Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

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Engineering Fracture Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfracmech

Fracture mechanics of polyolefin fibre reinforced concrete:

Study of the influence of the concrete properties, casting
procedures, the fibre length and specimen size
M.G. Alberti, A. Enfedaque, J.C. Gálvez ⇑
Departamento de Ingeniería Civil: Construcción, E.T.S de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, C / Profesor Aranguren,
s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The final positioning of fibres plays a major role in fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) perfor-
Received 21 October 2015 mance, especially in fracture results used to evaluate the structural competence of the
Received in revised form 23 December 2015 composite material. FRC post-cracking behaviour is related with the number of fibres act-
Accepted 25 December 2015
ing in the cracked surface and the forming angle. This study aims to associate polyolefin
Available online 8 January 2016
fibre orientation and distribution with several external regular and standardised conditions
that have been shown to affect steel-rigid fibres positively. The main sources of anisotropy
Keywords:
have been addressed: fresh state properties of the concrete, pouring methods, compaction
Fibre reinforced concrete
Polyolefin fibre
procedures, wall-effects and formwork geometries. The mechanical properties and fracture
Fibre orientation behaviour showed a remarkably reliable performance of the polyolefin fibre reinforced
Fibre distribution concrete. While such variations had an equal fibre dosage of 6 kg/m3, the results showed
Fracture surface analysis narrow scatter. The fracture surface analysis allowed assessment of the differences, obtain-
ing the orientation factor and evaluating wall effects and fibre distribution with each pro-
cedure and concrete type.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Concrete has been the most important construction material for around a century and extensively used due to its out-
standing mechanical properties and low cost. However, concrete lacks of ductility and tensile and flexural strength. These
properties can be improved by adding fibres forming fibre reinforced concrete (FRC). Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC)
has been the most frequently used because steel fibres enhance concrete toughness and improve its flexural behaviour. This
composite material has been extensively studied and various applications have been reported [1–5].
However, durability problems might appear when using steel fibres in chemically hazardous environments or may also be
dangerous in applications under the influence of electric or magnetic fields [6–8]. That said, the appearing of macro-
synthetic fibres with structural capacities and chemically stable have enabled the use of a material termed polyolefin fibre
reinforced concrete (PFRC). PFRC has been successfully applied in tunnels or pavements and even to improve the behaviour
of concrete under seismic conditions [9–11]. These uses have been adequate due to the enhancement of the properties that
polyolefin fibres produce when added to concrete in certain contents. Such benefits enable PRFC to meet the requirements of
several the structural codes [20–24]. Therefore, it allows the reduction of the steel-bar reinforcement, similarly to SFRC but
with lower dosages of fibres in terms of weight. In order to do so, the aforementioned recommendations consider in the

⇑ Corresponding author.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2015.12.032
0013-7944/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
226 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

Notation

Symbol Definition
a relation between the notch length and the height of the beam
d deflection
h orientation factor
hi orientation factor for a specific zone of the fracture surface
a0 notch length
A cross section of the sample
Af cross section of one fibre
B, b depth of the beam
c.v. coefficient of variation
c.d. coefficient of distribution
D height of the beam
df mean diameter in the slump flow test
E elasticity modulus
fck characteristic compressive strength of concrete
fct concrete tensile strength
GF specific fracture energy
hsp ligament height
lf fibre length
fj residual flexural strength corresponding to a crack opening j in three-point bending tests
fLOP strength corresponding to the limit of proportionality
fMIN minimum post-cracking strength
fREM maximum post-cracking remaining strength
fR1 residual flexural strength corresponding to a crack opening 0.5 mm in three-point bending tests
fR2 residual flexural strength corresponding to a crack opening 1.5 mm in three-point bending tests
fR3 residual flexural strength corresponding to a crack opening 2.5 mm in three-point bending tests
fR4 residual flexural strength corresponding to a crack opening 3.5 mm in three-point bending tests
Lj load at each j crack mouth opening displacement in three-point bending tests
LLOP load corresponding to the limit of proportionality
LMIN minimum post-cracking load
LREM maximum post-cracking remaining load
n number of fibres counted
P load
S span of the test
th theoretical number of fibres
Tv emptying time in the V-funnel test
T500 time the patty lasts to reach diameter 500 mm in the slump flow test
Vf fibre volumetric fraction
W work of fracture

Acronyms
Acronym Definition
CMOD crack mouth opening displacement
FRC fibre-reinforced concrete
LVDT linear variable differential transformer
PFR-SCC polyolefin fibre-reinforced self-compacting concrete
PFRC polyolefin fibre-reinforced concrete
SCC self-compacting concrete
SLS service limit state
SP superplasticizer
ULS ultimate limit state
VCC vibrated conventional concrete

design the residual strengths measured by fracture tests performed on notched specimens. Hence, specific test methods have
been developed for SFRC [12–14] that have been assumed to be adequate when using PFRC.
Regardless of the type of fibres used, the effectiveness of fibre reinforcement depends on numerous factors, such as the
constituent material, geometry, cement paste-fibre interface properties, amount of fibres added and certain others [15,16].
The effectiveness of the reinforcement can be considered as the overall performance of individual fibres which have certain
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 227

capacities for each orientation, interface characteristics or embedded lengths. That is to say, the reinforcing capacity of the
fibres relies on the final positioning of the fibres [2]. Therefore, among the most influential parameters, significant variations
of the fracture behaviour depend on the properties of concrete, casting procedure and the relation between the fibre length
and size of the mould.
The development in recent decades of self-compacting concrete (SCC), when combined to FRC, modifies the orientation
and distribution of the fibres added [17] and consequently changes the mechanical properties of the material. This issue have
been addressed by different authors in SFRC by statistical approaches, analytical models or experimentally [18–21]. Never-
theless, until moment of writing, the amount of research that have studied the variations of the fracture behaviour of PFRC
when the production conditions and concrete type change is still limited. In addition, it is worth to highlight that due to the
remarkably different physical properties of the polyolefin fibres with respect to steel ones, the distribution, positioning and
movement of the former within concrete while in fresh state are expected to differ from the ones of the latter.
In order to solve this gap, the influence of the concrete rheology, filling methods, compaction procedures, formwork shape
and size and length in relation with the specimen dimensions has been assessed in an extensive and systematic experimental
campaign based on obtaining the fracture behaviour of PFRC. Beyond the residual strength obtained, the fracture results have
been considered in more detail by analysing the amount of fibres and their distribution within the fracture surfaces gener-
ated. The analysis was performed twofold: by dividing the fracture section in nine equal sectors as stated in [22,23] and also
following the processes that were used by Laranjeira and Dupont in previous studies [24,25]. In addition, the results of such
examination have been compared with models designed for rigid steel fibres and the wall effect determined for the type of
fibres used.
The increase in research and use of PFRC [10,26–30] and the reduced number of studies about fibre positioning in PFRC,
highlights the significance of this research. Two main objectives justified the development of this study. On the one hand, the
lower density and bending capacity of the fibres needed to validate their behaviour inside the concrete varying the fresh
properties of the concrete and the fibre length. On the other hand, the pouring methods described in the standards that were
performed for stiff fibres might not provide reliable results. The results registered a reduced degree of scatter that allows a
confident use of PFRC. However, the results have shown that the fracture results pouring PFRC in standard moulds from the
centre would overestimate the residual strengths obtained in fracture results. This report also entails outstanding informa-
tion about the location of this type of fibres considering the affection of the wall effect, the effects of vibration and the ori-
entation factor.

