Sara Saeed

B.ed 1.5 Years

Semester: Autumn 2021
Course Code: 8610
Tutor : Amina Kanwal

Assignment 1
Q.1 Explain controversies related to growth and development.

Continual change is the essence of life. The rapid changes in size that we call growth, and the
rapid changes in form, function and behavior that we call development, are the core of
pediatrics. A good working knowledge and the skill to evaluate growth and development are
necessary in the diagnostic evaluation of any patient. Subtle changes—often the failure of some
change or event to occur at an expected time—may constitute the earliest sign of disease. The
early recognition of growth failure or development may be the discovery that sets in motion the
investigations necessary for effective intervention in the management of a patient's problem.
For a child to thrive in the current society, parents must provide consistent care, ongoing love,
support, and security to nurture them with enough resiliency and self-confidence to cope with
emotion and social stress. SO what are the controversial issues in child development!
Some development focus on physical development, examining the ways in which the body’s
makeup—the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and
sleep—helps determine behavior. For example, one specialist in physical development might
examine the effects of malnutrition on the pace of growth in children, while another might look
at how athletes’ physical performance declines during adulthood (Fell & Williams, 2008). Other
developmental specialists examine cognitive development, seeking to understand how growth
and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior. Cognitive
developmentalists examine learning, memory, problem-solving, and intelligence. For example,
specialists in cognitive development might want to see how problem-solving skills change over
the course of life, or if cultural differences exist in the way people explain their academic
successes and failures, or how traumatic events experienced early in life are remembered later
in life. Finally, some developmental specialists focus on personality and social development.
Personality development is the study of stability and change in the characteristics that
differentiate one person from another over the lifespan. Social development is the way in
which individuals’ interactions and relationships with others grow, change, and remain stable
over the course of life.
Three main controversies exist in this area of psychology. The first is called the nature-nurture
issue. Nature consists of biological issues, such as maturation and the influence of genetics on
one's development. Nurture consists of environmental forces that impact the individual, such
as one's parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and the media.
A second controversy, the stability-change issue, examines the extent to which early traits and
characteristics change or remain constant across the life span. This issue also brings up the
debate over "early" experiences, such as critical periods, and sensitive periods. Many theorists
argue that there are critical periods for development, in which development must occur in a
certain way during the critical period. Studies on imprinting from the animal kingdom illustrate
this point. Sensitive periods, on the other hand, are periods in a person's life in which certain
developmental tasks are predisposed to take place, but development can still take place
outside of this period. Language learning is said to have a "sensitive period" during early
childhood, during which we are predisposed to learn the language, and language learning is
easiest. We can still learn a language later in life, but it is significantly more difficult than it
would be in early childhood. Other areas of development are also prone to these sensitive
periods, such as attachment and cognitive development.
A third controversy, the continuity-discontinuity issue, involves the degree to which changes
occur abruptly or gradually. Some developmental psychologists, such as the behaviorists,
believe in a continuous, gradual sequence of events. Other psychologists, e.g., Freud, Erikson,
Piaget, and Kohlberg, believe that changes occur fairly abruptly, through a sequence of stages.
Imagine continuity, or continuous development, like a ramp, whereby development occurs
gradually and increases as we move up the ramp. Discontinuity, or discontinuous development,
proceeds like a staircase, in which each "stage" of development is qualitatively different than
the last.
Q.2 What kind of physical activities should be offered by elementary schools?

Academics are important, but so is finding time for fitness. When kids have the chance to run
and play before school and at recess, they focus more and fidget less during class. 2 Brain
breaks also help. Physical education (PE) provides another opportunity to move during the
school day. It also exposes kids to new sports and games and introduces important health
habits.

But not every child gets enough recess and PE time:

• Just five states (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, and Oregon) plus the District of
Columbia require the 150-minute weekly PE total in elementary schools.
• Only eight U.S. states require elementary schools to provide recess every day.

