Test results from an SEMT-Pielstick 3PC2.6 medium-speed engine equipped with a
prototype HAM system showed an NOx reduction from 13.5 g/kWh to 3.5 g/kWh. There was
no significant influence on specific fuel consumption, no significant increase in carbon
monoxide and HC emissions, and no smoke deterioration. These results-along with no trace
of water in the lube oil, no corrosion and cleaner engine internals-were repeated in
subsequent seagoing installations. In retrofit projects, the HAM system replaced the original
intercoolers.
7.2.6.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a method of modifying the inlet air to reduce NOx
emissions at source, an approach widely and successfully used in automotive applications.
Some of the exhaust gas is cooled and cleaned before recirculation to the scavenge air side.
Its effect on NOx formation is partly due to a reduction of the oxygen concentration in the
combustion zone, and partly due to the content of water and carbon dioxide in the exhaust
gas. The higher molar heat capacities of water and carbon dioxide lower the peak combustion
temperature, which, in turn, curbs the formation of NOx.
EGR is a very efficient method of reducing NOx emissions (by 50–60 per cent) without
affecting the power output of the engine but has been considered more practical for engines
burning cleaner bunkers such as low sulphur and low ash fuels, alcohol and gas. Engines
operating on high sulphur fuel might invite corrosion of turbochargers, intercoolers and
scavenging pipes.
An EGR system pursued by MAN Diesel for its two-stroke engines is based on recirculating
exhaust gas on the engine side of the turbocharger, part of the exhaust being recirculated from
the exhaust gas receiver to the scavenge air system downstream of the turbocharger
compressor (Figure 7.20). An electrically driven high-pressure blower forces the exhaust gas
(at 3.3 bar) through a wet scrubber to the higher pressure scavenge air receiver (3.7 bar). The
scrubber cleans the exhaust gas by removing SOx and particulates, and also cools it through
humidification before re-introduction to the combustion chamber. The resulting NOx-
reducing effect is due to part-replacement of the oxygen by carbon dioxide, which lowers the
maximum peak temperatures by decelerating combustion.
NOx emissions from MAN Diesel’s 4T50ME-X two-stroke research engine at 75 per cent
load were reduced by up to 70 per cent (compared with the economy engine layout) with 30
per cent recirculation of exhaust gas. At maximum continuous rating using 24 per cent
recirculation, NOx was reduced by 60 per cent with only a slightly negative impact on
specific fuel consumption.
Cylinder conditions were studied before and after the comprehensive EGR test programme,
no negative effects being evident. Combustion chamber component temperatures showed a
decreasing trend with higher EGR rates due to a higher specific mass flow through the
cylinder. The lower material temperature is cited as a positive side effect of the EGR process.
Controlling the wet scrubber’s water content and keeping water-free droplets out of the
scavenge air, however, is vital for protecting cylinder liners and piston rings. Overall, MAN
Diesel is confident that EGR is a competitive NOx-reducing technique that will be applied to
large two-stroke engines in the future.
For low-speed engines, especially those with electronically controlled exhaust valve timing,
Wärtsilä suggests that the water-cooled residual gas (WaCoReG) technique-a combination of
DWI and EGR-offers an opportunity for NOx reduction. In this concept some of the exhaust
gas is left in the cylinder, which in normal circumstances leads to increased thermal loading
and inferior combustion. These drawbacks are largely avoided, however, if the residual gas is
cooled by an internal spray of water. As the surrounding combustion space components are
rather hot, there will be no condensation of acid products on the metal surfaces. A reduction
in NOx emissions of up to 70 per cent below the IMO Tier I limit (around 5 g/kWh) is
anticipated from the WaCoReG system.
Internal recirculation normally increases the thermal load of the engine, so the water injection
is applied to reduce temperature levels, thereby maintaining thermal loads much the same as
when running without internal EGR. With WaCoReG, the water is injected earlier in the
compression stroke than with just DWI.
In contrast to four-stroke engines in which it is common practice to recirculate exhaust gases
through external manifolds, in two-stroke low-speed engines Wärtsilä prefers to adapt the
engine scavenging process to decrease the purity of gas in the cylinder at the start of
compression. This is achieved by reducing the height of the scavenge ports to lower the
scavenge air quantity flowing through the cylinder. One benefit is that smaller turbochargers
are required for the reduced gas flows; the lower scavenge ports also allow greater expansion
in the cylinder and thus improve fuel consumption. Reduced gas flows have the further
benefit that exhaust gas temperatures are raised, which is helpful for heat recovery systems.
Fig.7.20: Schematic diagram of EGR system tested by MAN Diesel on its 4T50ME-X low-
speed research engine
7.2.6.4 Fuel Nozzles

