heat can be released in the form of
HEAT ENERGY
Heat and Temperature
Heat is a form of energy which can be
transferred from one place to another due to
the temperature difference between them.
When a body receives heat energy its
temperature increases whereas the
temperature of a body that gives away
energy decreases. Once heat has been
transferred unto a substance, it ceases to be
heat but instead becomes internal molecular
energy. The SI unit of heat is joules.
Sources of heat
Heat as a form of energy can be obtained
from many sources. Some of the sources of
heat are;
 Sun: the sun is the most important
source of energy which gives energy
to every other substance in this earth.
 Fuel: many natural fuels exist. These
include wood, coal, oil, petrol, and
natural gas. These can be used as fuel
to produce heat energy.
 Electricity: electric current can also
produce heat.
 Friction: friction between moving
parts can also produce heat.
 Interior of the earth: The interior of
the earth gives out heat produced by
radioactive substances. Some of the
volcanoes and hot springs.
Effects of heat on substances
When heat is released unto a substance, one
or more of the following can be experienced
1. Increased in the rate of evaporation
2. Change of state of the substance
3. Emission of electron from metals
4. A chemical change
5. Expansion of substances
6. Incandescence
7. Colour change
8. Electrical resistance change
9. Increase in temperature
10. Boiling of liquid
Temperature
Temperature of an object is a property of
the object that determines how hot or cold
the body is. Temperature can also be defined
as the degree of hotness or coldness of a
body
It depends on the amount of thermal energy
absorbed by the object and also the nature of
the object and its mass.
Temperature of a body is measured by an
instrument called a thermometer.
Temperature is a basic physical quantity and
is measured in degrees Celsius (0C) or
Kelvin (K).
Thermal equilibrium: Condition when if The lower fixed point is the temperature of
two bodies at the same temperature are in pure melting ice at normal atmospheric
contact, there is no net flow from one body pressure. It is also known as ice point.
to the other. The interval between the upper and the
Difference between heat and temperature lower fixed points is called the fundamental
Heat Temperature interval.
It is a form of It is a measure of Temperature scales
energy hotness or coldness of The temperature scales commonly used are:
a body Celsius scale (˚C) and Kelvin or
It is measured in It is measured in thermodynamic scale (K)
Joules degree Celsius (˚C )or The Celsius (oC) Scale
Kelvin(K) Celsius scale, which is also called the
It is measured with It is measured by a centigrade scale, has a lower fixed point that
the aid of thermometer shows the temperature of pure melting ice
calorimeter (0oC) and the upper fixed point that shows the
It is a derived It is a fundamental temperature of steam (100oC) at standard
quantity quantity atmospheric pressure (100kPa)
Similarity: Both heat and temperature are
Absolute Zero and the Kelvin (K) scale
scalar quantities. The Kelvin scale is based on the kinetic
The fixed points of thermometers theory model which assumes that if the
Fixed points are two reference temperatures temperature of a substance could be reduced
on a thermometer. The highest temperature to -273 oC, the motion of its molecules will
on the thermometer is called the upper fixed stop. As the temperature of a body or a
point and the lowest temperature, the lower substance falls, its molecules move more
fixed point. slowly and their average kinetic energy
The upper fixed point is the temperature of decreases. At a temperature of -273oC, called
steam from pure water boiling at normal absolute zero, the molecules have their
atmospheric pressure. It is also known as lowest possible kinetic energy (we believe
steam point. they must always have some energy,
otherwise they would stop moving)
Absolute zero is the lowest temperature  X  X0 
T   T  x 273.16 K
attainable and is taken as the zero of the  X tr  X 0 
absolute or Kelvin scale of temperature,
Relationship between Kelvin and Celsius
which is the most used in science.
units
In general, temperature on the Kelvin scale is
Its divisions are the same as those on the
denoted by T and those on the Celsius scale
Celsius scale that is 1oC = 1K (not oK), -
are denoted by the Greek letter Ө (theta).
273oC = 0K, 0oC = 273K.
Converting from Ө to T, the formula is T =
Absolute zero is therefore defined as the
Ө + 273
temperature at which particles have no
kinetic energy. It is equal to - 273˚C or 0K. Converting from T to Ө, the formula is Ө =
T - 273
The temperature, T on the thermodynamic or
Kelvin scale is defined as Examples
1. Write (a) 106˚C (b) 37˚C (c) - 53˚C on
X 
T   T  x 273.16 K the Kelvin scale.
 X tr 
Solution
XT = the value of the thermometric property (a) T  106  273  379 K
at the temperature, T (b) T  37  273  310 K
(c) T  53  273  220 K
Xtr = the value of the thermometric property
at the triple point of water.
2. Write (a) 382K (b) 293K (c) 100K on
Triple point of water is a fixed point on the the Celsius scale.
thermodynamic scale and it is the
temperature at which saturated water vapour, Solution
pure water and melting ice are all in T    273
equilibrium.    T  273
(a)   382  273  109C
If there is a thermometric property at the
(b)   293  273  20C
absolute zero of temperature, X0
(c)   100  273  173C
then
Worked Examples To calculate the temperature Ѳ
1. The temperature reading on Celsius corresponding to the value of the
o
thermometer is 30 C. Calculate the thermometric property XѲ
corresponding temperature in Kelvin. 𝜃−0 𝑋𝜃 −𝑋0
=𝑋
100−0 100 −𝑋0
2. Calculate the temperature of a body in
Kelvin if its temperature in degree
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0
Celsius is 62oC. 𝜃=( ) 𝑥100°𝐶
𝑋100 − 𝑋0
3. The temperature of a substance was
X0 = the value of the thermometric property
measured to be 370K. Find the
at ice point (0˚C)
corresponding temperature in degree
X100 = the value of the thermometric
Celsius. (take absolute temperature to
property at steam point (100˚C)
be 273K)
XѲ = the property of the thermometric
4. Convert
property at unknown temperature, Ѳ
i. 116oC into K
ii. 40 °C into K
Examples
iii. -39oC into K
1. The distance between the upper fixed
iv. 450K into oC
point and the lower fixed point of a
v. 58K into oC
thermometer is 25cm. What temperature in
Calculating temperatures on the Celsius ˚C is recorded when the liquid thread is
scale 10cm above the ice point.
On the Celsius scale, the lower and the
upper fixed points are 0˚C and 100˚C
Solution
respectively.
X 100  X 0  25cm
steam point 100˚C X100
X   X 0  10cm

 X X 
Ѳ XѲ     0
 x100C
 100
X  X 0 

 10 
     x100C  40C
 25 
Ice point 0˚C X0
2. Ice and steam points on an ungraduated
thermometer are 120mm apart. If the  X X 
    0
 x100C
thermometer is immersed in a liquid of  100
X  X 0 

temperature 40˚C, calculate the length of  40  x 

 40    x100
the mercury thread above the ice point.  90  x 
10040  x 
Solution  40 
90  x
X 100  X 0  120 mm  4090  x   10040  x 
X  X 0  ?  3600  40 x  4000  100 x
  40C  100 x  40 x  4000  3600
 60 x  400
400
x  6.67 mm
60
 X X 
    0
 x100C TRY
 X 100  X 0 
2006 Q18
  X 100  X 0  40C 120 mm The ice and steam points of a mercury-in-
 X  X 0  
100C 100C glass thermometer are 40cm apart. Calculate
the temperature on the Celsius scale when
 X   X 0  48mm
the meniscus of the mercury thread is 15cm
3. The upper and lower fixed points of a
above the ice point. [ 37.5˚C ]
thermometer correspond to 90mm and
Thermometers
x mm respectively. If a temperature of A thermometer is an instrument used to
40˚C measure temperature of a body. It consists of
corresponds to a reading of 40mm on the a substance that expands or contracts
thermometer, calculate x. appreciably with a small change in
Solution temperature. Such substances are known as
X100  90mm , X 0  x , X  40mm thermometric substances. Examples of
  40C thermometric substances are liquid (alcohol
or mercury) and gas. Thermometric
substance is any substance whose property
varies proportionally with changes in
temperature.
All thermometers make use of some changes
in some physical properties with temperature.
A property that changes with temperature is
called a thermometric property.
A thermometric property is a variation of that
property of a substance with temperature
change which a thermometer employs for
measurement of temperature.
1. Mercury in glass thermometer uses
the change in the length or volume of
the mercury column relative to the
glass when its temperature changes.
2. Constant volume gas thermometer
uses pressure change of a gas with
temperature change when the volume
of the gas is kept constant.
3. Platinum resistance thermometer uses
the resistance change of platinum
with temperature change.
4. Thermometric thermometer uses the
electromotive force (emf) change of
thermocouple when the temperature
difference between its junctions is
varied.
5. Thermocouple uses two different
metals and their expansion with
temperature change.
6. The optical pyrometer uses the colour
expedition with change in
temperature with the use of lenses. It
can measure temperatures above
3000oC.
Desirable properties of a thermometric
substance
1. It should expand linearly with
temperature change
2. It should not wet glass
3. It should be opaque
4. It should have a low freezing point
5. It should be a good conductor of heat
6. It should have a high thermal
expansivity
7. It should have a low specific heat
capacity
8. It should have a high boiling point
Kinds of thermometers
The various kinds of thermometers are:
 liquid-in-glass thermometer
 constant volume gas thermometer
 thermoelectric thermometer
(thermocouple)
 Pyrometers
 Electric Resistance thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
This type of thermometer is probably the
most widely used and consists of a liquid in
a thin-walled glass bulb to which is fixed a
thin capillary tube. The property that varies
with temperature is the volume of the liquid,
which is measured by reading the length of
the liquid thread, assuming the bore of the
capillary tube to be uniform. The
thermometric liquids commonly used are Calibrating the lower fixed point (ice point)
mercury and alcohol. Diagram