2. Experimental programme

The component materials included Portland cement type EN 197-1 CEM I 52.5 R-SR 5 and a mineral admixture of lime-
stone which was used as a micro-aggregate. This had a specific gravity and Blaine surface of 2700 kg/m3 and 400–450 m2/kg
respectively. The calcium carbonate content of the limestone powder was higher than 98% and less than 0.05% was retained
in a 45 lm sieve. A polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer named Sika Viscocrete 5720 with a solid content of 36% and
1090 kg/m3 density was employed. The mixtures were made with siliceous aggregates composed of two types of gravel with
a size of 4–8 mm and 4–12 mm and sand of 0–2 mm. The maximum aggregate size was 12.7 mm.
Polyolefin straight fibres with embossed surface were employed with two lengths of 48 and 60 mm. Table 1 shows a
60 mm-long fibre and the main characteristics of both types of fibre, their properties and the geometrical patterns. In all con-
cretes 6 kg/m3 of fibres were added.
Both VCC and SCC were produced by using the same materials. For the SCC mix-design, a diameter of the patty in the
slump flow test of 650 mm was sought, keeping the cement content at 375 kg/m3 and with as low an amount of superplas-
ticizer as possible. The proportions of the three sizes of aggregates were determined following the maximum dry compaction
criterion. The proportion obtained was 60% sand, 24% grit and 16% gravel. Regarding the VCC formulation, it is worth noting
that it was a modification of the SCC mix-proportioning. That is to say, a reduction of the amount of fine particles was carried
out. This change was balanced by increasing the relative quantity of gravel and grit. A more detailed description of the mix-
design considerations can be seen in Refs. [26,27].

Table 1
Polyolefin fibres properties.

Available lengths (mm) 48 60

Thousands of fibres per kg 33.5 27
Eq. aspect ratio 53 66
Volume fraction (Vf) corresponding to 6 kg/m3 0.66%
Density (g/cm3) 0.910
Eq. diameter (mm) 0.903
Tensile strength (MPa) >500
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) >9
228 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

The proportions used in VCC and SCC are shown in Table 2. The SCC formulation with 6 kg/m3 of 48 mm-long fibres was
named SCC6-48. Similarly, when 6 kg/m3 of 60 mm-long fibres were employed in the self-compacting formulation, the con-
crete was termed SCC6-60. Likewise, the conventional mix with 6 kg/m3 of 60 mm-long fibres added was referenced as
VCC6-60. It is worth noting that the same proportions shown in the Refs. [26,27] were used. The aim of this study was to
measure the influence of various changes such as the fibre length, the pouring methods and mould sizes. In order to so, addi-
tional batches were manufactured to produce the specimens with such differences and with two concrete types as in Ref.
[26] but with a dosage of 6 kg/m3 of polyolefin fibres. Therefore, the fresh and mechanical properties in this study for the
mixtures using plain concrete and SCC6-60 are the same as those given in such references. However, specific new tests were
performed for the rest of the mixtures which had no previous data. That is to say, the mixtures with 48 mm-long fibres
(SCC6-48) and the mixture named VCC6-60 were characterised in fresh state and new tests were performed in the hardened
state to assess the compressive strength, elasticity modulus and indirect tensile strength. In order to allow comparison, the
results are given in Table 3.
The same mixing procedure was followed for all the concretes with the aim of obtaining an optimum behaviour of con-
crete while in fresh state. A more detailed description of the process can be found in the literature [27,28]. A sketch of the
procedure can be seen in Fig. 1. Additionally, in order to analyse the influence of fibre length, the same dosage of fibres was
added to the same SCC formulation; whereas one formulation was performed with 48 mm-long fibres (SCC6-48S), the other
was manufactured with 60 mm-long ones (SCC6-60). It should be noted that even though the number of fibres added to the
mix is higher for the shorter fibres, according to the literature [19,20,24,31] the theoretical number of fibres crossing a cer-
tain section of the specimen does not depend on fibre length. That is to say, the orientation factor remains independent from
the fibre length if the same volume of fibres is added to concrete and the specimen size is the same. This can be better under-
stood by viewing expression (3). In both cases the SCC was poured in the 600
150
150 mm3 formworks from one of the

Table 2
Concrete mix proportions (kg/m3).

Concrete type Cement Limestone powder SP (%CEM) Water Sand Grit Gravel 48 mm fibres 60 mm fibres
SCC 375 200 1.25 187.5 918 245 367 – –
SCC6-48a 375 200 1.25 187.5 918 245 367 6.00 –
SCC6-60 375 200 1.25 187.5 918 245 367 – 6.00
VCC 375 100 0.75 187.5 916 300 450 – –
VCC6-60 375 100 0.75 187.5 916 300 450 – 6.00
a
Both SCC6-48S and SCC6-48C were manufactured with the same formulation.

Table 3
Test results for assessment of fresh concrete and mechanical properties.

Concrete type Slump flow test V-funnel fck (MPa) E (GPa) fct (MPa)
df (mm) T500 (s) t (s) 28d c.v. 28d 28d c.v.
SCCa 655 3.5 8.0 39.3 0.01 35.8 3.78 0.14
SCC6-48 600 4.0 13.5 34.8 0.05 30.3 4.48 0.08
SCC6-60a 590 4.0 16.0 41.4 0.01 31.6 4.09 0.03
Slump test (mm)
VCCa 150.0 – 33.6 0.04 33.9 3.95 0.11
VCC6-60 142.5 – 32.9 0.04 29.9 3.75 0.07
a
Results previously published in Refs. [26–28]

Fig. 1. Main differences in the production procedures of VCC and SCC.