The Society of Health and Physical Educators, among other groups, recommends at least 150
minutes of PE a week for elementary school — that means an average of 30 minutes a day. The
association also urges schools to schedule at least one 20-minute recess period every day.

If your child's school doesn't offer enough physical activity time, ask the principal or school
board to consider changes. And look for ways to help your child stay active outside of school
hours.

By early elementary school — age 6 or 7 — most kids have the physical coordination and
attention span, plus the ability to grasp rules, which they need to play organized sports. A few
years later — between ages 10 and 12 — most can handle the added pressure of team
competition.

You can help your child get enough daily activity via sports and extracurricular activities if these
fit your schedule and budget. Look for classes and recreational leagues that stress fitness, skill-
building, fair play, and most of all, fun.

If your child enjoys team sports, try:

• Basketball
• Cheerleading
• Flag football
• Hockey (ice, floor, or field)
• Lacrosse
• Soccer (indoor/outdoor)
• T-ball, baseball, or softball
• Volleyball

If your child prefers individual pursuits, consider:

• Dance
• Golf
• Gymnastics
• Horseback riding
• Ice skating
• Martial arts
• Rock climbing
• Skiing, snowboarding, or skateboarding
• Swimming/diving
• Tennis
• Track and field, or participating in a running club or 5K race
• Yoga

Note that many of these individually-focused sports can also be done as part of a team.
Ask your child what sports they're interested in, and give them the opportunity to try as many
different activities as interest them. That means letting them quit if they discover the activity is
not for them. You both might be surprised at what they're good at and love to do.
At Home
Provide kids with as much time and space to play as you can. Encourage lots of different
physical activities. Mixing it up helps keep kids from getting bored, and also helps work many
muscle groups. Emphasize fun and movement (rather than competition or "should"). Try these
family fitness ideas that are simple and accessible for many kids and adults:
Biking or in-line skating
Jumping rope or spinning a hula hoop
Outdoor group games like tag or kickball
Playing catch or Frisbee
Running in the sprinkler, spraying each other with a hose, or other water play activities
Sledding or snow-shoeing
Visiting a playground
Walking or hiking (make it more exciting with geocaching)
Being physically active is one of the most important steps to being healthy. Schools are an ideal
setting for teaching youth how to adopt and maintain a healthy, active lifestyle. Schools can
help youth learn how to be physically active for a lifetime.
Why Should Schools Provide Physical Activity Programs?
• Youth who are physically active get physical and mental health benefits.
• Comprehensive school-based physical activity programs can help youth meet most of their
physical activity needs.
• School-based physical activity programs benefit communities as well as students and schools.
How Does Physical Activity Help?
• Builds strong bones and muscles.
• Decreases the likelihood of developing obesity and risk factors for diseases like type 2
diabetes and heart disease.
• May reduce anxiety and depression and promote positive mental health.
How Does Physical Activity Affect Academic Achievement?
• Physical activity can help youth improve their concentration, memory, and classroom
behavior.
• Youth who spend more time in physical education class do not have lower test scores than
youth who spend less time in physical education class.
• Elementary school girls who participated in more physical education had better math and
reading tests scores than girls who had less time in physical education.
What Can Schools Do To Promote Physical Activity for Youth?
• Have policies that provide time for organized physical activity and free play.
• Provide information to parents about the benefits of physical activity in messages sent home
and at school events.
• Encourage staff to be active. School staff and school leadership are role models for students.
• Encourage families and local groups to be involved in school-based physical activities and
events.
How Can Schools Help Youth Be More Physically Active?
A large percentage of youth physical activity can be provided through a comprehensive school-
based physical activity program with quality physical education as the cornerstone. All of the
parts of a physical activity program (listed below) help youth explore different physical activities
and give them the chance to learn and practice the skills to establish physically active lifestyles.

Q.3 Describe the influence of environment on the development of a child during prenatal
period.
With increasingly sophisticated technology, the fetus has been studied and is considered to be
an active agent in its own development. Many scientists believe that anything that affects the
environment of the fetus can have an effect upon development beginning at conception and
not at birth.