liquid-in-glass thermometer
Bulb mercury narrow bore

lower fixed point (0˚C)

thick-walled glass tube handle

funnel
The bulb is the reservoir of the liquid. The
pure melting ice
liquid rises in the narrow bore when the
temperature increases and falls when the
beaker
temperature decreases.
Examples of liquid-in-glass thermometer
water from melting ice
are
Method
 clinical thermometer The thermometer is inserted in a funnel
 maximum and minimum
filled with a mixture of ice and pure water.
thermometer
The mercury or the alcohol in the stem
 laboratory thermometer
decreases in length and finally remain steady
and that point is marked as the lower fixed
Calibration of liquid-in-glass point or ice point.
thermometer
The two reference temperatures to be Precaution
The bulb of the thermometer must be
determined when calibrating a liquid-in-
completely inserted into the melting ice.
glass thermometer are the lower and upper
Calibrating the upper fixed point (steam
fixed points.
point)
Diagram
An instrument known as hypsometer is
used for this experiment.
 ii) State two precautions necessary to
obtain accurate results in the experiment
describe in (b)(i).
Reasons why water cannot be used use as
a thermometric substance
Water is never used as a thermometric liquid
for the following reasons.

Method 1. It does not expand uniformly

The upper fixed point is marked by passing
2. It freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC i.e.
the thermometer through a rubber bung into
it has a small range of expansion
the steam chamber of a hypsometer. When
3. It wets glass wall
the level of the mercury thread in the stem
4. The meniscus in the glass will be
remains steady, that point is marked as the
difficult to read since water is
upper fixed point or steam point.
colorless
Precaution
 The mercury levels in the manometer Advantages of mercury over alcohol as a
should be the same. thermometric liquid
1. has a higher boiling point
 The bulb of the thermometer should
2. better conductor of heat
be suspended in the steam only.
3. is opaque and can be seen easily in
2007 Q12
glass
(a) i) Distinguish between temperature and
4. does not wet glass
heat.
5. does not vapourise easily
ii) State the units of measurement of the
terms in (a)(i) Advantage of alcohol over mercury as a
iii) State two physical properties of thermometric liquid
1. has a very low freezing point
substances that may be used to measure
2. expands more than mercury for the
temperature.
same temperature range
3. t is cheaper
(b) i) With the aid of a labeled diagram,
The table below shows the freezing and
describe an experiment to determine the
boiling points of alcohol and mercury.
upper fixed point of a mercury-in-glass
thermometer.
 freezing boiling water (1000C) would break it since the
point point thermometer can only measure up to 430C.
Alcohol -112˚C 78˚C Six’s Maximum and Minimum
Mercury -39˚C 357˚C Thermometer

The clinical thermometer

The clinical thermometer has thin and short

stem calibrated from 350C to 430C since it is
specially designed to measure human body
This thermometer is used to record the
temperature. The normal human body
highest (maximum) and lowest (minimum)
temperature is 370C. It has a kink or
temperature during a day. It has a range of -
constriction in the stem between the bulb
300C to 500C. Generally a minimum
and the first mark on the stem.
temperature occurs during the night and a
maximum during the day. Both alcohol and
When the thermometer is placed under a
mercury are used as thermometric liquids.
person’s armpit or tongue for some time, the
mercury thread expands and rises along the
An increase in temperature causes an
tube. On removal, the thread is prevented
expansion in the alcohol in the arm EF and
from flowing back into the bulb by the kink
pushes the mercury round the U-tube. The
so that the temperature can be read at
mercury then pushes the index E1 upwards
leisure. Before using again, the thermometer
until the lower end of the index records the
must be shaken vigorously to force the
maximum or highest temperature.
mercury back into the bulb and sterilized in
A fall in temperature causes the alcohol to
antiseptic solution or disinfectant to prevent
contract and the mercury follows it leaving
the spread of diseases. Sterilizing in boiling
the index E1 in place in the limb CD and
pushing the index E2 in the limb EF upwards cannot be used to measure varying
to record the minimum or lowest temperatures, because gases are such poor
temperature. conductors of heat.
After taking the readings, the indices must The thermometric substance is gas and its
be reset with a magnet. property is pressure.
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer On the Celsius scale :
A simple form of constant-volume gas
thermometer is shown in Figure 1. The gas  P P 
    0  x100C
is enclosed in the bulb B and the pressure  P100  P0 
recorded by the difference in levels (h) of where PѲ = pressure of the gas at
the mercury columns. The mercury level at temperature of the substance
R is always adjusted so that it coincides with P0 = pressure of the gas at ice point
the mark. The pressure of the gas within the P100 = pressure of the gas at steam point
bulb is then given by P = A + h, where A is
Worked example
the atmospheric pressure. The pressure of a gas thermometer was
600mmHg at the ice point, 1400mmHg at
steam point and 1160mmHg at the
temperature of a certain liquid. Find the
temperature of the liquid.
Solution
P0=600mmHg, Pθ= 1160mmHg,
P100=1400mmHg
𝑃 −𝑃0 1160−600
θ=𝑃 𝜃 x 100°C=1400−600 x 100°C
The gas in the bulb can be air, hydrogen, 100 −𝑃0

helium or nitrogen, although it is the 560

θ= 800 x 100°C
constant-volume hydrogen gas thermometer
θ=70°C
that is taken as standard.
On the Kelvin or thermodynamic scale,
The simple form of constant-volume gas
P 
thermometer is subject to errors due to T   T  x273.16 K
 Ptr 
changes in volume of the glass and of the
Worked example
mercury. It has the further disadvantages
1. The pressure recorded by a constant
that it is not direct-reading, and that it
volume gas thermometer at a Kelvin
temperature, T is 4.80 x104Nm -2. Calculate The thermometric substance is the platinum
T if the pressure at the triple point is 4.2 x wire and its property is the resistance of the
104Nm -2 wire.
Solution On the Celsius scale :
X 
T   T  x 273.16 K
 X tr   R R 
    0
 x100C
 4.8 x10 4   100
R  R 0 
 T    x 273.16  312.18 K
4 
 4.2 x10  where RѲ = pressure of the gas at
Advantages temperature of the substance
1. It is very sensitive to temperature R0 = pressure of the gas at ice point
changes
2. It has a wide temperature range R100 = pressure of the gas at steam point
3. It is very accurate Worked example
Disadvantages A resistance thermometer reads 21Ω when
1. It is bulky placed in melting ice and 120Ω when placed
2. It has a long response time
in steam. Determine the temperature of a hot
Resistance thermometer liquid in which the thermometer reads 85Ω.
Solution
𝑅0 = 21𝛺 , 𝑅100 = 120𝛺 , 𝑅𝜃 = 85𝛺
𝑅𝜃 − 𝑅0
𝜃=( ) 𝑥100°𝐶
𝑅100 − 𝑅0
85 − 21
⇒𝜃=( ) 𝑥100°𝐶
120 − 21
64
⇒ 𝜃 = (99) 𝑥100°𝐶 = 64.65°𝐶

A simple form of the platinum resistance

thermometer is shown in Figure 1. It On the Kelvin or thermodynamic scale,
𝑅 −𝑅
consists of a platinum wire wound non- 𝑇 = (𝑅 𝑇 −𝑅0 ) 𝑥273.16𝐾
𝑡𝑟 0

inductively on a mica frame and held in a

glass tube by silica spacers. The resistance 1993 Q4c (ii)
of the wire is measured with a Wheatstone The resistance of a certain metal measured
bridge network. at the triple point and absolute zero of
temperature are 3.018Ω and 2.003Ω
respectively. Calculate the resistance of the 2. It is fragile( easy to break or
metal at 50˚C.
damage)