 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 229

Fig. 2. Pouring sketch of SCC: (a) poured from one side; (b) poured from the centre; (c) method for casting the specimen following EN-14651 [14] or RILEM
TC 162-TDF [12].

sides, as can be seen in Fig. 2(a). The effect of the casting procedure was assessed by comparing SCC6-48S with the same
formulation poured from the centre of the sample, SCC6-48C. This process can be seen in Fig. 2(b). In all the processes men-
tioned above, the specimens reached compaction due to their own weight. Furthermore, eight cylindrical specimens
(150 mm diameter, 300 mm height) were cast. The latter were used to assess the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity
and indirect tensile strength. The specimens were stored in a climatic chamber at 20 °C and 95% of humidity until the age of
testing.
The differences in the orientation and density of fibres caused by the vibration process when compared with the self-
compaction of SCC were also studied. Fig. 1 shows the main differences in the production procedures. This was performed
by manufacturing a vibrated conventional concrete with a 6 kg/m3 dosage of 60 mm-long fibres named VCC6-60. Two
600
150
150 mm3 specimens were filled by following the standard process described in EN-14651 [14] and RILEM TC
162-TDF [12] (a sketch of the method can be seen in Fig. 2(c)). The specimens were later consolidated by means of a vibrating
table for 10 s.
In addition, smaller standardised prismatic specimens of size 430
100
100 mm3 with the longer fibres were used,
preferred in ASTM C1609 [13]. It was chosen to produce three more specimens with VCC6-60 in order to analyse the suit-
ability of PFRC in structural elements with reduced thickness. Such specimens were denoted as VCC6-60 Small.
Fresh properties of SCC were assessed by means of the slump-flow test described in the standard EN: 12350-8 [32] and
the V-funnel test in EN: 12350-9 [33]. The tests were performed twice for the mixtures SCC (SCC6-48 and SCC6-60) and the
results are shown in Table 3. All the results were among the limits of the most common standards which set a slump-flow
spread (df) from 550 mm to 850 mm, a time for the slump-flow patty to reach 500 mm of diameter (T500) lower than eight
seconds, and an emptying time of the V-funnel between four and 25 s [34]. In the case of the production of VCC and VCC6-60
specimens, the fresh properties of the concrete were obtained with the standard EN 12350-2 [35].
The slump-flow spread diameters (mean values) dovetailed with those previously shown in Refs. [27,28]. The times
obtained for T500 remained at similar values for all the concrete types. The uniform distribution of the fibres and aggregates
on the spread was observed and had no signs of segregation. Insignificant differences were obtained with shorter fibres when
SCC6-48 and SCC6-60 were compared. Though a slight increase was obtained, values were very close in both cases df and
T500, and the emptying times of the V-funnel remained at similar values.
The mechanical properties of the concretes were assessed by following standard procedures. The compressive strength
was obtained in accordance with EN 12390-3 [36], whereas the tensile splitting strength was obtained as EN 12390-6
[37] states. In addition, the modulus of elasticity was assessed as EN 12390-13 [38] indicates. Three cylindrical specimens
of each concrete type were tested for obtaining the compressive strength and tensile splitting strength. The modulus of elas-
ticity was determined in one cylindrical specimen of each mixture. Table 3 shows the mean values and coefficient of vari-
ation of the results.
As can be seen, SCC compressive strength was higher than VCC. This increment in SCC might have been caused by the
differences in the aggregate proportions used. There were only slight differences identified in the compressive strength val-
ues. A slight decrease with the fibres 48 mm-long was found probably due to the greater number of fibres that might be
detrimental to the compaction of concrete in the sample mould. There were only irrelevant differences between the com-
pressive strength of VCC and VCC6-60. Regarding the elasticity modulus, in all the compositions manufactured with fibres
lower values were obtained. As mentioned previously, the decrease may have been caused by worse compaction. The pres-
ence of fibres raised the indirect tensile strength of SCC within the order of magnitude expected [9]. However, in all cases the
differences were inside the experimental scatter and no sound conclusions could be deduced.

3. Fracture behaviour

3.1. Testing methods

Through using two notched prismatic specimens of 600
150
150 mm3 of each type of concrete, three-point bending
tests were performed in accordance with the recommendation EN 14651:2007+A1 [14] and RILEM TC162-TDF [12]. In the
tests, the span was established at 500 mm and the ligament length (hsp) 125 ± 1 mm with the configuration being depicted
230 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

Fig. 3. Configurations of the three-point bending tests.

in Fig. 3. The test was initially controlled by a clip-on gage crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) device placed on the
notch. Deflection was also measured, by two linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) devices on each side of the spec-
imen. Time, load and the machine actuator position data were also registered. As the FRC deformations became higher than
the upper limit of the CMOD device, the test control was changed to actuator position until the end. By doing this, it was
possible to assess the behaviour of the FRC when bearing deflections noticeably higher than usual, Span/40 (12.5 mm). At
this stage the tests were considered ended. New batches for each of the concrete types shown in Table 2 were produced
in order to manufacture the specimens for the fracture tests and consider all the variations to meet the scope of the study.
Likewise, the fracture tests of the smaller specimens of VCC6-60 were carried out in accordance with RILEM TC-187 SOC
[39] by using the three prismatic specimens of dimensions 430
100
100 mm3 tested on 300 mm span as specified in [13]
and with the same speed steps as the standard test. The test parameters were chosen in accordance with the depth of the
beam. A span-to-depth ratio of 3.0 and a notch in the centre of the span of 1/3 of the depth were used, with the loading cylin-
der being located above the notch. The test geometry setup is shown in Fig. 3.
The position of the notch was determined for all the cases in accordance with the recommendations, as shown in the
scheme of Fig. 4.
It is worth noting that the carefully manufacturing processes, being of key importance in this study, in addition to the
accuracy of the equipment and measuring devices permitted the reduction of the scatter. The specimen positioning was pre-
cisely made by means of laser devices. The notch was machined with a water-cooled low-speed diamond cutting disc. The
concrete beams rested on two rigid steel cylinders laid on two ground supports, which allowed free rotation out of the plane
of the beam and guarantee negligible friction rolling in the longitudinal direction of the beam. Thus, the results of the frac-
ture tests on two beams showed a remarkably low degree of scatter. The latter is also supported by previous works in Refs.
[26–28].