Environment does indeed begin to influence the individual as soon as he or she is conceived. As
the zygote undergoes mitosis (cell division), the new cells themselves become part of the
mother's environment, and through their particular physical and chemical influence they guide
and control the development of further new cells. Different genes are activated or suppressed
in each cell, so that while one group of cells is developing into brain tissue, another is giving rise
to the heart, another to the lungs, and another to the skeletal system. Meanwhile, the lump of
cells is surrounded by the larger environment of the mother's uterus, and this environment is
surrounded by the mother and the world in which she lives.

The great majority of women have uncomplicated pregnancies and give birth to healthy babies,
and for many years it was believed that the baby in the uterus was completely insulated from
outside influences. Scientists now know that this is not entirely true. Environmental influences
ranging from radioactivity and stress in the outside world to drugs, chemicals, hormones, and
viruses in the mother's bloodstream can affect prenatal development.

Such threats affect the health of the fetus in several ways. This is because the body organs and
parts develop at different speeds and go through definite phases. First they go through a phase
of rapid multiplication in the number of cells. Then there is an increase in both the number of
cells and in cell size. In the third and final phase of development, cell size continues to increase
rapidly, but cell division slows down.

When a body part or organ system is growing most rapidly both in cell number and size, this is
known as a critical period. If an environmental factor, such as a chemical or virus, interferes
with growth during the critical period, development of that organ system will be permanently
affected.

The effect of environmental influences varies, therefore, in accordance with the stage of
prenatal development in which the environmental factor is encountered, as well as the
intensity of the threat,

During the first three months of pregnancy, tissues and important body systems develop in the
embryo. Adverse influences during this period will affect the basic structure and form of the
body and may have particularly serious effects on the nervous system. Physical development
can be arrested and irreparable malformation may occur. For example, many women who took
the once-available drug Thalidomide during the first three months of pregnancy gave birth to
children with serious defects. When taken toward the end of pregnancy, however, the drug did
not seem to have any negative effects.

Teratogens

The scientific study of congenital abnormalities caused by prenatal environmental influences is

known as teratology (from the Greek word teras, meaning "marvel" or "monster"), and the
environmental agents that produce abnormalities in the developing fetus are called teratogens.

Drugs

Chemicals (over-the-counter and prescribed pharmaceuticals as well as illegal substances) can

cause a wide range of congenital abnormalities that account for about 10 percent of birth
defects. The severity of the abnormality depends on the amount of the chemical the mother is
exposed to, the developmental stage of the fetus, and the period of time over which the
mother's exposure to the chemical takes place.

The Mother

Since the mother's body is the chief element in the fetus' environment, the mother's physical
condition can significantly affect the baby's development.

Among the maternal factors known to influence the fetus are disease, age, diet, reactions
associated with a certain blood component, and prolonged stress. Even a mother's knowledge
of what is taking place in her body can be important. Some research has shown that mothers
who consumed potentially teratogenic drugs during pregnancy had very little information about
these drugs and even less information about their effect during pregnancy.

Developmental psychologists consider the process of human development as it relates to

physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. This lifespan development is organized into
different stages based on age. Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40
weeks prior to the birth of a child, and is heavily influenced by genetics.

There are three stages of prenatal development—germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal
development is also organized into trimesters: the first trimester ends with the end of the
embryonic stage, the second trimester ends at week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth.

Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a
child. During each prenatal stage, environmental factors affect the development of the fetus.
The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for life, and it is important that
the mother receives prenatal care, which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the
health of both the mother and the fetus. According to the National Institutes of Health ([NIH],
2013), routine prenatal care can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus
during pregnancy.

When the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, the placenta is formed. The placenta
provides nourishment and oxygen to the fetus. Most everything the mother ingests, including
food, liquid, and even medication, travels through the placenta to the fetus—hence the
common phrase that a mother “eats for two.” Anything the mother is exposed to in the
environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something harmful, the child can
show life-long effects.

