List of tributary states of China

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This is a list of states that paid tribute to the Central Plain dynasties of China
under the tributary system. It encompassed states in Europe, East Asia, South Asia,
Central Asia and Southeast Asia.[1]

Contents

 1 List of tributaries
 2 By dynasty
o 2.1 Western Han
o 2.2 Xin
o 2.3 Eastern Han
o 2.4 Jin, Northern and Southern, Tang
o 2.5 Song
o 2.6 Yuan
o 2.7 Ming
o 2.8 Qing
 3 See also
 4 References
o 4.1 Citations
o 4.2 Sources
 5 External links

List of tributaries

In the 5th century, a status hierarchy was an explicit element of the tributary system in
which Korea and Vietnam were ranked higher than others, including Japan, the
Ryukyus, Siam and others.[2] All diplomatic and trade missions were construed in the
context of a tributary relationship with China,[3] including:

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness.
You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

 Brunei (文萊)[4]
o Borneo[5]
o Poni (渤泥)[6][7]
 Cambodia[8]
o Kingdom of Funan[9]
o Zhenla[10]
 Japan[11][12]
 o Wa (Japan) (16 tribute missions)[13][14][15]
o Asuka Japan (5 tribute missions)[16][17]
o Nara/Heian Japan (16 tribute missions)[18][19][20][21]
o Ashikaga shogunate (20 tribute missions) [22][23]
 Korea[24][25]
o Goguryeo (173 tribute missions) [24][26]
o Baekje (45 tribute missions) [24][26]
o Silla (19 tribute missions) [24][26][27][28]
o Unified Silla (63 tribute missions in 8th century) [24][28]
o Goryeo (The envoy missions)[24][29]
o Joseon (391 envoy missions between 1392 and 1450,[30] 435 special embassy
missions between 1637 and 1881.[31])[24][26][29]
 Malaysia
o Tanah Merah Kingdom[32]
o Kedah Kingdom[33]
o Kelantan[34]
o Malacca Sultanate[35]
 Nepal[7][36]
 Philippines[37]
o Sulu[8]
 Ryūkyū Kingdom (Ryukyuan missions to Imperial China)[38][39][40]
o Hokuzan[41]
o Chūzan[7][42]
o Nanzan[41]
 Siam (Thailand)[38][43]
 Tibet[44]
 Vietnam[38][45]
 Ceylon (Sri Lanka)[46]

The Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang. 6th-century painting in National Museum of

China. Ambassadors from right to left: Uar (Hephthalites); Persia; Baekje (Korea); Qiuci; Wo
(Japan); Langkasuka (in present-day Malaysia); Dengzhi (鄧至) (Qiang) Ngawa; Zhouguke (周
古柯), Hebatan (呵跋檀), Humidan (胡密丹), Baiti (白題, of similar Hephthalite people), who
dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (Qiemo).