Fig. 4. Relative position of the notch during casting used for standardised specimens.
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 231

3.2. Fracture results of plain concrete

Concrete fracture mechanics analyses have been typically conducted by means of the fracture energy assessment. The
latter relates the work of fracture (the area under load–deflection curve) and the fracture surface generated. Due to its brit-
tleness, this parameter is useful when applied to concrete. In addition, it allows comparison of several concrete formulations.
The addition of fibres to concrete has hardly any influence on compressive strength, the main reason for using fibres lies in
improving tensile response in post-cracking behaviour. In this sense, FRC has more regularly been defined by its residual
post-cracking parameters from flexural tests in notched elements. In this study, the objective of using the two types of con-
crete design was not to achieve similar compressive strength but similar fracture energies in order to evaluate the influence
of the fibres and the structural behaviour in the post-cracking region of the curves.
The results obtained in the fracture tests of plain VCC and SCC are shown in Fig. 5, where the fracture energy obtained by
expression (1) is placed in Table 5. In expression (1) P stands for load, d stands for the deflection, B for the width of the sam-
ple, D is the height and a0 the depth of the notch. The fracture behaviour of both concrete types was analogous even at the
maximum load. After it was reached, the typical exponential softening behaviour of concrete was evident.
R
W P dd
Gf ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
BðD  a0 Þ BðD  a0 Þ

3.3. Fracture results of polyolefin fibre reinforced concrete (PFRC)

Three-point bending tests of PFRC have been widely studied in recent research [27]. The typical curves showed three
remarkable turning points and the description that follows allowed discussion with the extraction of only a few parameters
of each test. The first turning point took place when the loading-process reached the maximum value and only few inelastic
processes were evident. Given that at such deformation the crack is still not perceptible to the naked eye, the turning point
where the load reaches the maximum is commonly known as load at the limit of proportionality (LLOP), with it being the
overall maximum load in plain concrete. A softening behaviour ruled the branch after LLOP, as reported in many FRC types
and especially for PFRC [26]. The softening behaviour is distinctive of plain concrete fracture and, in such a case, the steep
unloading process leads to the sample failing and collapsing. However, the polyolefin fibres absorb the energy released by
the concrete in the fracture processes by so-called fibre bridging and change the loading tendency. In such an instant, the
curve reaches the minimum post-cracking load (LMIN), represented in Fig. 6, while another up-loading process starts again.
The end of the load-increasing-ramp is the third noticeable point of the described curve with the maximum post-cracking
remaining load (LREM) shown in Fig. 6. The descending slope drawn after LREM continues up to the end of the test. It should be
mentioned that all the PFRC specimens showed this behaviour and none failed or collapsed, showing an improvement in
ductility and toughness in plain concrete.

3.4. Fracture results of SCC specimens with two pouring methods

Fig. 7 contains the load versus deflection and load versus CMOD curves obtained for mixtures SCC6-48S (poured from one
side) and SCC6-48C (poured from the centre). It can be observed that the shapes of the curves are similar, although the

Fig. 5. Plain concrete VCC and SCC fracture results obtained in 600
150
150 mm3 specimens.
232 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

Fig. 6. Typical load–deflection curves obtained in fracture tests of polyolefin fibre reinforced concrete with its singular three turning points [26].

Fig. 7. Mean fracture curves of SCC6-48C and SCC6-48S: (a) load versus CMOD; (b) load versus displacement.

curves of the specimens poured from the centre obtained higher load values. Nevertheless, the position of the three turning
points, LLOP, LMIN and LREM, were similar and occurred for the approximately the same deformation state. Therefore, it can be
seen that LMIN took place for CMOD values around 0.5 mm and, in the case of LREM, the deflection value coincided between 2.5
and 3.0 mm. The small scatter obtained, which was even smaller for the specimens poured from the centre of the mould,
should also be noted.
Although the manufacturing procedure described in EN 14651 [14] and RILEM TC-162 TDF [12] states that the pouring
position should be in the centre of the mould, most research with SCC has been performed by pouring it from the side
[40,41]. In addition, the way of filling the moulds highlighted by the codes, shown in Fig. 2(c), is considered suitable for rel-
atively dry and externally vibrated concretes [42]. As previously stated, variations in the casting methods or compaction pro-
cedures might lead to significant differences in fibre orientation and, therefore, in fracture behaviour (as can be seen in
Fig. 7). Greater values of LREM and LMIN were obtained for SCC6-48C, which showed the influence of the filling procedure
of the moulds. Thus, the behaviour of FRC structural elements performed with fibre reinforced SCC may not be representa-
tive, as the filling procedure may not be reproduced in laboratory specimens.

3.5. Fracture results of SCC specimens with two fibre lengths

The fracture curves of SCC6-60 and SCC6-48S are shown in Fig. 8. Such mixtures were manufactured by adding the same
weight of fibres but with a different fibre length. The scatter obtained was significantly small and the shapes of curves
resembled those described in the introduction of this section.
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 233

Fig. 8. Fracture curves of SCC6-60 and mean curves of SCC6-48C: (a) load–deflection; (b) load–CMOD.

It should be noted that while the shapes of the curves are analogue, the deformations at LREM were higher, probably, due
to the longer fibres. In SCC6-48S LREM reached load values near 7 kN with a CMOD value of 3.0 mm, while SCC6-60 had sim-
ilar load values when CMOD was around 4.0 mm. This is one noticeable effect in the behaviour of the specimens caused by
the larger length of the 60 mm-long fibres. Such difference might be attributable to the statistically longer embedded length
of the fibres in the cracked section. The 60 mm-long fibres might be pulled out for deformations higher than the 48 mm-long
fibres. Nonetheless, this was not as noticeable as expected and both mean curves could belong to the same concrete if an
average experimental dispersion were considered with the mean curve of SCC6-48S being inside the shaded area of the
curves for SCC6-60.
The values of LMIN were also comparable although it should be highlighted that using the shorter fibres the values were
increased. This effect is relevant because the limiting point of PFRC to meet the requirements of the standards for structural
purposes tends to be this value.

3.6. Effect of the size of the laboratory specimens

In Fig. 9(a) the vertical scale has been adapted to the loads obtained in the tests performed for the smaller beams, while
the horizontal scale has been maintained. Nevertheless, scales for the specimens of 600
150
150 mm3 were the same as
the previous shown figures. The small scatter obtained was remarkable, as was the analogous position of deflection at the
turning points. This easily appreciable event can be noted if Fig. 9(b) is observed: the values of deflection for LREM were sim-
ilar to those obtained for SCC6-60 and around 4.0 mm. If Fig. 9(a) is observed, load values were clearly smaller but, in con-
trast, deformations for the turning points were alike.