Q.4 Explain Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory and link it with school education.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the
origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s
theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of
cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with
others, and then integrated into the individual’s mental structure. Every function in the child’s
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level;
first, between people) and then inside the child). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to
logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57) A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory
is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a "zone of proximal
development" (ZPD). This "zone" is the area of exploration for which the student is cognitively
prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or
more experienced peer is able to provide the learner with "scaffolding" to support the
student’s evolving understanding of knowledge domains or development of complex skills.
Collaborative learning, discourse, modelling, and scaffolding are strategies for supporting the
intellectual knowledge and skills of learners and facilitating intentional learning.

Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development is based on the idea that development
is defined both by what a child can do independently and by what the child can do when
assisted by an adult or more competent peer (Daniels, 1995; Wertsch, 1991). Knowing both
levels of Vygotsky’s zone is useful for teachers, for these levels indicate where the child is at a
given moment as well as where the child is going. The zone of proximal development has
several implications for teaching in the classroom.

According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher must
plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their own but
what they can learn with the help of others (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).
Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only instruction and
activities that fall within the zone promote development. For example, if a child cannot identify
the sounds in a word even after many prompts, the child may not benefit immediately from
instruction in this skill. Practice of previously known skills and introduction of concepts that are
too difficult and complex have little positive impact. Teachers can use information about both
levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in organizing classroom activities in the
following ways:

• Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development for
individual children or for groups of children. For example, hints and prompts that helped
children during the assessment could form the basis of instructional activities.
• Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels
who can help each other learn.
• Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in his or her
zone of proximal development in which the adult provides hints and prompts at
different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but the role of the
learner is simplified “through the graduated intervention of the teacher” (Greenfield,
1984, p. 119).

For example, a child might be shown pennies to represent each sound in a word (e.g., three
pennies for the three sounds in “man”). To master this word, the child might be asked to place
a penny on the table to show each sound in a word, and finally the child might identify the
sounds without the pennies. When the adult provides the child with pennies, the adult provides
a scaffold to help the child move from assisted to unassisted success at the task (Spector, 1992).
In a high school laboratory science class, a teacher might provide scaffolding by first giving
students detailed guides to carrying out experiments, then giving them brief outlines that they
might use to structure experiments, and finally asking them to set up experiments entirely on
their own.

The most important application of Vygotsky's theory to education is in his concept of a zone of
proximal development. This concept is important because teachers can use it as a guide to a
child's development. It allows a teacher to know what a student is able to achieve through the
use of a mediator and thus enables the teacher to help the child attain that level by themselves.

A second important aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the role of play in his theory. According to
this perspective teachers need to provide children ,especially young children, many
opportunities to play. Through play, and imagination a child's conceptual abilities are stretched.
Vygotsky argued that play leads to development. "While imitating their elders in cultural
patterned activities, children generate opportunities for intellectual development. Initially, their
games are recollections and reenactments of real situations; but through the dynamics of their
imagination and recognition of implicit rules governing the activities they have reproduced in
their games, children achieve an elementary mastery of abstract thought." (Cole, 1978).
Since language holds a central role in Vygotsky's theory, and is essential to the development of
thinking, the school needs to provide many opportunities that allow children to reach the third
stage of speech, which is inner speech, since it is this stage which is responsible for all higher
levels of functioning.

Q.5 What do you mean by social development? Suggest some activities to develop social skills
among preschoolers.

Social development refers to the process by which a child learns to interact with others
around them. As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community,
they also gain skills to communicate with other people and process their actions.

During your child's preschool-age years, they'll discover a lot about themselves and interacting
with people around them.

Once they reach age three, your child will be much less selfish than they were before. They'll
also be less dependent on you, a sign that their own sense of identity is stronger and more
secure. Now they'll actually play with other children, interacting instead of just playing side by
side. In the process, they'll recognize that not everyone thinks exactly as they do and that each
of their playmates has many unique qualities, some attractive and some not. You'll also find
your child drifting toward certain kids and starting to develop friendships with them. As they
create these friendships, children discover that they, too, each have special qualities that make
them likable—a revelation that gives a vital boost to self-esteem.