3. It is difficult to read
Solution
T  500 C  50  273  323K 4. It has high heat capacity
R0  2.003 , Rtr  3.018 , RT  ? Thermoelectric Thermometer
(Thermocouple)
 R  R0 
T   T  x 273.16 K
 Rtr  R0 
 R  2.003 
 323   T  x 273.16
 3.018  2.003 
 R  2.003 
 323   T  x 273.16
 1.015 
 323(1.015)  273.16( RT  2.003)
 327.845  273.16( RT  2.003)
327.845
  RT  2.003
273.16
 1.200  RT  2.003
If two dissimilar metals are joined together
 RT  1.200  2.003  3.203
and the junctions between them maintained
2002 Q4b
at different temperatures an e.m.f. will be
The reading of a resistance thermometer are
generated across the junctions.
20.0Ω at ice point, 28.2Ω at steam point and
23.1Ω at an unknown temperature. Calculate This e.m.f. is proportional to the temperature
the unknown temperature on the Celsius difference as long as this is not too large. A
scale of the thermometer. [ 37.8˚C ] measurement of this e.m.f., normally with a
Advantages potentiometer, will therefore give us a
1. It is sensitive measure of the temperature difference.
Constantan and copper wires are normally
2. It is accurate
used.
3. It is small and portable

4. It has wide range of temperature These thermometers have the advantage of a

very low thermal capacity, they are small
Disadvantages
1. It has long response time and they can be made direct-reading. They
can therefore be used to measure varying
temperatures and they will detect changes in
temperature of about 0.001 oC.  E  E0 
T   T  x 273.16 K
The thermometric property is the e.m.f.  Etr  E0 
On the Celsius scale :  E  2.1 
 300   T  x 273.16
 4.5  2.1 
 E E   E  2.1 
 300   T  x 273.16
    0
 x100C  2.4 
 E  E 
 300(2.4)  273.16( ET  2.1)
100 0

where EѲ = pressure of the gas at  720  273.16( ET  2.1)

temperature of the substance 720
  ET  2.1
E0 = pressure of the gas at ice point 273.16
 2.64  ET  2.1
E100 = pressure of the gas at steam point
 ET  2.64  2.1  4.74
Worked example
The emf of a thermocouple is 80V at ice Advantages
1. It can measure temperature of small
point, 210V at steam point and 134.6V at the
bodies
temperature of a substance. Calculate the
2. It is portable and durable
temperature of the substance.
3. It is sensitive
Solution
E0=80V, E100=210V, Eθ=134.6V 4. It responds quickly to temperature
𝐸 −𝐸0 134.6−80 changes
Θ=𝐸 𝜃 x100°C= 210−80 x100°C
100 −𝐸0
5. It has wide temperature range
54.6
= 130 x100°C=42°C
Disadvantages
On the Kelvin or thermodynamic scale, 1. It is not accurate
𝐸 −𝐸 2. It is difficult to read
𝑇 = (𝐸 𝑇 −𝐸0 ) 𝑥273.16𝐾
𝑡𝑟 0
Optical Pyrometer
The electromotive force of a Definition: The optical pyrometer is a non-
thermocouple at the triple point and contact type temperature measuring device.
absolute zero of temperature are 4.5V It works on the principle of matching the
and 2.1V respectively. Calculate the emf brightness of an object to the brightness of
at 300K. the filament which is placed inside the
pyrometer. The optical pyrometer is used for
Solution measuring the temperature of the furnaces,
T  300 K , E0  2.1V , Etr  4.5V
molten metals, and other overheated
material or liquids.
It is not possible to measures the
temperature of the highly heated body with
the help of the contact type instrument.
Hence the non-contact pyrometer is used for
measuring their temperature.
Construction of Optical Pyrometer
The construction of the optical pyrometer is
quite simple. The pyrometer is cylindrical
inside which the lens is placed on one end
and the eyepiece on the other end. The lamp
is kept between the eyepiece and the lens.
The filter is placed in front of the eyepiece.
The filter helps in getting the
monochromatic light. The lamp has the
filament which is connected to the battery,
ammeter and the rheostat.
Working of Optical Pyrometer
The optical pyrometer is shown in the figure
below. It consists the lens which focuses the
radiated energy from the heated object and
targets it on the electric filament lamp. The
intensity of the filament depends on the
current passes through it. Hence the
adjustable current is passed through the
lamp.
The magnitude of the current is adjusted
until the brightness of the filament is similar
to the brightness of the object. When the
brightness of the filament and the brightness
of the object are same, then the outline of
the filament is completely disappeared.
The filament looks bright when their
temperature is more than the temperature of
the source. The filament looks dark if their
temperature is less than that required for
equal brightness
Advantages of Optical Pyrometer
1. The optical pyrometer has high
accuracy.
2. The temperature is measured without
contacting the heated body. Because
of this property, the pyrometer is
used for the number of applications.
3. It can very high temperatures, up to
about 3000°C
Disadvantages
1. It is cumbersome
2. It is not direct reading instrument
THERMAL EXPANSION
All substances increase in size when heated.
This increase in size of a substance is called
expansion. On the other hand, when a
substance is cooled it decreases in size. This
decrease in size is called contraction.
Expansion in solids
Thermal expansion and contraction in solids
can be demonstrated using a ball and ring
experiment. Set the apparatus as shown
below.
NOTE: The ball should pass through the
ring when both are at room temperature
Heat the ball and try to pass it through the
ring. Observe what happens. Leave it for
sometime
Observation
 When both the ball and the ring are
at the same room temperature, the
ball just passes through the ring.
 When the ball is heated, it does not
go through the ring but when left
there for some time, it goes through.
Explanation
When heated, the ball expands so that it
cannot go through the ring.
When left on the ring for some time, the
temperature of the ball decreases and it
contracts.
At the same time, the temperature of the ring
increases and it expands so that the ball goes
through.
Why solids expand on heating
The molecules of a solid are closely packed
together and are continuously vibrating in
their fixed positions.
When a solid is heated the molecules gain
more kinetic energy and therefore
make larger vibrations about their fixed
positions. This increase in vibration means
that the molecules collide with each other
with larger forces and the molecules
increases and so the solid expand.
Effects of expansion
1. Expansion in overhead cables causes
sagging.
2. Large structures such as bridges,
roads and buildings would suffer
structural damage if precautions are
not taken to limit the effects of
expansion and contraction. For
example, expansion gaps are built in
roads and railway lines to reduce the
 effect of expansion. Bridges are also The Bimetallic Strip
sometimes constructed in such a way It consists of strips of two different metals

that one end is supported on rollers. such as brass and Iron of the same length

3. When very hot water is poured into a riveted together.

thick glass container, the glass may It is straight at room temperature and when

crack. This is because glass is a poor heated, it bends with the metal with greater

conductor of heat so the inside expansivity being on the outside of the

expands before the heat reaches the curve.

outside (uneven expansion). The Brass Brass

stress set up in the glass causes it to

crack.
4. Cracking is heard from metal roofing
sheets during the day and during the
night. This is due to expansion and Iron Iron

contraction respectively. To allow At room temperature when heated

room for expansion, metal roofing [ Brass expands more than Iron]

sheets have their ends placed on top On the other hand, when cooled below the

of one another. room temperature it also bends with the one

with smaller expansivity being on the
outside.
Applications of expansion
1. To remove very tight lids of bowls Brass
and bottles
2. To fit metal wheels on axles of trains
3. To construct thermostats in
household electrical appliances Iron
4. To construct bimetallic 2007 Q12a (Nov)
thermometers A bimetallic strip of Iron and brass is
5. To rivet steel plates together in straight at room temperature. Draw and label
shipbuilding and in the construction a diagram to show its appearance when it is
of boilers. appreciably heated.
Applications of Bimetallic Strip
Bimetallic strip is used as a thermometer
and more importantly as a thermostat in
Electric Irons, Fridges and Gas cookers.
As a thermometer, it is in the form of a
spiral, usually with low expansivity invar
steel on the inside and high expansivity
brass on the outside. On heating the brass
expands more than the invar steel. This
causes the spiral to curl up and the pointer
moves round a scale to indicate the
temperature.
Thermostat is a temperature controlling
device used in electric Irons, refrigerators
etc. It is usually made of brass and invar. In
the thermostat, the bimetallic strip is part of
the electric circuit supplying current to the
heating element. As the element reaches its
set temperature, the strip curves to break the
circuit and stop the element heating further.
On cooling, the strip straightens to complete
the circuit again and the cycle is repeated.
Similarly, when deep freezer is operating,
the buzzing sound of the compressor stops
when the thermostat switches off the
current.
Question
Explain why glass container with thick walls
is more likely to crack than the one with a
thin wall when a very hot liquid is poured
into them
Answer
The non-uniform expansion between the
inner and outer surface of thick glass caused
by the temperature difference between inner
and outer surface. Thin glass expands
uniformly.
Linear expansion (expansion in length)
It refers to the increase in length that occurs,
when substances(solids) are heated. The
extent to which the solid expands in length
is given by a measure known as coefficient
of linear expansion, α
Coefficient of linear expansivity, α is the
increase in length per unit length of a
substance for 1K or 10C rise in temperature.
  increase in length (expansion)
original length x temp change
l 2  l1

l1 
e  l 2  l1  l1 
l 2 l 1 l1 
New length, l2  l1 1   
The S.I unit of   K 1 or C 1
Experiment to determine the coefficient
of linear expansivity, α of a rod
Diagram