Fig. 9. Load–deflection curves of VCC6-60: (a) mean and three specimens of dimensions 430
100
100 mm3; (b) mean and two specimens of dimensions
600
150
150 mm3.
234 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

In addition, such analogous deformations for the turning points and the clear position of them permitted a comparison of
the two curves in terms of strength not considering the size effects taking place based on the same assumptions that were
explained in Ref. [27].
Moreover, given that the results provided such similar shapes they showed significantly smaller scatter for the standard
size specimens which was probably due to the reduced influence of the wall effect when compared with the small beams.
Table 7 shows that the orientation factor reached values of up to 0.74 for the specimens of a smaller size,
430
100
100 mm3, and in contrast with of the specimens of size 600
150
150 mm3, giving evidence of a remarkable
wall effect of the fibres.
The geometric relation for the same rotation angle of the cracked cross section is linked to the height of the specimen as it
is depicted in Fig. 10. However, for polyolefin FRC, the load values at a CMOD equal to 0.5 mm were close to the lowest values
for all the tests. That is to say that no corrections were needed in the CMOD. Hence, the horizontal axis has not been scaled,
since it would lead to results against the conservative side as explained in Ref. [27]. This can be confirmed by observing the fj
values of the VCC6-60 Small specimens that can be seen in Table 4.
If Tables 5 and 6 are observed, some difficulties may be identified when analysing the results obtained for the same con-
crete poured in two mould sizes. In order to address this, residual strength versus CMOD curves were plotted. Such residual
flexural strength values were obtained by means of expression (2), which has also been included in test recommendations
and standards [7,43,44]. The standard EN: 14889-2 [45] defined this residual flexural strength as the theoretical stress at the
tip of the notch which acts in the centre of an un-cracked section, involving linear distribution of force and subjected to a
specified load in its correspondent CMOD. This is a convenient tool used to transform loads (Lj) to strength (fj), enabling com-
parison of two sizes of sample as it also considers span (S), notch (a0) or ligament (hsp) and depth (b). Fig. 11 shows the curves
of residual strength-CMOD of the VCC6-60 specimens for the beam sizes. In addition, a summary of the residual strength can
be seen in Table 4.
As it was previously commented, the shapes of the curves shown in Fig. 6 appear to be comparable. The position of the
turning point coincided despite the mean curve of the small beams being above that of the standard beam.

3 Lj  S
fj ¼ ð2Þ
2 b  h2sp

A size effect is evident on concrete, which increases the fracture energy with the beam height and the opposite effect with
the relative notch depth (a = a0/D) which affects it inversely (according to experimental evidence, fracture energy increases
for lower values of a) as is stated in previous studies [46,47]. In such a way, size effect might be considered of minor

Fig. 10. Crack mouth opening displacement relationship for the same rotation angle with two different heights of specimen from Ref. [27].

Table 4
Bending test results: residual flexural strength.

Concrete type Residual flexural tensile strength

fLOP (MPa) fR1 (MPa) c.v. %fLOP fR2 (MPa) c.v. %fLOP fR3 (MPa) c.v. %fLOP fR4 (MPa) c.v. %fLOP
CMOD (mm) <0.05 0.50 1.50 2.50 3.50
Plain
VCC 4.76
SCC 4.53
Standard series
VCC6-60 4.41 1.57 0.03 36 1.93 0.05 44 2.38 0.06 54 2.61 0.07 59
VCC6-60 Small 5.38 1.98 0.13 37 2.32 0.14 43 2.85 0.15 53 3.15 0.14 59
SCC6-60 5.09 1.39 0.09 27 1.69 0.15 33 2.03 0.16 40 2.25 0.12 44
SCC6-48C 4.81 1.91 0.01 40 2.34 0.03 49 2.67 0.02 56 2.59 0.03 54
SCC6-48S 4.57 1.50 0.24 33 1.83 0.26 40 2.21 0.28 48 2.24 0.32 49
PFRC6 4.79 1.678 0.10 35 2.02 0.13 42 2.43 0.13 48 2.57 0.14 53
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 235

Table 5
Fracture energy of plain and fibre reinforced concrete.

Concrete Fracture energy, GF (N/m)

1 mm c.v. 5 mm c.v. 12.5 mm c.v.
Plain
VCC 152.8 0.10
SCC 152.4 0.10
Standard series
VCC6-60 337.8 0.01 1959.2 0.05 3457.1 0.04
VCC6-60 Small 345.2 0.09 2180.4 0.12 4475.3 0.14
SCC6-60 329.6 0.04 1695.3 0.11 2888.0 0.09
SCC6-48C 381.9 0.00 1999.7 0.06 3367.6 0.09
SCC6-48S 310.4 0.16 1709.5 0.28 3132.2 0.28
PFRC6 341.8 0.06 1908.8 0.12 3464.0 0.13

Table 6
Mean values of load of all the concrete mixtures.

Concrete type LLOP (kN) c.v. LMIN (kN) c.v. LREM (kN) c.v.
Plain
VCC 14.87 0.02
SCC 14.15 0.09
Standard series
VCC6-60 13.78 0.03 4.82 0.02 8.60 0.05
VCC6-60 Smalla 5.31 0.06 1.91 0.13 3.47 0.11
SCC6-60 15.92 0.06 4.10 0.08 7.13 0.12
SCC6-48C 15.02 0.01 5.60 0.01 8.51 0.02
SCC6-48S 14.27 0.03 4.58 0.27 7.13 0.30
PFRC6 14.75 0.03 4.78 0.10 7.84 0.12
a
Values of VCC6-60 Small not included to compute the mean values.

Fig. 11. Mean residual flexural strength versus CMOD of VCC6-60 in the two beam sizes tested.

importance when compared with the wall effect. This would suggest that for FRC the size effect may be considered negligible
in residual strengths [48]. In such a sense, the results showed the greater influence of the wall effect in smaller specimens
with the same fibre length. In addition, the standards treat the strength values in proportional terms. The mean residual
strengths to evaluate the structural requirements and in order to avoid brittleness [49] are around 2 MPa for the smaller
specimens and 1.6 MPa for the EN 14651 [14] standard specimens. However, they were very close in percentage of their
respective strength for limit of proportionality (36–37%). More detailed research on the size effect of PFRC is beyond the
scope of this study.
236 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

3.7. SCC and VCC comparison

The results of the individual tests for VCC6-60 and SCC6-60 were previously shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Regardless of this
reliable behaviour of PFRC6 that can be verified by the analysis of the turning points shown in Table 6, it is worth discussing
the results of VCC compared to SCC ones. These two types of concrete are the most common found in construction. For rigid
fibres, experimental evidence has been obtained that shows that the more is the external vibration energy the more the
fibres tend to align in horizontal planes [25]. For these rigid fibres, it has also been found that even in the absence of a bound-
ary condition the fibres tend to align when SCC flows [19]. For polyolefin fibres, these effects are still a matter of study. In
such a sense, Fig. 12 shows the mean curve of the referred mixtures. The results for the vibrated concrete were around 15%
higher.
Since the post-peak behaviour is mainly governed by the presence and positioning of fibres, the better performance of the
VCC6-60 compared with SCC6-60 in laboratory-standard specimens could only be caused by a better setting of fibres.
On the one hand, vibration for this size of specimens was clearly effective while on the other hand, compaction under its
own weight, due to self-compacting properties, seemed to need more distance to produce considerable improvements on the
positioning of fibres.

