CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

Since time immemorial, inventions in science and technology have contributed

greatly to improve our way of living. Can you imagine us today without these
inventions? The world now will be miserable if these were not invented. In order for us
to better understand this, let us study three developments of science in Mesoamerica,
Asia, and Africa. At this point, let’s time travel and take a look in the progress of our
society with the help of our history.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA
 Where is Mesoamerica?

The term Mesoamerica is derived from the Greek and means "Middle America." It refers
to a geographical and cultural area which extends from central Mexico down
through Central America, including the territory which is now made up of the countries
of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. It is therefore seen as partly in
North America, and encompassing a large part of Central America
 
A. Maya Civilization
o It is one of the famous civilizations in Mesoamerica that lasted for approximately
2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy ( Moon, planets,
Milky Way, Sun, and astronomical phenomena by the Pre-Columbian Maya Civilization of
Mesoamerica)

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies were advanced for their
time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological
cycles in planting and harvesting. They are also known for measuring time using two
complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life
especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious rituals and
cultural celebrations. 

o Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building
elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics
system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
o Mayans also built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery
paints made from a mineral mica
o Famous of using a writing system Mayan hieroglyphic. Mayans made use of a
very well-developed and advanced written language. Since
the language comprised of symbols and images, resembling the language of
ancient Egypt, the Spanish conquistadors termed it hieroglyphics. The individual
units in the language, or its alphabets, were called glyphs. The use of Mayan
hieroglyphics was limited to the Mayan priestly class. The priests used the
language to pen down books on a wide range of subjects, including books
related to astronomy, religion, mythology and mathematics. Mayan hieroglyphics
were also inscribed on monumental structures as part of stelas or
carvings. Skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the
numeral 20.
o They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber
products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
o Developed the concept of zero and positive value even before the Romans did
o .
          HYDRAULICS SYSTEM                                                                                                                 
MICA   
B. INCA CIVILIZATION
o The Inca first appeared in the Andes region during the 12th century A.D. and
gradually built a massive kingdom through the military strength of their emperors.
Known as Tawantinsuyu, the Inca state spanned the distance of northern
Ecuador to central Chile and consisted of 12 million inhabitants from more than
100 different ethnic groups at its peak. Well-devised agricultural and roadway
systems, along with a centralized religion and language, helped maintain a
cohesive state. Despite their power, the Inca were quickly overwhelmed by the
diseases and superior weaponry of Spanish invaders, the last bastion of their
immense empire overtaken in 1572. The Inca first appeared in what is today
southeastern Peru during the 12th century A.D. According to some versions of
their origin myths, they were created by the sun god, Inti, who sent his son
Manco Capac to Earth through the middle of three caves in the village of Paccari
Tampu. After killing his brothers, Manco Capac led his sisters and their followers
through the wilderness before settling in the fertile valley near Cusco circa 1200.
(https://www.history.com/topics/south-america/inca )
The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old
civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help
them in everyday life:
 Roads paved with stones
 Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters 
 Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all
types of lands
 Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season
 The first suspension bridge
 Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret
 Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specialties prized artistic achievements.
          STONE BUILDINGS                                                     AZTEC CALENDAR         
QUIPU
 
 
                FIRST SUSPENSION BRIDGE                                                                         
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
 
C. AZTEC CIVILIZATION
Aztec, self-name Culhua-Mexica, Nahuatl-speaking people who in the 15th and
early 16th centuries ruled a large empire in what is now central and
southern Mexico. The Aztecs are so called from Aztlán (“White Land”), an allusion to
 their origins, probably in northern Mexico. They were also called the Tenochca, from
an eponymous ancestor, Tenoch, and the Mexica, probably from Metzliapán (“Moon
Lake”), the mystical name for Lake Texcoco. From Tenochca was derived the name
of their great city, Tenochtitlán, and from Mexica came the name for the city that
superseded the Aztecs capital and for the surrounding valley, which was applied
later to the whole Mexican nation. The Aztecs referred to themselves as Culhua-
Mexica, to link themselves with Colhuacán, the center of the most-civilized people of
the Valley of Mexico.See alsopre-Columbian civilizations: Aztec culture to the time of
theSpanish conquest. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aztec)

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to
science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are
the following:
 Mandatory Education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their
children is mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or
age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.
 The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. in the Mayan culture
they used it as a currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it
as part of their tribute to their gods.
 Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that
could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during
surgery.
 It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
  Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals and planting
season.
 Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
         CHINAMPA                                                       AZTEC CALENDAR                       
CANOE
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA
 
  

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient
civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities
of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations
have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East Civilizations. These civilizations
were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge
during their time.
A. INDIA
 It is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge
mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various
ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives. 
 They are known of manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel
is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman
empire.
 Famous also of medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional
medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a
form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of
plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some
ancient texts like Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical
procedures famous in ancient India.
 Notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration
of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days
with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
  Siddhanta Shiromani – textbook of ancient India which covered topics such as:
mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; three problems of
diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets;
risings and settings; the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with the
fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon.
 Mohenjodaro ruler was designed by Indians in the Indus Valley Civilization to
standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy.
  Aryabhatiya book made by Aryabhata (476-550) introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
 Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction and lucidly
explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit along with
Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. 
 Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered as the founder of mathematical
analysis.
 
Ancient India was an early leader in metallurgy, as evidenced by the wrought iron Pillar
of Delhi.
 
 Astrolabe- The Astrolabe is an ancient instrument that measures the positions of stars
and the solar system.
 
B. CHINA
 One of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life
like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music
among others. Its civilization greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries
like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and
other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
 Known for traditional medicines. They discovered various medical properties and
uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. Example is the
practice of acupuncture.
 Invented compass, paper making, gunpowder, and printing tools.
 Invented also, tools like iron plow, wheelbarrow, and propeller.
 Developed design of different models of bridges, invented first seismological
detector, and developed a dry dock facility.
 Made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets,
which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly
bodies and their effects to our world.
 China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries
and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors
prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science.
           EARLY ROCKETS                                   COMPASS                                       
PLOW                                                        GUNPOWDER
 
C. MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES

 The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread
of Islams in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is
called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13 th
 Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics in
his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light
 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of
algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the
title of one of his publications.
 Jabir ibn Hayyan a Muslim chemist who was considered as the Father of
Chemistry.
 Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first
physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine,
the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine were used as a standard
medicinal text in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17 th Among his
many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious
diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
  There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the
field of science, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences.
The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11 th to 13th century due to
the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning
institutions were destroyed.
            Ibn al-Haytham                                           Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarizmi                                     Jabir ibn Hayyan
            (Father of Optics)                                                                                                   
(Father of Chemistry)      
 

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

  

 
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in
this part of the planet long before the European colonized it. The history of science and
mathematics show that similar to the other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in
Africa are knowledge producers too.
 
  

 The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant
advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example,
the development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout
and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River.
 Egypt was known to be the center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval
forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology
and applied important components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment,
and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong
parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science.
 Astronomy was also famous in the African Region. For instance, documents
show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar or a
combination of three.
 Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North
Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region
that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until
the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in
building their magnificent architectures.
 Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the
African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland
and South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and
simple mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to
be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.
 The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from
mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times such as
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.
        ALCHEMY                                               METALLURGY PRODUCT