Examples
1. A copper rod of length 15m is heated
from
50C to 600C. Calculate the
(a) expansion
(b) new length
[linear expansivity of copper = 1.7 x10 – 5 K –
1
]
Method
The original length l1 of the metal rod is Solution
e
measured using a metre rule. The rod is 
l1
fixed between the stop, S and micrometer
 e  l1  1.7 x10  5 x15 x(60  5)
screw gauge, M. M is adjusted until it
 e  1.7 x10  5 x15 x55  0.014 m
touches the free end of the rod. The initial
reading on M is taken as y1 . With the aid of
(b) New length,
a thermometer, the initial temperature of the
l2  l1  e  15  0.014  15.014m
rod is recorded as 1. M is unscrewed and a
steam from boiler is allowed to pass through
2. (a) Explain the statement the linear
the jacket for some minutes. M is once again
expansivity of Iron is 1.2 x10-5K-1
adjusted until it touches the rod again and
(b) The length of an iron rod at 300C is
the new reading, y2 is noted. The final
1.02m. If the temperature of the rod is raised
temperature  2 is also recorded. to 1050C, calculate the
(i) increase in length
Theory (ii) new length
Expansion, e  y2  y1 [linear expansivity of Iron = 1.2 x10 – 5 K – 1]

Change in temperature,    2  1
Solution
(a) It means the increase in length per unit
y  y1
Linear expansivity of the rod,   2
l1 length of Iron for 1K rise in temperature
 is 1.2 x10-5 5. A metal rod has a length of 98.5cm at
1500C. At what temperature will its length
(b) l1  1.02m be 99cm if the linear expansivity of the

   2  1  105  30  75 metal is 2.1 x10-5K-1.

Solution
(i)
e  l2  l1  l1
e  l1  1.2x105 x1.02x75  0.000918m
 99  98.5  2.1x10  5 x98.5
 0.5  0.0020685 
(ii) l2  l1  e  1.02  0.000918  1.021m 0.5
    241.72
0.0020685

 2  1  241.72  150  241.72  391.72C

3. An Iron rod of length 30cm is heated
6. A square metal plate of side 80cm long at
through 50K. Calculate the increase in
150C has a circular hole of diameter 30cm
length.
in the middle. At what temperature will
[ linear expansivity of Iron = 1.2 x10 – 5 K –
1
the
]
sides be 80.5cm long and what will be the
diameter of the circular hole at this
Solution
temperature.
e  l1  1.2x105 x30x50  0.018cm
[linear expansivity of metal plate=1.3 x10 -5]

4. A metal rod of length 2.0m is heated from

Solution
200C to 1000C. If the coefficient of linear
80cm
expansivity is 2.0 x10-5K-1, calculate the
change in length of the rod.

Solution
80cm d d1 =
e  l1  2x10 x2x80  0.0032m
5
30cm
 l1  80cm l2  80.5cm = 0.0049cm

e  l2  l1  l1
 80.5  80  1.3x10 5 x80 2002 Q4c
 0.5  0.00104  (i) Explain linear expansivity.
0.5 (ii) A metal ball at a temperature of 200C
    480.77
0.00104 has
a diameter of 4.02x10-2m. A brass plate
 2  1  480.77  15  480.77  495.77C
at
the same temperature has a circular hole

d 2  d1 1     30 1  1.3x10 5 x 480.77  of diameter 4.00x10-2m. Determine the
d 2  30.19cm
temperature to which the plate must be
heated so that the ball (still at 200C) may
7. A bimetallic strip consisting of brass
just slip through the hole.
anIron
[Take linear expansivity of brass as 1.8x10-
0
is 10cm long at 30 C. If the temperature of 5
]
0
the strip is raised to 100 C, calculate the
difference in length between the Iron and
the brass after heating.
Solution
[ linear expansivity of brass = 1.9 x10-5K-
(i) It is the increase in length of a substance
1
]
when heated.
[ linear expansivity of Iron = 1.2 x10-5K-1
]
(ii) d1  4.00x102 m d2  4.02x102 m

Solution
e  d 2  d1  d1

l2 (brass )  l1 1     10 1  1.9 x10 5 x70 
 4.02 x10  2  4.00 x10  2  1.8 x10  5 x 4 x10  2 
l2 (brass )  10.0133cm
 0.02 x10  2  7.2 x10  7 
0.02 x10  2
    277.78
7.2 x10  7

l2 ( Iron )  l1 1     10 1  1.2 x105 x70 
l2 ( Iron )  10.0084cm  2  1  277.78  20  277.78  298.78C

Difference in length = 10.0133 – 10.0084

 It is the increase in the volume of a
AREA (SUPERFICIAL) EXPANSION substance when heated.
It is the increase in the area of a substance The coefficient of volume expansivity, γ is
when heated. the increase in the volume per unit volume
The coefficient of area expansivity, β is the of a substance for 1K or 10C rise in
increase in the area per unit area of a temperature.
substance for 1K or 10C rise in temperature.
V2  V1
  V2  V1 1   
A A V1
 2 1 A2  A1 1   
A1
V1  initial area of the substance
A1  initial area of the substance V2  final area of the substance
A2  final area of the substance
Relationship between α and γ
Relationship between α and β V  lbh
A1  l1b1 V1  l1b1h1
A2  l2b2 V2  l2b2 h2
l2  l1 1   
b2  b1 1    l2  l1 1   

b2  b1 1   
 A2  l2b2  l1 1   xb1 1    h2  h1 1   

 A2  l1b1 1     A1 1  2  ( )
2 2

 A2  A1 1  2 )  since  2  0  V2  l2b2 h2  l1b1h1 1   
3

But A2  A1 1    
 V2  V1 1  3  3( )2  ( )3 
 V2  V1 1  3 
Comparing,   2
since 3( )2  ( )3  0

Comparing,   3
CUBIC (VOLUME) EXPANSION
 V1  12  1728cm3
3

Examples   100  20  80
1. 2000 Q4c   3  3x1.4 x10 5  4.2 x10 5 K 1
A body at a temperature of 300C is heated to
1000C. If the area of the body is initially V2  V1 1   
400mm2 calculate 
 V2  17281  4.2 x10 5 x80 
(i) the area coefficient of expansivity of the  V2  17281.00336  1733.81cm3
material of the body.
(ii) the final area of the body. 3. A copper sphere of radius 4.0cm is heated
[ The linear expansivity of the material of from 0 0C to 400 0C. Calculate the change
the body = 1.2 x10-5K-1 ] in volume if the coefficient of linear
expansivity of copper is 1.6 x10-5K-1.
Solution
(i) Solution
  2  2 x1.2 x105 K 1 r  4cm
  2.4 x105 K 1 4 43.1424
3
V1  r 3   268.12cm3
3 3
(ii)
A2  A1 1    Change in volume, V2  V1  V1

 A2  400 1  2.4 x10  5 x70    3  3x1.6x105  4.8x105 K 1
 A2  4001  0.00168 
 A2  4001.00168   400.672 mm2 V2  V1  V1  4.8x105 x268.12x400
 5.15cm3
2012 Q12c

2. A metal box in the form of a cube of side Mercury at a temperature of 20oC has a

12cm is heated from 200C to 1000C. If its density of 1.36 x 103 kg m-3. Determine the

linear expansivity is 1.4 x10-5K-1, new density of mercury if it is heated to

calculate 80oC.

the new volume of the box. [ Cubic expansivity of mercury is 1.82 x 10-4
K-1]

Solution
Solution Density
V2  V1 1   
1
But volume(V )
density(  )
 1   2 1    -5 0 4 10 Temp/0C
1 From the two graphs above, water has the
 2 
1   minimum volume and maximum density at
1.36  10 3
40C
 2 
1  (1.82  10  4  60)
Biological Importance of Anomalous
  2  1345.31kgm 3
Importance
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF
It preserves the aquatic life during very
WATER
cold weather. In a very deep water, there
When substances are heated they expand.
would be always water beneath the ice
0 0
When water is heated from 0 C to 4 C it
where fishes and other creatures can live to
contracts. Apart from this temperature range
survive since water has the maximum
water expands when heated. This irregular
density at 40C.
expansion of water is known as anomalous
expansion of water.
TRY
For example when ice at – 5 C is heated
0
(a) What is meant by the anomalous
until it forms water at 10 C, from – 5 C to
0 0
expansion of water?
00C it increases in volume but the volume
(b) State the biological importance of the
decreases from 00C to 40C. The volume then
anomalous expansion of water.
increases from 40C to the 100C.
(c) Sketch a volume-temperature graph of
The resulting graphs are shown below:
water heated from 00C to 100C.
Volume

HEAT CAPACITY, C
It is the quantity of heat energy required to
0
-5 0 4 10 Temp/ C
change the temperature of a substance by 1K
or 10C.
 C
Q J  kgm2 s 2
  Jkg 1K 1  m 2 K 1s  2