Different fuel nozzle types and designs have a significant impact on NOx formation, and the
intensity of the fuel injection also has an influence.
The increased mean effective pressure ratings of modern engines require increased flow areas
throughout the fuel valve, which, in turn, leads to increased sac volumes in the fuel nozzle
itself and a higher risk of after-dripping. Consequently, more fuel from the sac volume may
enter the combustion chamber and contribute to the emission of smoke and unburnt HC as
well as to increased deposits in the combustion chamber. The relatively large sac volume in a
standard design fuel nozzle thus has a negative influence on the formation of soot particles
and HC.
The so-called ‘mini-sac’ fuel valve introduced by MAN Diesel incorporates a conventional
conical spindle seat as well as a slide inside the fuel nozzle. The mini-sac leaves the flow
conditions in the vicinity of the nozzle holes similar to the flow conditions in the
conventional fuel nozzle. But it’s much reduced sac volume - only about 15 per cent that of
the conventional fuel valve - has demonstrated a positive influence on the cleanliness of the
combustion chamber and exhaust gas outlet ducts. Such valves also reduce the formation of
NOx during combustion.
Fig.7.21: Evolution of fuel injection valve design for MAN B&W Diesel MC two stroke
engines; smoke and NOx emissions were lowered by reducing or eliminating the sac volume
A new type of fuel valve - essentially eliminating the sac volume - was subsequently
developed and introduced by MAN Diesel as standard to its larger low-speed engines (Figure
7.21). The main advantages of this slide-type fuel valve are reduced emissions of NOx, CO,
smoke and unburned HC as well as significantly fewer deposits inside the engine. A positive
effect on the cylinder condition in general is reported.
Applying slide fuel valves to a 12K90MC container-ship engine yielded a 40 per cent
reduction in smoke (BSN10) compared with the mini-sac valved engine, while HC and CO
were reduced by 33 per cent and 42 per cent, respectively, albeit from a low level. NOx was
reduced by 14 per cent, while the fuel consumption remained virtually unchanged with a
slight reduction at part load.
7.2.6.5 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