3.8. Fracture energy and the turning points

The similarity of the fracture energy between the two plain concrete types, VCC and SCC, showed that the variations of the
fracture energy of the PFRC did not depend on the plain concrete characteristics.
Even for small deformations, the contribution of the fibres increases the ductility and toughness of concrete. In order to
assess the improvement at small deformations, fracture energy for a 1 mm deflection was obtained which corresponds to the
failure deformation of plain concrete. In addition, as measurement and examination of the evolution of fracture energy close
to LREM, was considered to be of relevance, this was also extracted for 5 mm of deflection. Moreover, fracture energy was
obtained for 12.5 mm of the deflection which would correspond to the final deformations. All these values, together with
their coefficients of variation, can be observed in Table 5.
In addition to the fracture energy, the loads taking place in the turning points previously described and their coefficient of
variation have been extracted and are included in Table 6. Such loads, LLOP, LMIN and LREM are a keystone of the flexural
response of the material and should be used to complement a detailed analysis. However, LLOP did not seem to follow any
trend or be affected by the addition of fibres or any of the factors employed in this research. This phenomenon had been
previously stated in the literature [27].
Small specimens of VCC6-60 had higher fracture energy than the rest of the mixtures or specimens, being close to 4500 N/m
for 12.5 mm of deflection. This could be attributable to the wall effect previously explained which may have helped to align
the fibres. Apart from these specimens, the narrow scatter was remarkable, especially in VCC6-60 standard specimens, being
the fracture energy similar for the rest of the mixtures at the deformation states considered.
All the specimens manufactured had some influencing factor compared with the reference ones produced with standard-
ised VCC. Note that the only common feature is that all had the same fibre dosage. With the aim of having an overall view of
the behaviour of PFRC with 6 kg/m3, PFRC6, the mean results are also shown in the last row of Table 5. The fracture energy
obtained was similar for all specimens considering the same deformation and the coefficient of variation remarkably limited.
This means that PFRC6 behaved in a significantly similar manner even with the large variety of affecting factors enabling a
high reliable use of PFRC.

Fig. 12. Fracture curves comparison of SCC6-60 and VCC-60 laboratory beam tests: (a) versus CMOD; (b) load versus displacement.
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 237

4. Fibre positioning: fracture surfaces analysis

4.1. Orientation factor and pulled-out fibres

Previous research has shown that the differences found in fracture results may be explained by counting and locating
fibres on the fracture surface of the divided piece [22,23,28,49,50]. Additionally, the assumptions made about the positioning
of fibres which may be affected by the variation of the put-in-place conditions can be verified [51]. In conformity with this
and with the aim of studying the variations achieved while changing external conditions, the fracture surfaces of all the spec-
imens tested were analysed on the basis of Ref. [22].
A first approach that could provide relevant information involves ascertaining the proportions of broken and pulled-out
fibres in all the manufactured concretes. Moreover, Fig. 13 reveals that it is easy to differentiate which fibres have been bro-
ken from those that have been pulled out. In order to obtain accurate results, the pulled-out fibres were added to the broken
fibres, obtaining the total number of polyolefin fibres in each fracture surface generated.
Over and above qualitative considerations, this analysis can be extended by obtaining the orientation factor h and its coef-
ficient of variation (c.v.). When the theoretical number of fibres (th) crossing the surface is compared with the number of
fibres counted in one particular section (n), the denominated coefficient of orientation (h) commonly used in previous
research [26] could be computed by using expression (3) where Vf was the fibre volumetric fraction, A was the cross section
of the sample and Af the section of one fibre. Such an expression was first proposed by Krenchel [31]. Table 7 shows the the-
oretical amount of fibres in each section: 223 fibres in the standardised specimens and 99 in the 430
100
100 mm3 spec-
imens. By comparing this theoretical number with the number of fibres counted, a first approach to the orientation factor, h,
can be obtained for all the variations considered. It should be noted that the volume fraction corresponding to 6 kg/m3 of
polyolefin fibres is 0.66%. This was also in accordance with the value shown in Table 1.

n Af
h¼ ¼n ð3Þ
th Vf A
The results shown in Table 7 enable to find that about 60% of the 60 mm-long polyolefin fibres added to SCC were clearly
broken, and therefore the mean value of pulled-out fibres was around 40%. When comparing VCC6-60 and SCC6-60 it can be
seen that fresh-state behaviour did not affect the amount of broken fibres. However, if the size of the specimens were

Fig. 13. Fracture surfaces of a tested sample with broken, cut, folded and pulled-out fibres.
238 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

Table 7
Analysis of the fracture surfaces.

Number of fibres on the fracture surface

Concrete type Surfaces Fibre length # theoretical %Fibres pulled out # mean total c.v. (%) h
Standard series
VCC6-60 4 60 223 37.5 128 2.4 0.57
VCC6-60 Small 6 60 99 28.6 73 6.8 0.74
SCC6-60 4 60 223 38.0 112 14.1 0.50
SCC6-48C 4 48 223 54.4 142 3.5 0.64
SCC6-48S 4 48 223 52.1 145 10.8 0.65

considered, the smaller the sample the smaller amount of pulled-out fibres would be found. This might have happened as a
result of a better orientation of the fibres. When comparing different fibres lengths and keeping constant the rest of param-
eters (SCC6-60 versus SCC6-48S) the influence of the fibre length can be derived. Table 7 shows that in the case of 48 mm-
long fibres, the percentage of pulled-out fibres surpassed 50% while for SCC6-60 this value was lower than 40%. Therefore, by
reducing fibre length there were fewer fibres bridging each side of the specimen.
However, when Fig. 8 is observed it can be seen that there are only minor differences in the fracture behaviour of SCC6-60
and SCC6-48S, in spite of the different failure pattern of the fibres that bridge the cracks. While the higher amounts of fibres
pulled out in the SCC6-48S specimens cause an increment of the stiffness of the post-peak loading branch of the curve, they
reduce the load bearing capacity of the specimens for deflection values over 5.5 mm. Considering that h was clearly improved
up to 0.65 in the case of SCC6-48S and besides the more pulled-out fibres, it is possible to conclude that the fewer fibres
acting in the cracked surface was compensated with a better orientation and distribution of the fibres compared with
SCC6-60.
Conversely, regarding the pouring procedure did not seem to have any influence on the amount of fibres that appeared in
the fracture surface, as can be derived when contrasting the value of h computed for SCC6-48C with SCC6-48S.
VCC6-60 Small specimens were compared with the same formulation of concrete poured in standard moulds. There were
almost 10% more pulled-out fibres in the small specimens than in the standard ones. Table 7 also shows the better orienta-
tion of the fibres that occurred in the VCC6-60 Small specimens when compared with the same concrete poured in standard-
ised moulds with a value of h that reached 0.74.
On the contrary, when VCC6-60 and SCC6-60 were compared with one another, only minor changes of h were noticed. It is
also evident that a higher amount of fibres results in a greater value of h, increasing from 0.50 to 0.65.