 Q  C
Q  quantity of heat energy
  change in temperature
The S.I unit of heat capacity is
1
Relationship between Heat capacity, C
and Specific heat capacity, c
Q  C    (1)
Q  mc    (2)
JK-1 or J0C -
Comparing the two equations,

J  kgm2 s 2 C  mc
1 2 2 1
 JK  kgm s K

Examples
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, c 1. 2008 Q3
It is the quantity of heat energy required to (a) State the S.I unit of heat capacity of a
change the temperature of a unit mass or 1kg substance.
0
of a substance by 1K or 1 C. (b) Given that the specific heat capacity of
brass is 380Jkg-1K-1, calculate the heat
Q  mc capacity of 5kg of brass.

m  mass of the substance Solution

c  specific heat capacity (a) S.I unit = JK-1
  change in temperature (b) C  mc  5x380  1900JK 1
Q  quantity of heat energy
2. The temperature of a solid of mass 200g
The S.I unit of specific heat capacity is Jkg- increases by 100C when it absorbs heat
1K-1 or Jkg-1 0C-1. energy, Q. Calculate Q.
[sp heat capacity of the solid=400Jkg-1K-1]

Solution
m  200g  0.2kg
Q  mc  0.2 x400x10  800J 5. How much heat is given out when a piece
of Iron of mass 80g and specific heat
capacity

3. (a) Explain the statement the specific heat 460Jkg-1K-1 cools from 100 0C to 40 0C.

capacity of copper is 350Jkg-1K-1.

(b) Water of mass 1.5kg is heated from Solution

200C to 700C. Calculate the amount of heat m  80g  0.08kg

absorbed.   100  40  60

[specific heat capacity of water=4200Jkg-1K-

1 Q  mc  0.08x460x60  2208J
]

Solution 6. A piece of Iron of mass, m is heated from

(a) It means that the quantity of heat energy 27 0C to 37 0C. If it absorbs 3000J of

required to change the temperature of 1kg energy

of copper by 1K is 350J. in the process, calculate the value of m .

(b) Q  mc  1.5x4200x50  315000J [ specific heat capacity of Iron = 462Jkg-1K-1

]

4. Water of volume 300cm3 is heated from Solution

250C to 850C. Calculate the heat absorbed. Q  mc

 3000  mx462 x10
[ density of water = 1000kgm-3 , specific
3000
heat m  0.65kg
462 x10
capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1 ] Mixture of Hot and Cold water
When hot water of mass, mh and at a
Solution
temperature  h is added to cold water of
density  1000kgm3  1gcm3
mass, mc and at a temperature  c ,then
mass, m  (density)(volume)  (1)(300)  300g
m  0.3kg
Heat lost by = Heat gain by
Q  mc  0.3x4200x60  75600J
hot water cold water
 Qh  Qc mh  mkg mc  0.5kg
 mhc h     mc c   c 
h  100C c  20C   70C

 mh  h     mc    c 
mh  h     mc    c 
 m100  70   0.570  20 
c  specific heat capacity of water
 30m  25
  final temperature of the mixture
25
m  0.83kg
Examples 30
1. Water of mass 3kg at a temperature of
80 0C is added to 5kg of water at 5 0C. 3. Hot water of mass 2kg at 90 0C is added
Calculate the final temperature of the to
mixture. cold water of mass 4kg. If the final
temperature of the mixture is 40 0C, find
Solution the temperature of the cold water.
mh  3kg mc  5kg

h  80C c  5C Solution

mh  2kg mc  4kg

mh  h     mc    c  h  90C c  ?   40C
 380     5  5 mh  h     mc    c 
 240  3  5  25  290  40   440   c 
 240  25  5  3  100  160  4 c
 265  8  4  160  100  60
265
   33.1C 60
8  c   15C
4

2. Water of mass, m at 100 0C is added to

0.5kg of water at 20 0C. If the final
temperature of the mixture is 70 0C, find the
Experiment to determine the specific heat
value of m.
capacity of a solid using the method of
mixtures
Solution
Diagram
thermometer Hence the specific heat capacity of the solid,
stirrer cs can be calculated.

m  mass c  specific heat capacity

water
1  initial temp. of the water
solid (metal)
 2  final steady temp. of the mixture
lagged copper calorimeter
 s  initial temp. of the solid
Method
The diagram for the experiment is as shown
above. Precautions
A copper calorimeter with stirrer is weighed, - The calorimeter must be well lagged (to

first empty and then when about three- avoid heat loss to the surroundings)

quarters full of water using a beam balance. - The hot solid must be quickly and

The initial temperature of the water is carefully

recorded using the thermometer. The solid transferred into the calorimeter (to avoid

which has been heated in a steam jacket is heat loss and splashing respectively)

quickly and carefully transferred into the - The mixture must be gently and carefully

calorimeter. The mixture is then stirred stirred (to distribute heat energy

gently until a steady temperature is attained. uniformly)

Theory
Assuming that no heat is lost to the Examples
surroundings, 1. A metal block of mass 40g is heated to a
temperature of 80 0C. The block is then

Heat loss by = Heat gain by the water(w) placed in a calorimeter of mass 80g

and containing 120g of water at 25 0C. If the

the solid(s) the calorimeter (c) final temperature is 30 0C, calculate the
specific heat capacity of the metal.

Qs  Qw  Qc [sp heat capacity of water= 4200Jkg-1K-1 ]

ms cs  s   2   mwcw  2  1   mc cc  2  1 
[ specific heat capacity of the calorimeter = metal. Neglect the heat capacity of the
300Jkg-1K-1 ] vessel.
[sp heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1 ]
Solution
ms  40g  0.04kg s  80C Solution

mw  120g  0.12kg 1  25C ms  60g  0.06kg s  100C

mc  80g  0.08kg  2  30C mw  150g  0.15kg 1  20C

cw  4200 Jkg 1K 1 cc  300 Jkg 1K 1  2  25C cw  4200 Jkg 1K 1

cs  ? cs  ?

Heat loss by = Heat gain by the water and

the metal the calorimeter Heat loss by = Heat gain by
the metal the water

Qs  Qw  Qc
ms cs  s   2   mw cw  2  1   mc cc  2  1  Qs  Qw
ms cs  s   2   mw cw  2  1 
Qs  mscs s  2   0.04cs 80  30  2cs
 0.06cs (100  25)  0.15(4200)( 25  20)
 0.06cs (75)  0.15(4200)(5)
Qw  Qc  mwcw  2  1   mc cc  2  1   4.5cs  3150
 0.12(4200)(30  25)  0.08(300)(30  25) 3150
 cs   700 Jkg 1 K 1
 0.12(4200)(5)  0.08(300)(5) 4.5
Qw  Qc  2520  120  2640 3. A piece of copper of mass 40g at 20 0C is
placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 60g
 2cs  2640
containing 50g of water at10 0C. Ignoring
2640
 cs   1320 Jkg 1K 1 heat losses, calculate the final steady
2
temperature of the mixture after stirring.
2. A metal block of mass 60g is heated to a
[ specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1
temperature of 100 0C. The block is then
]
placed in a vessel containing 150g of water
[ specific heat capacity of copper = 0.4Jg-1K-
at 20 0C. If the final temperature is 25 0C,
1
]
calculate the specific heat capacity of the
 Solution
Solution Heat loss by = Heat gain by the warm water
ms  40g s  20C hot water and the calorimeter

mw  50g 1  10C Qhw  Qw w  Qc

mhwcw  hw     mwwcw    ww   mc cc    ww 
mc  60g 2  ?
mhw  m mww  0.50kg
cw  4.2 Jg 1K 1 cc  0.4 Jg 1K 1
mccc  105 JK 1
1 1
cs  0.4 Jg K
 hw  1000 C  ww  200 C   700 C
Heat loss by = Heat gain by the water and
the metal the calorimeter cw  4200 Jkg 1K 1