Primary methods are generally adequate for the IMO NOx emission limits, but tougher
international and regional controls may dictate the use of secondary methods - exhaust gas
treatment techniques - either alone or in combination with engine modifications. Here the
focus is on SCR systems, developed from land-based power station installations for
shipboard applications, which can cut NOx reductions by over 90 per cent. An SCR
installation thus gives engine designers greater scope to pursue primary in-cylinder measures
without increasing fuel consumption.
In an SCR system the exhaust gas is mixed with ammonia (preferably in the form of a 40 per
cent solution of urea in water) before passing through a layer of special catalyst at a
temperature between 290°C and 450°C. The lower limit is mainly determined by the sulphur
content of the fuel: at temperatures below 270°C ammonia and SOx will react and deposit as
ammonium sulphate. At excessive temperatures, the catalyst will be degraded depending on
the exhaust gas temperature; therefore, reliable SCR operation calls for fuels with low
sulphur contents.
Urea decomposes into ammonia and carbon dioxide on injection into the hot exhaust gas
stream. The ammonia reduces NOx to harmless gaseous waste products-water and nitrogen;
and parts of the soot and HC in the exhaust are also removed by oxidation in the SCR process
reactor.
Among the desirable qualities of a catalyst are: a low inertia, which means that the ammonia
slip (the quantity slipping past the catalyst) is extremely low, even during transient
operations; a low-pressure drop and a short heating-up time; and a low fouling tendency,
ensuring minimal deterioration in performance over time.
The catalytic conversion rate of SCR systems is highly dependent on the amount of urea
dose: increased dosage yields increased conversion. However, excessive urea causes
ammonia slip downstream of the reactor, which is detrimental to both the process and
operational economy. Urea dosing must therefore be very accurate under different load
conditions. The set point for dosing is derived primarily from the engine speed and load; in
addition, control is adjusted by measuring the residual NOx level after the reactor. The NOx
measurement data are used for tuning the stoichiometric ammonia/NOx ratio and maintaining
the ammonia slip at a constant level.
The temperature requirement of the process generally dictates that the SCR reactor serving a
low-speed two-stroke engine is installed before the turbocharger; the post-turbocharger
exhaust gas temperature of a four-stroke engine, however, is sufficient for the catalytic
process. If an exhaust gas boiler is specified, it should be installed after the SCR unit. The
temperature window has been the subject of catalyst development.
The impressive de-NOxing efficiency of SCR technology has been demonstrated in deep sea
and coastal vessel installations since early 1990. NOx emission reductions of up to 95 per cent
are yielded by pioneering marine SCR plant serving the MAN B&W 6S50MC low-speed
engines of bulk carriers on a dedicated trade between Korea and California where strict
environmental regulations have to be satisfied. The amount of ammonia injected into the
exhaust gas duct is controlled by a process computer, which arranges dosing in proportion to
the NOx produced by the engine as a function of engine load (Figure 7.22).
Fig.7.22: Schematic layout of SCR system for a low-speed diesel (MAN Diesel)
Typically, a ship on a regular trade to California will bypass the SCR reactor on the ocean leg
of the voyage, complying with the IMO emission rules by using primary methods for
controlling NOx. Approaching the Californian regulated waters, the engine feed is switched
from heavy fuel to fuel complying with California Air Resources Board rules (gas oil). The
exhaust gas is then gradually passed through the SCR reactor, and, when the temperature has
been raised to the right level, ammonia dosing is started to effect near-complete NOx control.
An early SCR installation serving medium-speed marine engines was commissioned in 1992
on a diesel–electric ferry plying short crossings between Denmark and Sweden. Its initial
NOx reduction efficiency of 96 per cent was increased to 98 per cent after 12000 running
hours.
The number of SCR systems in service has proliferated as ship owners anticipate tougher
regulations and seek NOx emission levels of 2g/kWh or lower from the main and auxiliary
engines of diverse tonnage, including fast car/passenger ferries. Applications in new-building
and retrofit projects have been facilitated by the efforts of system designers to reduce reactor
space requirements and offer compact solutions. The reactors can now be installed separately
in the engine room or integrated in the exhaust manifolds of both four-stroke and two-stroke
engines, doubling as an efficient silencer.
Siemens’ SINOx SCR system is designed to reduce the emissions of different exhaust gas
pollutants simultaneously - notably NOx, HC and soot - as well as to achieve a sound
attenuation effect. The following performance can be expected, according to the German
designer:
 NOx reduction - 90 to 99 per cent at MCR
 HC/CO reduction - 80 to 90 per cent at MCR
 Soot reduction - 30 to 40 per cent at MCR
 Noise reduction - 30 to 35 dB(A).
A system investment cost of US$40-70/kW and an operating cost of US$3-4/MW h were
quoted in 2002, with some 15-20 L/h/MW of 40 per cent urea solution consumed.
Important factors in designing such a system are the exhaust gas temperature and the amount,
composition and required purity level of the cleaned gas. The control system ensures
optimum process supervision and correct dosing of the reducing agent; a special algorithm
secures a fully automatic supply of the correct amount of aqueous urea solution in line with
the NOx emission levels from the engine. Reducing agent consumption is thus minimized and
emissions are reliably reduced below the specified limits. The exhaust gas emissions are
measured during plant commissioning at different engine loads and the derived values
programmed into the control system to ensure correct dosing at various loads.
The SINOx system is based on a fully ceramic, fine-celled honeycomb catalyst made of
titanium dioxide and containing vanadium pentoxide as the active substance. The honeycomb
elements are packed in prefabricated steel modules and can be replaced quickly and
individually. The catalytic converter is designed chemically and physically to suit the
particular conditions of a given installation, the catalyst lifespan varying from 10000 h to
40000 h depending on the application. The converters are characterized by high catalytic
activity, high selectivity, high resistance to erosion and to chemicals such as sulphur, as well
as insensitivity to particulate deposits, and high mechanical and thermal loads.
R&D by SCR system designers targets increased compactness, low weight, no waste
products, extended catalyst lifetimes and lower operating and maintenance costs. Catalysts
themselves remain the subject of continuing development to improve performance and
longevity.
Results from a research programme on a Sulzer 6RTA38 low-speed engine led Wärtsilä to
the following conclusions on SCR systems:
 NOx reductions >90 per cent can be achieved commercially.
 The catalyst housing (reactor) including insulation has a volume of 2–5 m3/MW of engine
power, depending on the make of catalyst; the size of the housing is more or less
independent of the input NOx concentration.
 The exhaust gas back pressure imposed by an SCR plant is typically between 15 mbar
and 25 mbar.
 The reactor can be designed in such a way that it serves as a silencer with achievable
noise reductions of more than 25 dB(A).
 Some 30 L of 40 per cent urea solution (corresponding to 15 kg of urea granulates) are
needed per megawatt hour.
 If the SCR plant is only for temporary use, a burner is absolutely necessary to heat the
catalyst before the engine is started; otherwise, the catalyst will inevitably become
clogged by ammonium sulphates.
The schematic arrangement of an SCR system installed to serve the Wärtsilä (Sulzer)
7RTA52U two-stroke engine of a RoRo paper carrier is shown in Figure 7.23; the SCR
converter is installed before the turbine of the turbocharger.
Fig.7.23: Schematic arrangement of SCR system installed to serve a Wärtsilä (Sulzer) low-
speed engine
7.2.7 Particulates, Soot and Smoke
Particulate emissions are considered a contributory factor in causing asthma, allergies and
various other human health problems. Studies have shown that smaller particulates show a
stronger correlation between ambient concentrations and health symptoms than larger
particulates. Smaller particulates are thought more likely to penetrate deep into the human
lungs, the most minute of them perhaps even moving into the blood stream; and the chemical
composition of the particulate may significantly contribute to the biological effect.
Particulates are made up of randomly agglomerated carbonaceous spherules, which build up
into a highly branched three-dimensional structure. Various HC, ash and sulphur compounds
are all associated with the structure. The complexity of the particulate makes it impossible to
give a satisfactory general definition because the characterization depends largely on the
measurement method. It can be defined, for example, in terms of opacity, filter blackening,
particle number, size or mass.
A study carried out by Wärtsilä found that typically between 50 per cent and 70 per cent of
the particulate composition comprises compounds that are related directly to the quality of
the residual fuel oil (notably its sulphur and ash contents) and cannot be reduced by improved
combustion. Consequently, only around 30–50 per cent of the particulate composition can be
affected. Even a significant improvement in engine combustion will thus not necessarily
result in any major reduction of particulate emissions.