By dynasty
Western Han

 Internal vassals (206 BC - ?) – Upon the founding of the dynasty, the first emperor
awarded up to one-half of territory of Han as fiefdoms to various relatives, who
ruled as princes. These fiefdoms collected their own taxes and established their own
laws and were not directly administered by imperial government. Consolidation and
centralization by succeeding emperors increased imperial controls, gradually
 dissolving the princedoms. During the period of Three kingdoms, Japan's king also
sent tribute to Cao Rui stating about his status as a vassal to the Rui.
 Dayuan (102 BC) – Kingdom located in the Fergana Valley. Hearing tales of their
high-quality horses, which would be of great utility in combatting the Xiongnu,
Emperor Wu of Han dispatched an expedition to acquire their submission and the
horses. The first expedition of 3,000 was woefully undermanned, but the second,
numbering 100,000 besieged the capital, bringing them into submission after
negotiations. The expedition returned with 10,000 horses along with a promise to
pay an annual tribute in horses[citation needed].
 Dian Kingdom (109 BC) – A kingdom located in modern-day Yunnan province.
Brought into subjugation by Emperor Wu of Han, who annexed the kingdom into an
imperial commandary but allowed local rulers to remain in power.
 Jushi (108 BC) – City-state in modern-day Turpan. Brought into submission by an
imperial expedition dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han.[47]
 Loulan (108 BC) – Located along the northeastern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in
modern-day Xinjiang province. Brought into submission by an imperial expedition
dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han.[47]
 Minyue (138 BC - ?) – A Baiyue people situated in modern-day Fujian province. After
an attack by the Minyue people, Emperor Wu of Han launched a massive expedition,
and forced their entire population to relocate within imperial borders.
 Nanyue (211 BC - 111 BC) – A kingdom situated today's northern Vietnam, and the
provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi founded by a former Chinese general, Zhao
Tuo. Under Zhao Tuo it paid nominal tribute to Han but his successors lost more and
more power. After a coup d'état against the king, Han directly conquered the
kingdom and directly administered it from then on. [47]
 Xiongnu (53 BC - 10) – A nomadic confederation/empire in Central Asia and modern
day Mongolia and extending their control to territories as far as Siberia, western
Manchuria, the areas along the Caspian Sea, and modern day Chinese provinces of
Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang. They entered tributary relations with the Han
after several defeats, territorial losses, and internal conflicts [citation needed]. Tributary
relationships terminated as a result of diplomatic fumblings during the reign of
Wang Mang. Xinjiang passed to Chinese control after their defeat. [47]
 Wusun (105 BC - ?) – Central Asian people. Bitter enemies with the Xiongnu, they
entered a military alliance with the Han. In 53 BC, the kingdom split into two
following a succession dispute. Both continued to recognize Han sovereignty and
remained faithful vassals[citation needed].

Xin

During Wang Mang's reign, relations with many of the empire's allies and tributaries
deteriorated, due in large part to Wang Mang's arrogance and inept diplomacy.

Eastern Han

 Khotan – King Guangde of Khotan submitted to the Han dynasty in 73 AD. In 129:
Fangqian, the king of Khotan, sent an envoy to offer tribute to Han. The Emperor
pardoned the crime of the king of Khotan, ordering him to hand back the kingdom of
Keriya. Fangqian refused. Two years later Fangqian send one of his sons to serve and
offer tribute at the Chinese Imperial Palace.
 Southern Xiongnu (50 - 220) – The Xiongnu split into northern and southern factions.
The southern Xiongnu brought themselves into tributary relations with the Han.
 They were resettled along with large numbers of Chinese immigrants in frontier
regions. Economically dependent on Han, they were obliged to provide military
services under a tightened tributary system with greater direct imperial supervision.

Jin, Northern and Southern, Tang

In the 5th century the Wa (Japan during the Kofun period) sent five tributes to the Jin
and to the Liu Song dynasty and the emperors promoted the five kings to the title like
Supreme Military Commander of the Six States of Wa, Silla, Mimana, Gaya, Jinhan
and Mahan.

According to the Xīn Táng shū the kingdom of Zhēnlà had conquered different
principalities in Northwestern Cambodia after the end of the Yǒnghuī (永徽) era (i.e.
after 31 January 656), which previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China.[48]

The Chinese retaliated against Cham which was raiding the Rinan coast around 430s-
440s by seizing Qusu, and then plundering the capital of the Cham around Huế.
Around 100,000 jin in gold was the amount of plunder. Lin Yi then paid 10,000 jin in
gold, 100,000 jin in silver, and 300,000 jin in copper in 445 as tribute to China. The
final tribute paid to China from Lin Yi was in 749, among the items were 100 strings
of pearls, 30 jin gharuwood, baidi, and 20 elephants.[49]

Enslaved people from tributary countries were sent to Tang China by various groups,
the Cambodians sent albinos, the Uyghurs sent Turkic Karluks, the Japanese sent
Ainu, and Göktürk (Tujue) and Tibetan girls were also sent to China.[50] Prisoners
captured from Liaodong, Korea, and Japan were sent as tribute to China from Balhae.
[51]
Tang dynasty China received 11 Japanese girl dancers as tribute from Balhae in
777.[52]