4.2. Relation between residual strengths and fibres in the fracture surfaces

Given that post-cracking behaviour is closely associated with the number of fibres placed on the cracked surfaces, the first
approach to analyse fracture results entailed a counting exercise on the fracture surfaces. Other studies have suggested that
the number of fibres has an influence on the fracture behaviour and that there is a strong dependence of the positioning of
the fibres [19,27,52–54]. If it is considered that the influence of the fibres in the upper two thirds of the ligament is negli-
gible, a linear experimental correlation between the number of fibres and the value of LMIN can be obtained. This can be seen
in Fig. 14 where only the mean values of LMIN of each the specimens of each type of combination is used.
In such a way, LMIN should be linked with the number of fibres that act in the initial cracks and, therefore, with the number
of fibres placed in the lower third of the fracture surface. The experimental relation found can be also seen in Fig. 14. The high
correlation between the experimental results, no matter which fresh state, pouring procedure or mould shape or size were
used, is noticeable.
Regarding LREM, it has been considered that when the sample reaches these deflection values all the fibres in the section
bear a portion of the total load that the sample is supporting and, therefore, a correlation between the total amount of fibres
in the section and LREM has been performed. This can be seen in Fig. 15 where the equation that relates the values is included.
These two experimental equations can serve as an approximation value of LMIN and LREM for every type of PFRC with
6 kg/m3 of polyolefin fibres addition in both SCC and VCC. It should be noted that the linear fittings computed were similar
to the correlations made in the case of steel fibres [54–56] and the relations similar to previous research in polyolefin fibre
reinforced concrete [26]. These relations are of great interest for structural design purposes and deeper analysis can be
performed. Since this was carried out by means of a counting process of the elements manufactured which is examined
in the next section.

4.3. Fibre distribution in the fracture surfaces

The fibre counting process was also carried out on the basis of RILEM TC 162-TDF and Ref. [22]. In such a way, the count-
ing process was performed by dividing the sample cross section in sectors so that any wall effects or non-homogenous dis-
tribution of fibres could be observed. Consequently, the broken surfaces of the beams were divided into nine equal areas in
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 239

Fig. 14. Relation between LMIN and the number of fibres in the lower third of the ligament area.

Fig. 15. Relation between LREM and the total amount of fibres in the ligament area.

addition to the notch as shown in Fig. 16(a). In such a way, the dispersion of the fibres inside the fracture surface could be
observed. A uniform distribution of fibres on the total surface would imply that the amount of fibres is proportional to the
surface of the sector. The notched area was 16.7% of the total surface and the remaining nine sectors were equal with each
one being 9.3%. The reference positioning of the figures in this section was rotated 90° in order to place the fracture surface in
the relative position during the test (see also Fig. 4). This leaves the free surface on the left of the fracture surface.
In Figs. 17 and 18, the results of the counting exercise made by sectors are placed in terms of mean distribution. This
allows a comparison with the distribution proportional to occupied area of the sector previously shown in Fig. 16. In the fig-
ures, some differences in the distribution of the fibres inside the fracture surface should be noted.
When observing SCC6-48C in Fig. 17, it could be seen that in the fracture section of the specimens filled from the centre,
most of the fibres were placed in the bottom of the surface (the right column in the sketches) and the noticeable fewer fibres
placed in the free surface (left column in the sketches). This was not observed for the specimens cast from the side in which
there was a reduction of the number of fibres positioned on the central sectors.
Conversely, the specimens vibrated (VCC6-60) seemed to have a floating effect as the result shows in the left column that
corresponds to the free surface had higher values. No wall effects were noticeable, rather a more uniform distribution among
sectors.
240 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

Fig. 16. Proportional occupied area of the divided sectors: (a) division in nine equal sectors; (b) division proposed by Ref. [24].

Fig. 17. Mean distribution of fibres in the fracture surfaces of SCC6-48S, SCC6-48C, SCC6-60 and VCC6-60 specimens.

Fig. 18. Average distribution of fibres in 430
100
100 mm3 specimens filled with VCC6-60.

SCC6-60 specimens also showed more evident wall effects instead of the possible floating that can be seen if VCC6-60
distribution is observed. Therefore, the results obtained for both types of SCC, when the standardised moulds were used,
were alike in spite of the two lengths of fibres used.
Fig. 18 shows that for the smaller beams of VCC6-60 the uniform distribution would mean 7.4% of the fibres in each sector
of the fracture surface. If sectors placed on the upper third of the section are observed, the rising of the wall effects can be
noted when compared with the standard VCC6-60 placed in Fig. 17. In the percentage of fibres placed on the notch, it should
be clarified that the wall effect was attenuated because the size of the notch was one third of the section for the small beams
instead of one sixth. In any case, for all the standard-size specimens the amount of fibres in the notch is above the value
obtained with a uniform distribution of fibres. In opposition, when smaller specimens were used, with the VCC6-60 Small
specimens, there were fewer fibres in the area of the notch.
If the nine equal sectors are taken into account, the homogeneity of the distribution of fibres can be evaluated by com-
paring the coefficient of variation of the number of fibres placed in each sector. In such a way it would become a coefficient of
distribution of the fibres (c.d.). The lower the latter, the more uniform is the distribution.
As Table 8 shows, the specimens prepared with VCC and poured in small moulds registered a more homogeneous distri-
bution of fibres with respect to any of the formulations or pouring methods used. In order to analyse such a result, it should
be considered that the wall effect affects 84% of the total surface assuming the proposals of the bibliography for rigid fibres.
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 241

Table 8
Coefficient of distribution of the fibres inside the fracture surfaces.

Concrete Coefficient of distribution

VCC6-60 0.33
VCC6-60 Small 0.17
SCC6-60 0.28
SCC6-48C 0.36
SCC6-48S 0.30

Therefore, not only an improvement on the fracture results and orientation factor of the small specimens was noticed. Addi-
tionally, a more uniform distribution of the fibres was found. Thus, it could be concluded that it is possible to take advantage
of this resource to improve the post-cracking performance of PFRC. A more detailed discussion about the wall effect is per-
formed in the following Section 4.4.