After formation in the cylinder, the nanometre-sized primary particles coagulate to create
larger particulates to which HC and sulphate are attached as the exhaust gas cools. Secondary
particulates can be formed outside the combustion chamber as a result of the absorption and
condensation processes. This means that the particulate composition and size distribution in
the engine exhaust duct is completely different from that reaching the human respiratory
tract.
Wärtsilä advises that abatement measures for diesel particulates can be divided into three
categories: improvement of fuel and lube oil quality, improvement of the engine combustion
process, and exhaust gas cleaning. Examples of engine measures for improving combustion
include advanced fuel injection properties (such as rate shaping with common rail
technology) and improved combustion chamber geometry (including swirl and squish).
Traps and oxidation catalysts, used for exhaust gas cleaning in truck engines, are unsuitable
for applications involving large residual fuel-operated diesel engines due to the high sulphur
and ash content of the fuel. For engines running on such fuels, however, an electrostatic
precipitator is a viable option, but its size makes marine applications impractical. Exhaust gas
scrubbers are among potential options for the future.
Whatever measures are favoured for lowering particulate emissions, measurement systems
are an inevitable legislative requirement. Various methods are approved by different
administrative bodies, but the results are often not comparable because regulators define
particulates in different ways.
The ISO 8178 method (with dilution) is the standard applied method to most marine emission
regulations, although it should not be used in conjunction with high sulphur fuel. According
to ISO, the upper sulphur limit for applying this method is 0.8 per cent, whereas a CIMAC
recommendation is 0.05 per cent. Dilution conditions are crucial to the measurement result.
Wärtsilä reports that reproducibility of measurement results with the ISO 8178 standard when
operating on typical marine fuel is often poor. Furthermore, an improper choice of dilution
and measurement settings within the permitted requirements of the standard makes it possible
to manipulate the results significantly. To achieve repeatable results and enable comparison
with land-based industrial sources, Wärtsilä recommends using direct measurement methods.
MAN Diesel explains that particulate generation in diesel engines is a complex process
depending on numerous factors, such as engine type, speed, engine setting, operating mode,
load, fuel and even weather conditions.
Particulates comprise all solid and liquid exhaust gas components, which, after cooling by
exhaust gas dilution with filtered particulate-free ambient air to a temperature below 51.7°C,
are collected on specified filters (dilution tube sampling). The so-called PM fraction
represents a broad mixture of partly burned or unburned HC, sulphate bound water, sulphates,
ash and elemental carbon (soot).
Soot and ash are therefore only part of the total particulates. At high loads, ash and soot
might contribute <20 per cent to the particulates, but at low loads and idling, this percentage
can be much higher.
The specific mass of all particulates from modern MAN medium-speed diesel engines
averages around 0.6 g/kWh at maximum continuous rating, assuming heavy fuel oil with a 2
per cent sulphur content is burned. Lower particulate values can be achieved, however, the
company citing a PM value of 0.2 g/kWh from the four 18V48/60 engines of a floating barge.
Much of the elemental carbon formed in a diesel engine is oxidized during combustion, and
only the remainder leaves the combustion space with the exhaust gas as soot, which becomes
visible as a dark smoke plume emanating from the funnel. There is a clear correlation
between the level of soot formation and the type of fuel used; heavy fuel oil combustion
generates substantially greater volumes of particles (and soot) than the burning of cleaner
fuels, such as marine diesel and marine gas oils. MAN Diesel notes that although soot
particles themselves are not toxic, the potential hazard posed by the buildup of liquid HC
onto them is viewed critically by many.
At very high engine loads, combustion in a state-of-the-art medium-speed diesel engine can
be modelled to give invisible smoke (IS). At low service loads, however, and especially
during rapid start-up manoeuvres and load changes, the turbochargers deliver less intake air
than the engine needs for complete combustion and the engine ‘smokes’.
Smoke as the visible manifestation of soot production is highly undesirable in all types of
ships, but particularly in passenger ferries and cruise liners. In sensitive waters, such as the
glacier regions and bays of Alaska or the Galapagos Islands, a vessel producing excessive
amounts of visible soot (smoke) can even be banned from cruising there. Achieving zero
emissions may dictate shutting down all engines and boilers during a port stay, and plugging
into a land-based electrical supply system.
MAN Diesel designed and successfully field-tested a package of measures to suppress the
formation of soot in highly turbocharged medium-speed engines, even during long periods of
slow steaming. The full package for these IS near-zero soot engines with low NOx emissions
comprise the following:
 Turbocharger optimized for part load, with a waste gate
 Charge air bypass below 65 per cent engine load
 Charge air preheating (80°C) below 20 per cent load
 Smaller injection bores
 Nozzles with short sac holes
 Auxiliary blower for operation below 20 per cent load
 Fuel–water emulsification (15–20 per cent water)
 Retarded fuel injection below 80 per cent engine load.
With smoke readings of 0.3 maximum on the Bosch scale, at very low engine (MAN L/V
48/60IS) loads and even idling, soot production at steady operating conditions is drastically
reduced and kept at an invisible level over the entire operating range. Smoke reduction was
by a factor of seven at idling and by a factor of five at 10 per cent load, respectively. The
mass of soot produced during diesel combustion is reduced by even higher factors than that
due to the non-linear correlation between smoke emission and soot mass.
Elements of the IS package have become standard for all MAN medium speed engines; the
other measures are specified only when extremely strict requirements on soot and NOx
emissions have to be met. The package is available for new engines and by retrofit to existing
engines.
A different approach to smokeless medium-speed engines was adopted by Wärtsilä, which
explains that smoke in a large diesel engine can be formed in two different ways: if the fuel
spray touches a metal surface and there is not enough remaining combustion time to burn
away the soot formed (this is consequently a low load problem); and when more fuel is
injected than can be burned in the air amount in the cylinder (this can easily happen at load
variations with a conventional injection system).
Fig.7.24: Smoke test results from a Wärtsilä 32 medium-speed engine with and without
common rail fuel injection
Wärtsilä asserts that a common rail fuel system can cure both of these problems, because it is
possible to maintain high injection pressures independently of engine load and thus ensure
good spray atomization even at very low loads. If the combustion space is also optimized,
there will be no risk of low load smoke. The risk of over-injection of fuel can also be avoided
by a common rail system because its computer-supplied with air temperature, pressure and
rotational speed data-can calculate the amount of air trapped in the cylinder. Based on
empirical maps, the computer can decide how much fuel can be injected. A common rail fuel-
injected engine can have a faster load response than a conventionally injected engine and
without smoke
Wärtsilä’s EnviroEngine concept for its W46 and W32 medium-speed designs exploits an
electronically controlled common rail fuel injection system to achieve ‘smokeless’
performance (Figure 7.24). The package embraces the following:
 Camshaft-driven high-pressure pumps
 Accumulators for eliminating pressure waves
 Hot box enclosure of all elements for maximum safety
 Engine-driven control oil pump for easy ‘black’ start
 Suction control of fuel flow for high efficiency
 Low cam load for high reliability.
Such a system offers the freedom to choose the fuel injection pressure and timing completely
independent of the engine load, whereas computerized control allows several key engine
parameters to be considered and the injection and combustion optimized for each load
condition. The ability to maintain fuel injection pressures sufficiently high at all engine loads
and speeds (even at the lowest levels and during starting and transient load changes)
contributes to clean combustion with no visible smoke emissions. Four 16V46 EnviroEngines
were specified as the diesel element of the CODAG-electric propulsion plant of Cunard’s
Queen Mary 2.
Wärtsilä notes that there is limited scope to significantly reduce particulate emissions by
improving combustion, but methods of removing particulates from the exhaust gas are
available. Compact ceramic filters can be used with some success on smaller engines but
appear not to work when operating with heavy fuel-burning engines because they become
clogged by the metal matter. Bag filters work with certain efficiency, but most applications
are too bulky and hence impracticable. Electrostatic precipitators are efficient in removing
particulates, but they are also extremely bulky and too expensive.
Conventional scrubbers have proved to be quite inefficient for the task because the surface
contact between the exhaust gas and the water is limited. Promising results were reported by
Wärtsilä, however, for a scrubber based on ultra-fine water droplets created by Hi-Fog
nozzles, which yield a much greater surface area between gas and liquid.
7.3 EEDI, SEEMP and EEOI