Song

The Song dynasty received 302 tribute missions from other countries. Vietnamese
missions consisted of 45 of them, another 56 were from Champa. More tribute was
sent by Champa in order to curry favor from China against Vietnam.[53] Champa
brought as tribute Champa rice, a fast-growing rice strain, to China, which massively
increased Chinese yields of rice.[54][55]

In 969 the son of King Li Shengtian named Zongchang sent a tribute mission to
China. According to Chinese accounts, the King of Khotan offered to send in tribute
to the Chinese court a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar in 970.[56]

Yuan

The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire.[57] From Goryeo, they
received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons.[58][59] The tribute payments
were a burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire.[58][59][60] As with all
parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist
monks, and other personnel to the Mongols.[61]
Just as Korean women entered the Yuan court, the Korean Koryo kingdom also saw
the entry of Mongol women.[62] Great power was attained by some of the Korean
women who entered the Yuan court.[63] One example is the Empress Ki (Qi) and her
eunuch Bak Bulhwa when they attempted a major coup of Northern China and Koryo.
[64]
King Ch'ungson (1309–1313) married two Mongol women, Princess Botasirin and
a non-royal woman named Yesujin. She gave birth to a son and had a posthumous
title of "virtuous concubine". In addition 1324, the Yuan court sent a Mongol princess
of Wei named Jintong to the Koryo King Ch'ungsug.[65] Thus, the entry of Korean
women into the Yuan court was reciprocated by the entry of Yuan princesses into the
Goryeo court, and this affected relations between Korea and the Yuan. Marriages
between the imperial family of Yuan existed between certain states. These included
the Onggirat tribe, Idug-qut's Uighur tribe, the Oirat tribe, and the Koryo (Korean)
royal family.[66][67]

Ming

A Ming-era painting of a tribute giraffe, which was thought to be a Qilin by court officials,
from Bengal

Under the Ming dynasty, countries that wanted to have any form of relationship with
China, political, economic or otherwise, had to enter the tribute system. As a result,
tribute was often paid for opportunistic reasons rather than as a serious gesture of
allegiance to the Chinese emperor, and the mere fact that tribute was paid may not be
understood in a way that China had political leverage over its tributary.[68] Also some
tribute missions may just have been up by ingenious traders. A number of countries
only paid tribute once, as a result of Zheng He's expeditions. As of 1587, in Chinese
sources the following countries are listed to have paid tribute to the Ming emperors:[69]
The Hongwu Emperor started tributary relations in 1368, emissaries being sent to
countries like Korea, Vietnam, Champa, Japan, of which Korea, Vietnam, and
Champa sent back tribute in 1369. During Hongwu's rule, Liuch'iu sent 20, Korea sent
20, Champa sent 19, and Vietnam sent 14 tribute missions.[70] The tribute system was
an economically profitable form of government trade, and Korea requested and
successfully increased the number of tributes sent to Ming from once every three
years to three times each year starting in 1400, and eventually four times each year
starting in 1531.[71]

The 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa and Ming Turpan Border Wars were either
started by or marked by disruptions in the tribute system.