Qs  Qw  Qc
ms cs  s   2   mwcw  2  1   mc cc  2  1 
QS  ms cs  s   2   400.420   2 
QS  1620   2 
Qw  Qc  mwcw 2  1   mccc 2  1 
 504.2 2  10   600.4 2  10 
 210 2  10   24 2  10 
Qw  Qc  234 2  10 
 1620   2   234 2  10 
 320  16 2  234 2  2340
 320  2340  234 2  16 2
 2660  250 2
2660
 2   10.64C
250
4. Water of mass, m at 100 0C is added to
0.50kg of water at 20 0C in a well-lagged
calorimeter of thermal capacity 105JK-1.
If the specific heat capacity of water is
4200Jkg-1K-1 and the final temperature
of the mixture is 70 0C, determine the
value of m .
Qhw  mhwcw hw     m4200100  70
Qhw  m420030  126000m
Qww  Qc  mwwcw    ww   mc cc    ww 
 0.5420070  20  10570  20
 105000 5250
Qww  Qc  110250
 126000m  110250
110250
m  0.875kg
126000
5. 2005 Q4c (Nov)
In an experiment to determine the specific
heat capacity of a metal by the method of
mixtures, a metal weighing 50.0g is heated
to 100 0C in a bath and transferred quickly
to a vessel containing 200.0cm3 of water at
15 0C.
The mixture is well-stirred but gently until it
reaches a final steady temperature of 20 0C.
(i) Explain the importance of each of the
underlined precautions in the experiment.
(ii) Determine the specific heat capacity of
the metal, neglecting the loss of heat to the
containing vessel. [ density of water =
1000kgm-3 ; specific heat capacity of water
= 4200Jkg-1K-1 ]
Solution
(i) transferred quickly –so that the metal
will not lose heat
well-stirred – to distribute heat energy
uniformly
gently – to avoid splashing
(ii) 1000kgm-3 = 1gcm-3
mass of water, mw  density x volume
(b) (i) Describe an experiment to determine
the specific heat capacity of a metal by the
method of mixtures.
(ii) State two precautions necessary to
obtain accurate results in the experiment
escribed in (i)
(c) A metal of mass 50g was heated to 100
0
C and quickly transferred into a calorimeter
of mass 80g containing 60g of water at 30
0
C. The mixture was stirred continuously
until a final temperature of 42 0C was
attained. Calculate the specific heat capacity
of the metal. [ sp heat capacity of water =

= 1 x 200 = 200g 4200Jkg-1K-1 ;sp heat capacity of

calorimeter=400Jkg-1K-1]
mw  200g  0.2kg s  100C
2009 Q12
ms  50g  0.05kg 1  15C
(b) A cube of aluminium of mass 25g at
 2  20C cw  4200 Jkg K 1 1
150 0C was dropped gently into an
cs  ? aluminium calorimeter of mass 70g

Heat loss by = Heat gain by containing 80g of water at 40 0C. Neglecting

the metal the water heat losses, calculate the final temperature

Qs  Qw of the mixture
ms cs  s   2   mwcw  2  1  [ specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1
 0.05cs (100  20)  0.2(4200 )( 20  15) ]
 0.05cs (80)  0.2(4200 )(5) [sp heat capacity of aluminium =0.9Jg-1K-1
 4cs  4200 ]
4200
 cs   1050 Jkg 1K 1 (c) Explain the statement: The specific heat
4
capacity of aluminium is 900Jkg-1K-1
TRY
2008 Q12 (Nov)
(a) Define specific heat capacity of a
substance
Experiment to determine the specific heat Hence the specific heat capacity of the
capacity of a liquid using the method of liquid, cl can be calculated.
mixtures m  mass c  specific heat capacity
Diagram
1  initial temp. of the liquid
thermometer
 2  final steady temp. of the mixture
stirrer
 s  initial temp. of the solid (copper)

liquid NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING AND

solid (copper) THE COOLING CURVE
Newton’s law of cooling states that for a

lagged copper calorimeter small difference in temperature between a

Method body and its surroundings, the rate of heat

The diagram for the experiment is as shown loss by the body is directly proportional to

above. the change in temperature between the body

A copper calorimeter with stirrer is weighed, and its surroundings.

first empty and then when about three- Mathematically,

quarters full of the liquid using a beam dQ d


dt dt
balance. The initial temperature of the liquid
dQ d
is recorded using the thermometer. The solid   C
dt dt
(copper) which has been heated in a steam
jacket is quickly and carefully transferred dQ 
  mc
dt t
into the calorimeter. The mixture is then
stirred gently until a steady temperature is
Cooling curve
attained.
It is a graph of temperature against time.
Theory
 /0 C
Assuming that no heat is lost to the
surroundings,
Heat loss by = Heat gain by the liquid(l) and
the solid(s) the calorimeter (c)
t/s
Qs  Ql  Qc
ms cs  s   2   ml cl  2  1   mc cc  2  1 
Consider the cooling curves for liquids A 2007 Q3b
and B below: State Newton’s law of cooling.
 /0 C 2009 Q6
2 Sketch and label the cooling curve of liquid

1 A B naphthalene as it cools from 85 0C to 30 0C

[ melting point of naphthalene = 80 0C ]
tA tB t/s
Solution
It can be deduced that the time for B to cool
 /0 C
from  2 to 1 is greater than that of A (tB > tA)
hence liquid A cools faster than liquid B.
85
NB
80
In cooling curves, the one which cools faster
is always below.
30
2006 Q5
t/s
Two equal volumes of water at 800C were
put separately into two identical
At the melting point (80 0C), the temperature
calorimeters. One calorimeter is well-lagged
remains constant for some time.
and completely covered while the other open
and unlagged. Using the same set of axes,
Illustration of Newton’s law of cooling
sketch graphs to illustrate the cooling of
Consider the cooling curves for liquids A
water in the calorimeters to 50 0C.
and B below:
Solution
The water in the unlagged calorimeter cools
 /0 C
faster and hence its curve is below the other.
2
 /0 C
80
1 A B

50 A B tA tB t/s

tA tB t/s By Newton’s law,

dQ 
A = water in the unlagged calorimeter   mc
dt t
B = water in the well-lagged calorimeter

dQA     
 mAcA A  mAcA 2 1
Assuming that the rate of heat loss by the
dtA t A tA two liquids are the same, calculate the


dQB     
 mBcB B  mBcB 2 1
specific heat capacity of the liquid A.
dtB tB tB [ sp heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1 ]
Examples Solution
1. The diagram below shows a cooling curve mw  82g  0.082kg cw  4200 Jkg-1K-1
for a liquid of mass 80g and specific heat mA  110 g  0.11kg
-1 -1
capacity 3200Jkg K .
 /0 C
dQw dQA

80 dt w dt A
 w  A
 mwcw  m Ac A
40 t w t A
 85  15   85  15 
20 t/s  0.0824200    0.11c A  
 20   30 
Calculate the rate of heat loss by the liquid.
 1205.4  0.257 c A
Solution
1205.4
1 1  cA   4690.3Jkg 1K 1
m  80g  0.08kg c  3200Jkg K 0.257
dQ
 mc

 0.083200 
80  40  Experiment to determine the specific heat
dt t 20 capacity of a liquid by the method of
 40 
 256   2562512 Js 1
dQ cooling
dt  20 
Diagram
thermometer
2. The diagram below shows the cooling
stirrer
curves for 82g of water and 110g of a
liquid A.
liquid(water)
 /0 C
85 copper calorimeter
solid (copper)
15 water A Heat
20 30 t/s
Method
Calorimeter is weighed first empty and then
when two-thirds full of water using a beam
balance. The water is heated using a Bunsen TRY
flame to a temperature of about 90 0C and In an experiment to determine the specific
allowed to cool to about 50 0C while heat capacity of a liquid the following
recording its temperature at 30s interval. results were obtained when both the liquid
The water is then replaced with the liquid of and water of the same volume were allowed
equal volume of water and the procedure is to cool from 80 0C to 20 0C.
repeated.
Cooling curves for water and the liquid are Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
drawn on the same axes as shown below: t/s
 /0 C water 80 65 50 40 30 24 20
90  /0 C
liquid 80 60 40 28 20 - -
50 liquid water  /0 C
tl tw t/s

Theory (i) Draw the cooling curves for water and

Rate of heat loss = Rate of heat loss liquids on the same axis

by the liquid by the water (ii) Using the curves, determine the specific

dQl dQw heat capacity of the liquid


dtl dt w [mass of water =60g, mass of the liquid=48g
      ]
 ml cl  l   mwcw  w 
 tl   tw  [sp heat capacity of water =4200Jkg-1K-1 ]
l   w  90  50  40 [ Ans : 3500Jkg-1K-1 ]
ml cl mwcw ELECTRICAL CALORIMETRY
 
tl tw Electrical energy supplied =
Hence the specific heat capacity of the Heat energy absorbed
liquid, cl can be calculated.

2000 Q4b Power x time = mc

Describe an experiment to determine the

specific heat capacity of water by the V2
IVt  I 2 Rt  t  mc
method of cooling. R
I  current V  voltage 3. A 300-W electric immersion heater is
R  resis tan ce t  time used to heat a cup of water. The cup of mass
m  mass c  specific heat capacity 0.4kg is made of glass and contains 0.2kg of

 = temperature change water at 20 0C. How long will it take the

Examples heater to bring the water to 100 0C?