7.3.1 Air Pollution
In 1997, a new annex was added to the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). The regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from
Ships (Annex VI) seek to minimize airborne emissions from ships (SOx, NOx, ODS, VOC
shipboard incineration) and their contribution to local and global ai r pollution and
environmental problems. Annex VI entered into force on 19 May 2005 and a revised Annex
VI with significantly tightened emissions limits was adopted in October 2008 which entered
into force on 1 July 2010.
7.3.2 Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships
In 2012, international shipping was estimated to have contributed about 2.2% to the global
emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). Although international shipping is the most energy
efficient mode of mass transport and only a modest contributor to overall CO2 emissions, a
global approach to further improve its energy efficiency and effective emission control is
needed as sea transport will continue growing apace with world trade.
As already acknowledged by the Kyoto Protocol, CO2 emissions from international shipping
cannot be attributed to any particular national economy due to its global nature and complex
operation. Therefore, IMO has been energetically pursuing the limitation and reduction of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from international shipping, in recognition of the
magnitude of the climate change challenge and the intense focus on this topic.
7.3.3 GHG emissions from international shipping
The Third IMO GHG Study 2014 estimated that international shipping emitted 796 million
tonnes of CO2 in 2012, accounting for about 2.2% of the total global anthropogenic
CO2 emissions for that year, and that emissions from international shipping could grow
between 50% and 250% by 2050 mainly due to the growth of the world maritime trade. In
this regard, IMO has been actively engaged in a global approach to further enhance ship's
energy efficiency and develop measures to reduce GHG emissions from ships, as well as
provide technical cooperation and capacity building activities.
7.3.4 The MARPOL Annex VI framework to enhance the energy efficiency of ships
IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) has given extensive consideration
to control of GHG emissions from ships and adopted in 2011 a package of technical measures
for new ships and operational reduction measures for all ships. This package, added in a new
Chapter 4 of MARPOL Annex VI entitled "Regulations on energy efficiency for ships", is
composed of two main measures:
 the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI), which requires new ships to comply with
minimum mandatory energy efficiency performance levels, increasing over time through
different phases;
 the Ship Energy Efficiency Plan (SEEMP), which establishes a mechanism for shipowners
to improve the energy efficiency of both new and existing ships using operational
measures such as weather routing, trim and draught optimization, speed optimization,
just-in-time arrival in ports, etc.
The regulations entered into force on 1 January 2013 and apply to all ships of 400 gross
tonnage and above, irrespective of flag and ownership. These measures are the first ever
mandatory global GHG reduction regime for an entire industry sector.
In 2016, MEPC 70 adopted amendments making mandatory the requirement for ships of
5,000 gross tonnage and above (representing approximately 85% of GHG emissions from
ships) from 1 January 2019 to collect and submit fuel oil consumption data to their flag State
for aggregation and then submission to IMO. The Secretary-General will provide an annual
report to MEPC. This robust data will inform decision-making at the Committee.
MEPC 70 also approved a Roadmap for developing a comprehensive IMO strategy on
reduction of GHG emissions from ships, which foresaw the adoption of an initial GHG
reduction strategy in April 2018., further IMO GHG studies and plans the different phases of
the three step approach to ship energy efficiency improvements, including collection and
analysis of data on ships' fuel oil consumption.
7.3.5 Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI)
The EEDI for new ships is the most important technical measure and aims at promoting the
use of more energy efficient (less polluting) equipment and engines. The EEDI requires a
minimum energy efficiency level per capacity mile (e.g. tonne mile) for different ship type
and size segments. Since 1 January 2013, following an initial two year phase zero, new ship
design needs to meet the reference level for their ship type. The level is to be tightened
incrementally every five years, and so the EEDI is expected to stimulate continued innovation
and technical development of all the components influencing the fuel efficiency of a ship
from its design phase. The EEDI is a non-prescriptive, performance-based mechanism that
leaves the choice of technologies to use in a specific ship design to the industry. As long as
the required energy efficiency level is attained, ship designers and builders are free to use the
most cost-efficient solutions for the ship to comply with the regulations. The EEDI provides a
specific figure for an individual ship design, expressed in grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) per
ship's capacity-mile (the smaller the EEDI the more energy efficient ship design) and is
calculated by a formula based on the technical design parameters for a given ship.
The CO2 reduction level (grams of CO2 per tonne mile) for the first phase is set to 10% and
will be tightened every five years to keep pace with technological developments of new
efficiency and reduction measures. Reduction rates have been established until the period
2025 and onwards when a 30% reduction is mandated for applicable ship types calculated
from a reference line representing the average efficiency for ships built between 2000 and
2010. The EEDI is developed for the largest and most energy intensive segments of the world
merchant fleet and embraces emissions from new ships covering the following ship
types: tankers, bulk carriers, gas carriers, general cargo ships, container ships, refrigerated
cargo carriers and combination carriers. In 2014, MEPC adopted amendments to the EEDI
regulations to extend the scope of EEDI to: LNG carriers, ro-ro cargo ships (vehicle carriers),
ro-ro cargo ships; ro-ro passenger ships and cruise passenger ships having non-conventional
propulsion. These amendments mean that ship types responsible for approximately 85% of
the CO2 emissions from international shipping are incorporated under the international
regulatory regime.
MARPOL Annex VI, Chapter 4, Regulation 21 specifies the methodology for calculation of
the Required EEDI and all relevant details. The Required EEDI is the regulatory limit for
EEDI and its calculation involves use of “reference lines” and “reduction factors”.
The basic concepts included in this regulation are:
 Reference line: A baseline EEDI for each ship type, representing reference EEDI as a
function of ship size (Phase 0 in Figure 7.25). The reference lines are developed by the
IMO using data from a large number of existing ships and analyzing these data.
 Reduction factor: This represents the percentage points for EEDI reduction relative to
the reference line, as mandated by regulation for future years. This factor is used to
tighten the EEDI regulations in phases over time by increasing its value.
 Cut-off levels: Smaller size vessels are excluded from having a Required EEDI for some
technical reasons. Thus, the regulatory text specifies the size limits. This size limit is
referred to as cut off levels.
 Implementation phases: The EEDI will be implemented in phases. Currently, it is in
phase 1 that runs from year 2015 to 2019. Phase 2 will run from year 2020 to 2024 and
phase 3 is from year 2025 onwards.
Figure 7.25 shows the above concepts in diagrammatic format.
Fig.7.25: Concept of Required EEDI, reduction factor, cutoff limits and EEDI phases
Expected technologies for reducing the EEDI of ships, may be optimised hull dimensions and
form, lightweight construction, hull coating, hull air lubrication system, optimisation of
propeller-hull interface and flow devices, contra-rotating propeller, engine efficiency
improvement, waste heat recovery, use of gas fuel (LNG), hybrid electric power and
propulsion concepts, reducing on-board power demand (auxiliary system and hotel loads),
variable speed drive for pumps, fans etc, wind power, solar power, design speed reduction
(new builds) etc.
7.3.6 Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP)

The Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) is an operational measure that
establishes a mechanism to improve the energy efficiency of a ship in a cost-effective
manner. The SEEMP also provides an approach for shipping companies to manage ship and
fleet efficiency performance over time using, for example, the Energy Efficiency Operational
Indicator (EEOI) as a monitoring tool. The guidance on the development of the SEEMP for
new and existing ships incorporates best practices for fuel efficient ship operation, as well as
guidelines for voluntary use of the EEOI for new and existing ships. The SEEMP urges the
ship owner and operator at each stage of the plan to consider new technologies and practices
when seeking to optimise the performance of a ship.
The purpose of a SEEMP is to establish a mechanism for a company and/or a ship to improve
the energy efficiency of the ship during its operation. Preferably, the ship-specific SEEMP is
linked to a broader corporate energy management system of the company that owns, operates
or controls the ship. The ship-specific SEEMP is needed since no two shipping companies or
ship-owners are the same, and that ships operate under a wide range of different conditions
including geographical and commercial.
The SEEMP is intended to be a management tool to assist a company in managing the on-
going environmental performance of its vessels and as such, it is recommended that a
company develops procedures for implementing the SEEMP in a manner which limits any
on-board administrative burden to the minimum necessary.
The SEEMP should be developed as a ship-specific plan by the ship-owner, operator or any
other party concerned, e.g., charterer. The SEEMP seeks to improve a ship’s energy
efficiency through four steps:
 Planning;
 Implementation;
 Monitoring; and
 Self-evaluation and improvement.
The PDCA components play a critical role in the continuous cycle to improve ship energy
management. With each iteration of the cycle, some elements of the SEEMP will necessarily
change while others may remain as before.
There are a large number of operational measures which may be included in a SEEMP e.g.
engine tuning and monitoring, hull condition, propeller condition, reduced auxiliary power,
speed reduction, trim/draft optimization, voyage execution, weather routing, advanced hull
coating, propeller upgrade and aft body flow devices etc.
Fig.7.26: EEDI, SEEMP and EEOI
7.3.7 Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI)