 Alania[citation needed]
 Almalik (?)
 Altan Khan (annually since 1570)
 Anding (?) (beginning in 1374)
 Arabia (Tienfang, identical to Mecca?) (somewhere between 1426 and 1435, 1517,
sometimes between 1522 and 1566)
 Aru (1407)
 Ava (1408)[72]
 Badakhshan
 Bai(?)
 Baihua (?) (1378)
 Baiyin (?)
 Balkh
 Bengal (1408, 1414, 1438)
 Borneo (Solo?) (1406)
 Brunei (1371, 1405, 1408, 1414, 1425)
 Bukhara (?)
 Cambodia (Chenla, since 1371)
 Cail, Djofar, Maldives, Burma (Yawa), Lambri (Nanwuli, on Sumatra), Kelantan,
Qilani(?), Xialabi (Arabia?), Kuchani (?), Wushelatang(?), Aden, Rum, Bengal,
Shelaqi(?), Bakoyi(?), Coimbatore, Heigada(?), Lasa(?), Barawa, Mogadishu,
Qianlida(?), Kannur (all somewhere between 1403 and 1425)
 Calicut (1405, 1407, 1409)
 Chalish
 Ceylon (1411, 1412, 1445, 1459)
 Champa (every three years since 1369)
 Pangasinan (since 1406)
 Chijin (another group of Mongols?) (beginning in 1404, every five years since 1563)
 Chola (1370, 1372, 1403)
 Cochin (1404, 1412)
 Coimbatore (1411)
 Dahui (?) (1405)
 Danba (?) (1377)
 Doyan (?), Fuyü(?), Taining(?) (1388, twice a year from 1403)
 Ejijie (?), Hashin(?) (somewhere between 1522 and 1566)
 Ganshi (?)
 Gumala (?) (1420)
 Guosasü (?)
 Gulibanzu (Pansur?) (1405)
 Hadilan (Khotelan?)
 Halie'er (?)
 Hami (beginning in 1404, annually from 1465, every five years from 1475)
 Handong (?) (?)
 Hasan(?)
 Herat (1402, 1409, 1437)
 Hotan (1408?)
 Huotan (identical to Khujand?)
 Ilbalik and Beshbalik (1391, 1406, 1413, 1418(?), 1437, 1457ff)
 Jaunpur (1420)
 Japan (every 10 years)[2]
 Java (1372, 1381, 1404, 1407, every three years for some time after 1443)
 Jienzhou (?) (annually)
 Jong (?)
 Joseon (Korea)[2]
 Jurchens and other tribes in the northeast (irregularly)
 Karakhodjo (1409, 1430, afterwards together with Turfan)
 Kashgar
 Kashmir
 Khorasan (1432)
 Khujand
 Kollam (1407)
 Koqie (?)
 Kucha
 Kuncheng (Kunduz?)
 Lanbang (?) (1376, 1403–1435)
 Liuchen (?) (1430, afterwards together with Turfan)
 Liuqiu (Ryukyu Islands, every two years since 1368)
 Malacca (1405, 1411, 1412, 1414, 1424, 1434, 1445ff, 1459)
 Melinde (1414)
 Niekoli (or Miekoli) (?)
 Medina (somewhere between 1426 and 1435)
 Nishapur
 Ormus (1405)
 Pahang (1378, 1414)
 Pala (?)
 Palembang (1368, 1371, 1373, 1375, 1377)
 Samudra (1383, 1405, 1407, 1431, 1435)
 Philippines (1372, 1405, 1576)
 Quxian (1437)
 Sairam
 Samarkand (1387, 1389, 1391 etc., after 1523 every five years)
 Saolan (identical to Sairam?)
 Shadiman (?)
 Shehei (?)
 Shiraz
 Sukhothai (every three years since 1371-1448)
 Sulu (1417, 1421)
 Syria (Fulin?, 1371)
 Tabriz
  Tamerlane (1387, 1391)[citation needed]
 Tibet[citation needed]
 Tieli (?), Zhiloxiashi (?), Marinduque (1405)
 Togmak
 Turfan (1430, 1497, 1509, 1510, every 5 years since 1523)
 Vietnam (every three years since 1369)
 Wala (Oirads) (beginning in 1403, annually, with interruptions, since 1458)
 Wulun (?)
 Yarkand
 Yaxi (?)
 Yesücheng (?)
 Zhilo (?), Badakhshan, Andkhui, Isfahan, Shiraz.[73] (somewhere between 1403 and
1424)
 A number of Tibetan temples and tribes from the Tibetan border or the southwest.

Tribute in the form of servants, eunuchs, and virgin girls came from: Ming's various
ethnic-minority tribes, tribes on the Mongolian Plateau, Korea,[74] Vietnam,[75]
Cambodia, Central Asia, Siam, Champa, and Okinawa.[76]

There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under
the Yongle Emperor,[77][78] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was
the Prince of Yan.[79] In 1381, Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were captured from
Yunnan, and possibly among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He.
[80]
Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang
Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[81] During Ming's early contentious relations
with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the
Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming
eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met.[82] Some of the ambassadors
were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife
at a dinner in the presence of the king.[83][84] Sino-Korean relations later became
amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the
highest among the tributaries.[82] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to
Ming.[85]