4.4. Wall effect

The effect of the walls of the mould in the orientation of the fibres considers their tendency to align with parallel to the
sides of the mould. This matter has been studied by different authors being of relevance the works of Dupont and Vandewalle
[24]. The latter made seven initial assumptions to obtain such values being the first one that fibres were straight and con-
sidering negligible the effect of hooks in case of steel-hooked fibres. The applicability of these assumptions and their exper-
imental check when dealing with non-rigid fibres are at the time of writing subject of study and are of key-importance for
the design of structural PFRC. Dupont and Vandewalle [24] established three zones in a section of a sample according to the
numbers of walls of the mould. Fig. 16(b) offers a picture and the proportional surface of a fracture surface divided in nine
equal sectors and with the assumptions of Dupont and Vandewalle.
However, the differences that the flexibility and density of the fibres in relation with the flux of the SCC might cause in
their distribution and orientation have not been faced yet. To address this gap, the fracture surfaces of VCC6-60 and SCC6-60
were analysed and the results of hi in the areas of the fracture section obtained as shown in Fig. 19(b).
Considering this model, the theoretical values of hi in the section can be seen in Fig. 19(a). It is worth mentioning that
Laranjeira [25] expanded the study of Dupont and Vandewalle [24] to SCC reinforced with steel fibres, finding that the bulk

Fig. 19. Fibre disposition and wall effect in accordance with Dupont and Vandewalle. (a) Theoretical analysis; (b) experimental data; (c) proposal.
242 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244

area of specimens free from the influence of the walls had an orientation factor of 0.60. The model has extensively used for
predicting the positioning of metallic fibres providing a remarkable useful tool. However, as can be seen in Fig. 19, all the
hypotheses of Dupont and Vandewalle do not seem to be applicable to the case of PFRC neither in the case of VCC nor in
SCC. Although it is true that the isotropic part of the section of VCC6-60 fits the values predicted by Dupont, it should be
noted that there are great differences in the values of h of the areas near the free surface. In these areas there is at least a
0.08 difference between the values found and those predicted. There are also differences in the right wall of the section
and in the bottom-left corner where the orientation factor was not close to the values proposed.
In the case of the sections of SCC6-60 there is a good correlation between the values of the orientation of the fibres in
areas near the lateral walls of the moulds. However, the values of h in the areas near the free surface are, as in the case
of VCC6-60, lower than those of the model. As this phenomenon took place for both fresh concrete states it seems that it
is related with the flexibility of the polyolefin fibres.
Another point that should not be overlooked is that the isotropic area of the SCC sample had an orientation factor equal to
0.55. This value is different from those proposed by Dupont and the modification that Laranjeira made to adapt it to SCC
reinforced with steel fibres. Therefore, it may be a consequence of the characteristics of the fibres used in this study.
Moreover, all the values of hi in the corner areas in both types of concrete, VCC and SCC, were lower than those predicted
by Dupont and Vandewalle for rigid fibres and those found by Laranjeira when using steel fibres. This is of key importance
because it seems that when using flexible fibres there is a more reduced anisotropy in the distribution of fibres within the
concrete sections.

5. Conclusions

This paper has examined the influence of a variety of factors on the fracture behaviour of PFRC. Modifications of fibre
length, fresh state properties, pouring processes and sample sizes have been assessed. The results achieved have shown that
PFRC with the dosage of 6 kg/m3 could be considered as structural based on EN-14889-2 [45].
Moreover, all the analysis performed proved the suitability of the normative framework to evaluate the fracture proper-
ties of PFRC as long as the fibres and mould sizes are adequate. It should be highlighted that there was a lack of studies about
the fracture behaviour of PFRC and its adaptation to the tests and regulations that were developed with the experience on
SFRC. However, some additional considerations regarding the pouring procedures should be taken into consideration in
order to avoid overestimations of the results.
Provision of fracture results associated with the assessment of fibre positioning and, the latter, with a wide range of mod-
ifications, allow the use of advanced parameters for the design works. That is to say that the data presented in this study can
significantly improve future modelling and structural design of PFRC. The assessments of the residual strength, orientation
factor and the number of pulled-out fibres in the fracture surfaces and their relation with all the variations previously men-
tioned permit linking production processes and material properties. Such supplementary factors were related with residual
strengths what confers to future design assumptions a physical foundation of the influence of the main parameters.
Beyond the referred significance and future uses, the results and discussion reached relevant conclusions that are short-
ened in the following summary:

 LMIN was proportional to the amount of fibres located in the lower third of the fracture surface. Similarly LREM could be
linearly linked with the total amount of fibres located in the ligament area. This phenomenon occurred no matter of
the parameters studied.
 In the samples manufactured with the 48 mm-long fibres the higher amount of pulled-out fibres was compensated with a
better orientation and distribution. The residual strengths were not affected by the length of the fibres used, only slight
improvements were observed at reduced CMOD values when 48 mm-long fibres were used.
 Vibrated PFRC reached higher residual strengths than PFR-SCC. The length of the samples did not seem to be long enough
to permit the flux of SCC to align the polyolefin fibres.
 The counting exercises performed in SCC6-48 revealed that there is a significant influence of the pouring methods in the
fracture results.
 When slender PFRC elements are manufactured a greater wall effect might appear, as seen in the smaller specimens, and
therefore reduction of the standard size specimens could be taken into account.
 The counting procedure with lateral bands of half the fibre length based on Dupont and Vandewalle [24] provides addi-
tional evidence about the existing wall-effect compared with the counting in equal sectors reported in [20]. Moreover, the
areas near the free surface during the pouring stage should be considered as a continuation of the isotropic central area of
the section for PFRC.
 The flux of the SCC in the bulk central zone increased the orientation factor by up to 0.55. Such improvement did not coin-
cide with previous data reported for steel fibre SCC (0.60). This might be a key point when designing structures with SCC
reinforced with polyolefin fibres.
 The data registered in the bottom corners suggest that the lower orientation factors found might be a consequence of the
flexibility of the fibres.
 M.G. Alberti et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 225–244 243

In order to complete these conclusions, some design considerations should be suggested, even though performance of
wider research on structural sizes would be of use. In elements made with SCC that are designed with a clear critical section,
it might be taken into account that the section with probably the best results under flexural stresses would be the one on the
pouring point. In the case of elements with strong requirements for SLS, 48 mm-long fibres seem to comply with the stan-
dards with more reliability and less fibre dosage. Conversely, for structural elements in ULS, 60 mm-long fibres have been
shown to provide higher residual strength than shorter fibres. In addition, for significant deformations typical of seismic
of impact design situations, such longer fibres (60 mm-long) have revealed that their maximum residual strength occurs
for higher deformations than shorter fibres and could provide structural integrity for such accidental design situations.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain
by means of the Research Fund Project DPI 2011-24876. They also offer their gratitude to SIKA SAU for supplying the poly-
olefin fibres. Marcos García Alberti also wishes to express his gratitude to SIKA SAU for the grant provided.

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