1. Water of mass 2kg at a temperature of 30 [sp heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1]

0
C is heated by a 5KW coil. Calculate the [specific heat capacity of glass = 840Jkg-1K-
1
time taken by the water to boil. ]

[specific heat cap of water=4.2x103Jkg-1K-1] Solution

Solution Power, P = 300W mw  0.2kg

Power = 5KW = 5000W mc  0.4kg
0
water boils at 100 C
Power x time =
= mc
mwcw 2  1   mccc 2  1 
Power x time
 
5000t  2 4.2 x10 100  30 
3

 300t  0.24200 100  20   0.4840 100  20 

5000t  8400 70   588000
 300t  67200  26880  94080
588000
t   117.6s 94080
5000 t   313.6s
300
117.6
t min s  1.96 min s
60 4. An electric heater immersed in 30g of
2. An electric heater operating on a 230V water raises its temperature from 40 0C to 55
0
supply is used to heat a metal block of mass C in 3 minutes. The same heater is used to
600g which is at an initial temperature of 30 raise the temperature of 50g of a liquid from
0
C. If the current passed is 5A, calculate the 25 0C to 47 0C for 5 minutes. Calculate the
time it takes to heat the metal to 90 0C. (a) power of the heater
[specific heat cap of the metal= 460Jkg-1K-1] (b) the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Solution [specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1]
m = 600g = 0.6kg Solution
IVt  mc Case 1 (water)
 5230 t  0.6460 90  30  Electrical energy supplied by the heater =
 1150t  16560 Heat energy absorbed by the water
16560
t   14.4s time, t = 3mins = 3 x 60s = 180s
1150
Power x time = mc The copper calorimeter is weighed first
 Power 180   30 4.255  40  empty and then when about half filled with
 180 P  1890 the liquid using a beam balance. The initial
1890 temperature of the liquid is recorded using
P  10.5W
180
the thermometer. The key is closed and at
Case 2 (liquid)
the same time a stop watch is started. After a
Electrical energy = Heat energy
time t the current I from the ammeter, the
supplied absorbed by the
voltage V from the voltmeter and the final
by the heater liquid
temperature reading are recorded.
Power, P = 10.5W, t = 5mins = 5x 60s
Theory
=300s
Electrical energy supplied by the heater =
Power x time = mc
Heat energy absorbed by the liquid and the
 10.5300   50cl 47  25
calorimeter
 3150  1100 cl
IVt  ml cl   mccc 
3150
 cl   2.86 Jg 1K 1
1100 Hence the specific heat capacity of the
Experiment to determine the specific heat liquid, cl can be calculated.
capacity of a liquid by electrical method Experiment to determine the specific heat
Diagram capacity of a solid by electrical method
Ammeter Diagram
A
thermometer Battery
V
key
liquid

lagged calorimeter
electric immersion heater
v = voltmeter Method
Two holes are bored into an aluminum block
Method
M and its mass is determined using a beam
The set- up for the experiment is as shown
balance. An electric heater H and a
above.
thermometer T are inserted into the holes thermometer where the outlet temperature
and a little oil is put in the holes to ensure may be measured. When steady-state
good thermal contact. The initial conditions have been reached, the time t ,
temperature of the block is noted. The block current I from the ammeter, voltage V from
which is surrounded by a lagged jacket J is the voltmeter and the inlet and outlet
heated for some time. temperatures 1 and  2 respectively are
After a time t the current I from the recorded.
ammeter, the voltage V from the voltmeter Theory
and the final temperature reading are Electrical energy supplied by the heater =
recorded. Heat energy absorbed by the liquid
Theory IVt  ml cl 2  1 
Electrical energy supplied the heater =Heat
Hence the specific heat capacity of the
energy absorbed by the aluminum block
liquid, cl can be calculated.
IVt  mscs 
WATERFALL
Hence the specific heat capacity of the solid,
Energy changes at a waterfall
cs can be calculated.
Potential Kinetic Sound Heat
Experiment to determine the specific heat Energy Energy Energy Energy
capacity of a liquid by continuous flow
method Potential = Heat
Diagram Energy Energy
 mgh  mcw 

Method
Liquid flows in from a constant-head
apparatus at a constant rate past a
thermometer at the inlet. It then flows
around the heater coil and out past a second
 gh  cw 
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height of the fall
cw = specific heat capacity of water
 = temperature difference of water
between the top and bottom of the fall
In determining the height of a waterfall, one (ii) Refer to notes
has to measure the difference in temperature TRY
of water between the top and bottom of the 2005 Q21
fall and use the formular below : Water falls through a height of 50m.
cw Determine the temperature rise of the water
h
g at the bottom of the fall.
[ g = 10ms-2 ; specific heat capacity of
water = 4200Jkg-1K-1 ]
Examples CHANGE OF STATE
1991 Q14 Sensible and Latent heat
A waterfall is 420m high. Calculate the Sensible heat is the heat that produces a
difference in temperature of the top and change in temperature of a substance
bottom of the fall. without a change in state.
[ g = 10ms-2 ; specific heat capacity of Latent heat is the heat that changes the
water = 4.2 x103Jkg-1 0C-1 ] physical state of a substance without a
Solution change in temperature.
gh  cw Latent heat of fusion
gh 10420  It is the quantity of heat required to change a
     1C
cw 4.2 x103 substance at its melting point to liquid
2004 Q3c without a change in temperature.
(i) A waterfall is 100m high. Calculate the Specific latent heat of fusion ( l f )
difference in temperature of water at the
It is the quantity of heat required to change
top of the fall and that at the bottom.
1kg (or a unit mass) of a substance at its
-2
[ g = 10ms ; specific heat capacity of
melting point to liquid without a change in
-1 0 -1
water = 4200Jkg C ]
temperature.
(ii) State the energy changes that take place
The S.I unit is Jkg-1. Fusion occurs at the
at a waterfall
melting point.
Solution
At melting point, quantity of heat Q  ml f
gh  cw
gh 10100  Melting point is the temperature at which
     0.24C
cw 4200 solid changes to liquid.
Melting point of ice is 0 0C hence at 0 0C [specific heat capacity of ice = 2.1 x103Jkg-
Q  ml f 1
K-1

Examples [specific latent heat of fusion of ice =

1. Calculate the quantity of heat needed to 3.36x105

melt 4kg of ice at 0 0C and to raise the Solution

temperature of the water formed to 50 0C. mi  20g  0.02kg

[specific latent heat of fusion of ice Q  Q (ice from – 100C to 00C) + Q (at 00C)
= 3.4 x105Jkg-1 ; specific heat capacity of Q  mi ci 10  mil f
water = 4200Jkg K ] -1 -1
  
Q  0.02 2.1x103 10  0.02 3.36x105 
Solution Q  420  6720  7140J
Q  Q (at 0 0C) + Q (from 0 0C to 50 4. A block of ice of mass 2kg at – 100C is
0
C) heated until it forms water at 500C.
Q  mil f  mwcw 50  ; mi = mw Calculate the total heat involved in the

 
Q  4 3.4 x105  44200 50 
process.

Q  1360000  840000 [specific heat capacity of ice = 2100Jkg-1K-

Q  2200000 J  2200 KJ
1
]

2. Heat is applied to 0.2kg of ice initially at [sp latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36x105 ]

0 0C to change it to water at 2 0C. Calculate [specific heat capacity of water=4200Jkg-1K-

1
the amount of heat supplied. ]

[specific latent heat of fusion of ice Solution

= 3.36 x105Jkg-1; specific heat capacity of Q1  Q (ice from – 100C to 00C) = mi ci 10
water = 4.2x103Jkg-1K-1 ] Q1  22100 10   42000 J
Solution
Q  Q (at 0 0C) + Q (from 0 0C to 2 0C) Q2  Q ( ice at 0 0C) = mil f
Q  mil f  mwcw 2 ; mi = mw
 
Q2  2 3.36x105  672000J
 
Q  0.2 3.36 x10  0.2 4.2 x10 2
5
 3

Q  67200  1680
Q3  Q (water from 00C to 500C) =
Q  68880 J  68.88 KJ
3. Calculate the heat required to convert
mwcw 50

20g of ice at – 100C to water at 0 0C. Q3  2420050  420000J

Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  1500t  525  16800  3150
Q  42000  672000  420000  1134000 J  1500t  20475
Q  1134 KJ 20475
t   13.65s
1500
5. (a) Explain the statement: The specific
6. An electric heater is used to heat ice from
latent heat of ice is 33600Jkg-1
- 100C to reach its melting point for 10 mins.
(b) An electric heater rating 1500W,
After further 15mins it was observed that
240V is used to convert 50g of ice at – 50C
half of the ice has been melted. Calculate
to water at 150C. Calculate the time involved
the specific latent heat of fusion of the
in the process.[specific heat capacity of ice =
ice.
2100Jkg-1K-1 ] [sp latent heat of fusion of
[specific heat capacity of ice = 2100Jkg-
ice = 3.36x105 ] [sp heat capacity of water
1
K-1]
= 4200Jkg-1K-1 ]
Solution
Solution
Case 1
(a) It means the quantity of heat required to
Time, t = 10mins = 10 x 60s =600s
change 1kg of ice at its melting point to
a liquid without a change in temperature Pt  mci 10 
 600 P  m2100 10 
is 336000J
 600 P  21000 m
(b) Power, P = 1500W,
21000 m
P  35m
mi  50g  0.05kg 600
Power x time = Q1  Q2  Q3 Case 2
Time, t = 15mins = 15 x 60s = 900s
Q1  Q (ice from – 50C to 00C) =
Pt  ml f
mi ci 5
 900 P  ml f
Q1  0.052100 5  525 J  90035m   ml f
Q2  Q ( ice at 0 C) = mil f
0
 l f  31500 Jkg 1