The EEOI enables operators to measure the fuel efficiency of a ship in operation and to gauge
the effect of any changes in operation, e.g. improved voyage planning or more frequent
propeller cleaning, or introduction of technical measures such as waste heat recovery systems
or a new propeller. EEOI is one element of the IMO regulatory framework that is intended to
act as an “energy efficiency performance indicator” during the operational phase of the ship
and be used to monitor overall ship energy efficiency performance.
The purpose of EEOI, according to IMO guidelines, is to establish a consistent approach for
measuring a ship’s energy efficiency for each voyage or over a certain period of time. The
EEOI is expected to assist ship-owners and ship operators in the evaluation of the operational
performance of their fleet. It is hoped that it will enable the monitoring of individual ships in
operation and thereby the results of any changes made to the ship or its operation. The EEOI
is advocated to be used as a monitoring tool in the SEEMP.
EEOI, similar to EEDI, represents the amount of CO2 emissions from a ship per unit of
cargo-mile transport service (with a unit of gCO2/tonne.mile). However as against the EEDI
that is defined for one operating point of a ship, EEOI represents the actual CO2 emission
from combustion of all types of fuels on board a ship during each voyage, which is calculated
by multiplying total fuel consumption for each type of fuel (distillate fuel, refined fuel or
LNG, etc.) with the respective carbon factor of each fuel. The performed transport work is
calculated by multiplying the actual mass of cargo (tonnes, number of TEU/cars, or number
of passengers) and the corresponding actual distance in nautical mile travelled by the vessel.
At this stage, IMO has developed the EEOI to encourage ship-owners & ship operators to use
it on a voluntary basis & to collect information on the outcome & experiences in applying it.
So far, the feedback received on effectiveness of EEOI as a monitoring tool has been mixed.
7.4 Abbreviation:
IAPP: International Air pollution Prevention Certificate
SFC: Specific Fuel Consumption
MCR: Maximum Continuous Rating
CCU: Cylinder Control Unit
HCU: Hydraulic Cylinder Unit
ELFI: Electronic Fuel Injection
ELVA: Electronic Exhaust Valve Actuation
OPS: Overload Protection System
HPS: Hydraulic Power Supply
LOP: Local Operating Panel
ECA: Emission Control Area
EEDI: Energy Efficiency Design Index
SEEMP: Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
EEOI: Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator
SCR: Selective Catalytic Reduction
PM: Particulate Matters
HAM: Humid Air Motor
CASS: Combustion Air Saturation System
DWI: Direct Water Injection
FWE: Fuel Water Emulsion
EGR: Exhaust Gas Recirculation
WaCoReG: Water Cooled Residual Gas
IS: Invisible Smoke
***
Reference
1. Doug Woodyard, Ponders Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines, 9th Ed, Buuterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, 2009
2. Unknown, Operational Information – The Computer Controlled Electronic Engines, Retrieved from
http://www.marinediesels.info/2_stroke_engine_parts/Other_info/electronic_engine.htm
3. Preben Noeies, General Descriptions of ME Engines, MAN B&W
4. Dr. Tristan Smith et al. Third IMO Greenhouse Gas Study 2014, IMO, London, 2015
5. Lloyd’s Register Marine, Your Options for Emission Compliance – guidance for Shipowners and Operators
on the Annex VI SOx and NOx Regulations, Lloyd’s Register Marine, London, 2015
6. DNV, “Marpol 73/78 Annex VI – Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships” Det Norske
Veritas, Norway, 2009
7. IMO, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) – Regulation 13, Retrieved from http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/
PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Pages/Nitrogen-oxides-(NOx)-%E2%80%93-Regulation-13.aspx, IMO, 2019
8.IMO, Resolution MEPC.177(58) – Amendments to Technical Code on Control of Emission of Nitrogen Oxides
from Marine Diesel Engines (NOx Technical Code 2008), IMO, London, 2008
9. IMO, Air Pollution, Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Retrieved from http://www.imo.org/en
/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Pages/Technical-and-Operational-Measures.aspx,
IMO, London, 2019
10. Dr Zabi Bazari, Energy Efficient Ship Operation, Module 2 – Ship Energy Efficiency Regulations and
Related Guidelines, IMO, London, 2016
Questions
1. What are Annex VI requirements for EC Areas? [IMU 2017-3M]
2. Discuss condition monitoring system on modern ships. [IMU 2017-3M]
3. What is an IAPP certificate? [IMU 2017-3M]
4. What is charge air humidifier? [IMU 2017-3M]
5. What are the modern developments in camless electronic diesel engines? [IMU 2017-5M]
6. Explain 2 methods of meeting NOx requirements of exhaust gas emission from ship’s Diesel Engine.
[IMU 2017-8M]
IAPP [IMU]
8. Explain condition monitoring system employed on board ships. [IMU 2016, 18-3M]
9. (a) Explain a Common Rail Fuel Injection system as installed in a modern marine Slow speed diesel engine.
(b) What are the advantages of the above system compared to methods adopted in conventional engine?
[IMU 2016-10+4M]
10. Explain NOx Technical File. [IMU 2016, 18-3 M]
11. (a) Why some modern Marine Diesel Engines are called Intelligent Engine?
(b) Explain Common Rail Fuel Injection w.r.t. Electronic Fuel injection of a modern Slow Speed Marine
Diesel Engine. [IMU 2016-4+10 M]
12. (a) Discuss “condition monitoring system” as used in intelligent engines to evaluate general condition of the
engine. [8 M]
(b) Explain the essential requirements for UMS operation of an engine room which must be fulfilled. [6 M]
13. (a) Draw a schematic (block) diagram showing the concept of an intelligent engine. [5 M]
(b) Explain in detail the condition monitoring system incorporated in an intelligent engine. [9 M]
14. What are the modern developments in a Marine diesel engine? [IMU 2018-6 M]
15. (a) What are latest means of exhaust emission control of modern ships?
(b) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of common rail system. [IMU 2018-10+4 M]