There's some more good news about your child's development at this age: As they become
more aware of and sensitive to the feelings and actions of others, they'll gradually stop
competing and will learn to cooperate when playing with her friends. They take turns and share
toys in small groups, though sometimes they won't. But instead of grabbing, whining, or
screaming for something, they'll actually ask politely much of the time. You can look forward to
less aggressive behavior and calmer play sessions. Three-year-olds are able to work out
solutions to disputes by taking turns or trading toys.

Learning how to cooperate

However, particularly in the beginning, you'll need to encourage this cooperation. For instance,
you might suggest that they "use their words" to deal with problems instead of acting out. Also,
remind them that when two children are sharing a toy, each gets an equal turn. Suggest ways to
reach a simple solution when your child and another child want the same toy, such as drawing
for the first turn or finding another toy or activity. This doesn't work all the time, but it's worth
a try. Also, help children with the appropriate words to describe their feelings and desires so
that they don't feel frustrated. Above all, show by your own example how to cope peacefully
with conflicts. If you have an explosive temper, try to tone down your reactions in their
presence. Otherwise, they'll mimic your behavior whenever they're under stress.

When anger or frustration gets physical

No matter what you do, however, there probably will be times when your child's anger or
frustration becomes physical. When that happens, restrain them from hurting others, and if
they don't calm down quickly, move them away from the other children. Talk to them about her
feelings and try to determine why they're so upset. Let them know you understand and accept
her feelings, but make it clear that physically attacking another child is not a good way to
express these emotions.

Saying sorry
Help them see the situation from the other child's point of view by reminding them of a time
when someone hit or screamed at them, and then suggest more peaceful ways to resolve their
conflicts. Finally, once they understand what they've done wrong—but not before—ask them to
apologize to the other child. However, simply saying "I'm sorry" may not help your child correct
their behavior; they also needs to know why they're apologizing. They may not understand
right away, but give it time; by age four these explanations will begin to mean something.

Make-believe play
Fortunately, the normal interests of three-year-olds keep fights to a minimum. They spend
much of their playtime in fantasy activity, which tends to be more cooperative than play that's
focused on toys or games. As you've probably already seen, preschooler enjoy assigning
different roles in an elaborate game of make-believe using imaginary or household objects. This
type of play helps develop important social skills, such as taking turns, paying attention,
communicating (through actions and expressions as well as words), and responding to one
another's actions. And there's still another benefit: Because pretend play allows children to slip
into any role they wish—including superheroes or the fairy godmother—it also helps them
explore more complex social ideas. Plus it helps improve executive functioning such as
problem-solving

By watching the role-playing in your child's make-believe games, you may see that they're
beginning to identify their own gender and gender identity. While playing house, boys naturally
will adopt the father's role and girls the mother's, reflecting whatever they've noticed in the
hemworld around them.

Development of gender roles & identity

Research shows that a few of the developmental and behavioral differences that typically
distinguish boys from girls are biologically determined. Most gender-related characteristics at
this age are more likely to be shaped by culture and family. Your daughter, for example, may be
encouraged to play with dolls by advertisements, gifts from well-meaning relatives, and the
approving comments of adults and other children. Boys, meanwhile, may be guided away from
dolls in favor of more rough-and-tumble games and sports. Children sense the approval and
disapproval and adjust their behavior accordingly. Thus, by the time they enter kindergarten,
children's gender identities are often well established.

As children start to think in categories, they often understand the boundaries of these labels
without understanding that boundaries can be flexible; children this age often will take this
identification process to an extreme. Girls may insist on wearing dresses, nail polish, and
makeup to school or to the playground. Boys may swagger, be overly assertive, and carry their
favorite ball, bat, or truck everywhere.