On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans
castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs in order to give them to
Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't
deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to
send eunuchs again.[86]

Joseon sent a total of 114 women to the Ming dynasty, consisting of 16 virgin girls
(accompanied by 48 female servants), 42 cooks (執饌女), and 8 musical performers
(歌舞女).[87][88] The women were sent to the Yongle and Xuande emperors in a total of
7 missions between 1408 and 1433.[88] Xuande was the last Ming emperor to receive
human tribute from Korea;[82] with his death in 1435, 53 Korean women were
repatriated.[89][90] There was much speculation that the Yongle Emperor's real mother
was a Korean[91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99] or Mongolian[100] concubine.[101][102][103] Relations
between Ming China and Joseon Korea improved dramatically and became much
more amicable and mutually profitable during Yongle's reign.[95] Yongle and Xuande
were said to have a penchant for Korean cuisine and women.[95][104][105]
An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam
due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with
Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114]
Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central
Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid
Hussein from Hami.[115] The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur.[116] It is
unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[117] The speculation of
him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched
behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin.[118] Muslim Central Asian girls
were favored by Zhengde like how Korean girls were favored by Xuande.[119] A
Uighur concubine was kept by Zhengde.[120] Uighur and Mongol women were favored
by the Zhengde emperor.[121]

Qing

"Moghul embassy", seen by the Dutch visitors in Beijing in 1656. According to Lach & Kley
(1993), modern historians (namely, Luciano Petech) think that the emissaries portrayed had
actually come from Turfan, and not all the way from the Moghul India.

The Dutch embassy before the Court and the Qianlong Emperor in 1795. The Dutch embassy
was the last European embassy sent to China under the tributary system.

This list covers states that sent tribute between 1662 and 1875, and were not covered
under the Lifanyuan. Therefore, Tibet or the Khalkha are not included, although they
did send tribute in the period given:[122]

 Đại Nam (Vietnam) (annually, every three years)

 Dzungars (1681, 1685, 1735, 1738, 1742, 1743, 1745, 1746, 1752, and 1753)
 Hunza (1761)[123]
 Joseon (Korea) (three or four times a year;[124][125] 435 embassies, 1637-1881[2])
 Khanate of Kokand (between 1774–1798)[citation needed]
 Kirgiz (1757 and 1758)
 Lanfang Republic
 Laos (17 times)
  Netherlands (1663(?), 1667, 1686, and 1795).[126][127]
 Nepal (1732(?), 1792, 1794, 1795, 1823, 1842, and 1865)
 Portugal (1670, 1678, 1752, and 1753)
 Ryukyu (every two years on average, 122 times in total between 1662 and 1875)
 Siam (Thailand) (48 times, most of them after 1780 and before the reign of Rama IV)
 Sikkim (since 1791)
 Sulu Sultanate (1726,[128] 1733, 1743, 1747, 1752, 1753, and 1754)
 Turpan (1673 and 1686)
 Uluğ Orda[129]

After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several
of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon.[130]
[131][132][133][134][135][136]
In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).[137]
The Princess' name in Korean was Uisun, she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's
(Kumrimgoon) daughter.[138] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[139]

The tribute system did not dissolve in 1875, but tribute embassies became less
frequent and regular: twelve more Korean embassies until 1894, one more (abortive)
from Liuqiu in 1877, three more from Vietnam, and four from Nepal, the last one in
1908.[122]

In 1886, after Britain took over Burma, they maintained the sending of tribute to
China, putting themselves in a lower status than in their previous relations.[140] It was
agreed in the Burma convention in 1886 that China would recognize Britain's
occupation of Upper Burma while Britain continued the Burmese payment of tribute
every ten years to Peking.[141]

See also

 Chinese expansionism
 Chinese nationalism
 Emperor at home, king abroad
 Foreign relations of imperial China
o Foreign relations of China
 Greater China
 History of China#Imperial China
 Tributary system of China
 List of recipients of tribute from China
 Silk Road
 Sinocentrism
 Zheng He
 Adoption of Chinese literary culture
 Suzerainty
 Tributary state
 Tribute
References
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