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TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

ISO 9001:2015 CIP Grade1 (Outstanding)

ADVANCE MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Course Code: UG11T3704 Prepared for Academic Year: 2020-2021

TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

Sr. No. Contents Page No

6 Bulk Carrier 174

Bridge Control Systems & UMS Operation

1.3. Emergency Operation for Propulsion Engine

The phenomenon known as surging takes place at the turbocharger compressor

Fig. 1.2: Compressor characteristics curves

1. The Turbocharger Air/gas System

1.4. UMS Requirements and Operation

1.4.2 Watchkeeping and UMS Operation

The principles to be observed during watchkeeping are covered in the International

Study of LPG & LNG Ships

2.2 Types of Gas Carriers+

Fully pressurised ships

2.4 Cargo Containment Systems

2.4.1.2 Type ‘B’ Tank

Fig. 2.2(b): Self-supporting prismatic Type ‘B’ tank

Fig. 2.3: Type ‘C’ tanks - fully pressurised gas carrier

2.4.2 Membrane Tanks (membrane - 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)

Fig. 2.5(b): Construction of the Gaz Transport membrane system

2.4.2.2 Technigaz Membrane System

Fig. 2.6(b): Construction of the Technigaz membrane - Mark III

2.4.3 Semi-Membrane Tanks

2.6 Gas carrier Types & Their Cargo Containment Systems+

2.8 Cargo Pumping System and its Operations

Fig. 2.8: Cargo tank dome piping arrangement-Type ‘C’ tank

Fig.2.9: Typical deepwell pump

Fig.2.10: Submerged motor pump for LPG

Fig.2.11: Typical LNG submerged motor pump assembly

2.9.2 Cargo Loading

Figure 2.12: Loading with vapour return

Figure 2.13: Loading without vapour return

2.9.2.3 Loading - Early Stages

Fig. 2.15: Illustrations of static head and friction head

Fig.2.18: Discharge with vapour return

Fig.2.19: Pipeline diagram of a cargo booster pump and heater

Fig.2.20: Aeration of cargo tanks

2.10 Reliquefaction Plants and Boil-off Control

Fig.2.21: Examples of indirect cooling cycles

2.10.2 Direct Cycles

Fig. 2.22(a): Single-stage direct reliquefaction cycle

Fig. 2.22(b): Mollier diagram - single-stage direct reliquefaction cycle

2.10.2.2 Two-Stage Direct Cycle

Fig. 2.23(a): Two-stage direct reliquefaction cycle with inter-stage cooling

Fig. 2.23(b): Mollier diagram - two-stage direct reliquefaction cycle

Fig. 2.24: Simplified cascade reliquefaction cycle

Fig.2.25: Sulzer oil-free compressor

Fig.2.26: Linde oil-free compressor

Fig.2.27: Typical rotor for an oil-free screw compressor

Fig. 2.30: Flow diagram of an inert gas generator

Fig.2.32: Drying of inert gas

Fig.2.33: The membrane system for producing nitrogen

Fig.2.34: Float level gauge

Fig.2.35: Nitrogen bubbler level gauge

Fig.2.36: Differential pressure level gauge

Fig.2.37: Electrical capacitance level gauge

1. Expand following abbreviations:

Fig. 3.1: SS Marine Dow-Chem (built 1954 in Quincy USA)

Fig. 3.3: A chemical tanker (cut away view)