On the other hand, some girls and boys reject these stereotypical expressions of gender
identity, preferring to choose toys, playmates, interests, mannerisms, and hairstyles that are
more often associated with the opposite sex. These children are sometimes called gender
expansive, gender variant, gender nonconforming, gender creative, or gender atypical. Among
these gender expansive children are some who may come to feel that their deep inner sense of
being female or male—their gender identity—is the opposite of their biologic sex, somewhere
in between male and female, or another gender; these children are sometimes
called transgender.

Given that many three-year-old children are doubling down on gender stereotypes, this can be
an age in which a gender-expansive child stands out from the crowd. These children are normal
and healthy, but it can be difficult for parents to navigate their child's expression and identity if
it is different from their expectations or the expectations of those around them.

Experimenting with gender attitudes & behaviors

As children develop their own identity during these early years, they're bound to experiment
with attitudes and behaviors of both sexes. There's rarely reason to discourage such impulses,
except when the child is resisting or rejecting strongly established cultural standards. If your
son wanted to wear dresses every day or your daughter only wants to wear sport shorts like her
big brother, allow the phase to pass unless it is inappropriate for a specific event. If the child
persists, however, or seems unusually upset about their gender, discuss the issue with your
pediatrician.

Your child also may imitate certain types of behavior that adults consider sexual, such as
flirting. Children this age have no mature sexual intentions, though; they mimic these
mannerisms. If the imitation of sexual behavior is explicit, though, they may have been
personally exposed to sexual acts. You should discuss this with your pediatrician, as it could be
a sign of sexual abuse or the influence of inappropriate media or videogames.

Play sessions: helping your child make friends

By age four, your child should have an active social life filled with friends, and they may even
have a "best friend." Ideally, they'll have neighborhood and preschool friends they see
routinely. But what if your child is not enrolled in preschool and doesn't live near other children
the same age? In these cases, you might arrange play sessions with other preschoolers. Parks,
playgrounds, and preschool activity programs all provide excellent opportunities to meet other
children.

Once your preschooler has found playmates they seems to enjoy, you need to take initiative to
help build their relationships. Encourage them to invite these friends to your home. It's
important for your child to "show off" their home, family, and possessions to other children.
This will establish a sense of self-pride. Incidentally, to generate this pride, their home needn't
be luxurious or filled with expensive toys; it needs only be warm and welcoming.
It's also important to recognize that at this age your child's friends are not just playmates. They
also actively influence their thinking and behavior. They'll desperately want to be just like them,
even when they break rules and standards you've taught them rrm birth. They now realize
there are other values and opinions besides yours, and they may test this new discovery by
demanding things you've never allowed him—certain toys, foods, clothing, or permission to
watch certain TV programs.

Separate the child from their behavior

To help them learn this difference, you need to separate them from their behavior. When they
do or say something that calls for punishment, make sure they understand they are being
punished for the act not because they're "bad." Describe specifically what they did wrong,
clearly separating person from behavior. If they are picking on a younger sibling, explain why it
is wrong rather than saying "You're bad." When they do something wrong without meaning to,
comfort them and say you understand it was unintentional. Try not to get upset, or they'll think
you're angry at them rather than about what they did.

It's also important to give your preschooler tasks that you know they can do and then praise
them when they do them well. They are ready for simple responsibilities, such as setting the
table or cleaning their room. On family outings, explain that you expect them to behave well,
and congratulate them when they do. Along with responsibilities, give them ample
opportunities to play with other children, and tell him how proud you are when they shares or
is helpful to another child.

Sibling relationships
Finally, it's important to recognize that the relationship with older siblings can be particularly
challenging, especially if the sibling is three to four years older. Often your four-year-old is
eager to do everything their older sibling is doing; just as often, your older child resents the
intrusion. They may resent the intrusion on their space, their friends, their more daring and
busy pace, and especially their room and things. You often become the mediator of these
squabbles. It's important to seek middle ground. Allow your older child their own time,
independence, and private activities and space; but also foster cooperative play appropriate.
Family vacations are great opportunities to enhance the positives of their relationship and at
the same time give each their own activity and special time.