 
Q2  0.05 3.36x105  16800J
Q3  Q (water from 00C to 150C) =

mwcw 15

Q3  0.05420015  3150J

Pxt  Q1  Q2  Q3
Experiment to determine the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice by the method
of mixtures
Diagram
thermometer
stirrer
dried ice
water
lagged copper calorimeter
Method
The set-up for the experiment is as shown
above.
A copper calorimeter with stirrer is weighed
first empty and then when three-quarters full
of warm water using a beam balance. The
initial temperature of the water is recorded
using the thermometer. Some pieces of ice at
00C are dried and quickly transferred into
the calorimeter. The mixture is stirred gently
until a steady temperature is attained. The
calorimeter and its contents are weighed to
find the mass of the ice.
Theory
Heat given out by calorimeter and water =
Heat gain by ice 0°C+ Heat gain by ice to
change to water
mwcw 1  2   mccc 1  2   mil f  mi cw 2 
Hence the specific latent heat of fusion of
ice, l f can be calculated.
Precautions
 the calorimeter must be well-lagged
 the ice must be well dried and
quickly transferred into the
calorimeter
 the mixture must be well stirred
Example
A copper calorimeter weighs 50g when
empty and 250g when half-filled with water
at 200C. 20g of dried ice at 00C are added to
the water. The final temperature of the
mixture after all the ice has melted is 110C.
Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of
ice. Give your answer in KJ/kg.
[specific heat capacity of copper =
400J/kg/K]
[specific heat capacity of water =
4200J/kg/K]
Solution
mc  50g  0.05kg
mw  250  50  200g  0.2kg
mi  20g  0.02kg
1  20C  2  11C
mwcw 1  2   mc cc 1  2   mil f  mi cw 2 
0.2x4200(20-11)+0.05x400(20-11) = 0.02+
0.02x4200x11
 7560  180  0.02l f  924
 7560  180  924  0.02l f
 6816  0.02l f
6816
 lf   340800 J / kg  340.8KJ / kg
0.02
Latent heat of vaporization
It is the quantity of heat required to change a
liquid at its boiling point to vapour without a
change in temperature.
Specific latent heat of vaporization, lv
It is the quantity of heat required to change
1kg of a liquid at its boiling point to vapour
or steam without a change in temperature.
The S.I unit = Jkg-1
Vaporization occurs at the boiling point.
The boiling point of water is 100 0C hence at
100 0C, Q  mlv
Boiling Point is the temperature at which
the saturated vapour pressure becomes equal
to the atmospheric pressure.
Examples
1. Calculate the quantity of heat required to
change 50g of water at 20 0C to steam.
[specific heat capacity of water = 4.2x103 ]
[specific latent heat of vaporisation of water
= 2.26x106Jkg-1 ]
Solution
mw  50g  0.05kg
Q  Q1  Q2
Q1  Q (water from 200C to 100 0C)
Q1  mwcw 100  20   0.05 x 4.2 x103 x80
Q1  16800 J
Q2  Q (steam at 1000C)
Q2  mslv mw  ms
Q2  0.05x2.26x106  113000J
Q  Q1  Q2  16800 113000
Q  129800J  129.8KJ
2. Calculate the total heat required to
convert 150g of water at 300C to steam.
[specific heat capacity of water = 4.2x103 ]
[specific latent heat of vaporisation of water
= 2.26x106Jkg-1 ]
Solution
mw  150g  0.15kg
Q  Q1  Q2
Q1  Q (water from 300C to 100 0C)
Q1  mwcw 100  30   0.15 x 4.2 x103 x70
Q1  44100 J
Q2  Q (steam at 1000C)
Q2  mslv mw  ms
Q2  0.15x2.26x106  339000J
Q  Q1  Q2  44100 339000
Q  383100J  383.1KJ
3. Calculate the total heat needed to convert
500g of ice at – 120C to steam.
[specific heat capacity of water = 4.2x103
[specific latent heat of vaporisation of water
= 2.26x106Jkg-1 ; specific heat capacity of Solution
ice Case 1
= 2.1x103Jkg-1K-1 ; specific latent heat of t  6 min s  6 x60  360 s
fusion Pt  mwcw 100  40 
of ice = 3.36x105Jkg-1  360 P  mx4200 x60
Solution mx4200 x60
P  700 m
360
m  500g  0.5kg mi  mw  ms
Case 2
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4
t  25 min s  25 x60s  1500 s
Q1  Q (ice from -12 C to 0 C)
0 0
Pt  1
2 mlv
Q1  mi ci 12  0.5x2.1x103 x12  12600 J  1500 P  0.5mlv
 1500700m   0.5mlv
Q2  Q (ice at 00C)
1500700m 
 lv   2.1x106 Jkg 1
Q2  mi l f  0.5 x3.36 x10  168000 J
5
0.5m
2004 Q4b

Q3  Q (water from 00C to 1000C) A heating element of an electric kettle rated

2KW is used to heat 500g of water at a
Q3  mwcw 100   0.5x4.2 x103 x100  210000 J
temperature of 20 0C. Assuming no heat
Q4  Q (steam at 1000C) losses, calculate
Q4  mslv  0.5x2.26 x106  1130000 J (i) the time taken for the water to reach its
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4 boiling point of 100 0C
 Q  12600  168000  210000  1130000 (ii) how much water will be left after heating
 Q  1520600 J  1520 .6 KJ for two more minutes
2008 Q12c [sp heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1]
An electric heater immersed in some water [specific latent heat of vaporisation of water
raises the temperature of the water from = 2.26x106Jkg-1 ]
400C to 100 0C in 6 minutes. After another Solution
25 minutes, it was discovered that half the Power, P  2KW  2000W
water has boiled away. Calculate the latent mass, mw  500g  0.5kg

(i) Pt  mwcw 100 20

heat of vaporization of water. [ Neglect heat
losses to the surroundings; specific heat
capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1.
  2000t  0.5 x 4200 x80 I 2 Rt  ml cl 79  25   mc cc 79  25
 2000t  168000  
 15 2 50 1200   0.1cl 54   8054 
168000  13500000  5.4cl  4320
t   84 s
2000  13500000  4320  5.4cl
(ii) t  2 min s  2 x60  120 s  13495680  5.4cl
13495680
 cl   2499200 Jkg 1 K 1
Pt  ms lv 5 .4

 2000 120   ms 2.26 x10 6  (ii)
 240000  2260000 ms t  20 min s  20 x60s  1200 s
240000
 ms   0.106 kg  106 g I 2 Rt  mlv
2260000
 
 152 50 1200   0.1lv
106g out of 500g of water turned to steam.
 13500000  0.1lv
Hence the mass of water left = 500 – 106 13500000
lv   1.35 x108 Jkg 1
=394g 0.1
2009 Q12c (Nov) TRY
A heating coil of resistance 50Ω is An electric kettle with a 2.0kW heating
immersed in a liquid of mass 100g in a element has a heat capacity of 400JK-1.
container of thermal capacity 80JK-1. The 1.0kg of water at 20oC is placed in the
liquid which was initially at a temperature of kettle. The kettle is switched on and it is
25 0C reached its boiling point of 79 0C in found that 13mins later the mass of water in
20 minutes after a current of 15A passed it is 0.5kg. Ignoring heat losses, calculate the
through the coil. With the same current it value for the specific latent heat of
took a further 20 minutes for all the liquid to vaporization of water.
boil away. Calculate the [ Sp heat cap of water = 4.2 x 103J/kg/K]
(i) specific heat capacity of the liquid [ Ans : 2.38 x 106J/kg ]
(ii) specific latent heat of vaporization of Experiment to determine the specific
the liquid latent heat of vaporization of water by the
Solution method of mixtures
mass of liquid, m  100g  0.1kg Diagram
(i)
t  20 min s  20 x60  1200 s

Heat
Method
The set-up for the experiment is as shown
above.
A calorimeter with stirrer is weighed first
empty and then when half full of water using
a beam balance. The initial temperature of
Example
2003 Q3c (Nov)
Dry steam is passed into a well-lagged
copper can of mass 250g containing 400g of
water and 50g of ice at 0 0C. The steam
supply was cut-off when the mixture has
attained a uniform temperature of 20 0C.
Neglecting heat losses, calculate the mass of
steam condensed.
[ sp latent heat of ice = 336Jg-1 ]
[ sp heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1 ]
[ sp heat capacity of copper = 0.4Jg-1K-1 ]
[ sp latent heat of steam = 2260Jg-1 ]
Solution
mw  400g mi  50g mc  250g

the water is taken using the thermometer. Heat given out = heat gain by water, ice
Steam from boiling water is passed through and
a tube and condenses back to water into the by the steam the calorimeter
calorimeter after passing through the
condenser (steam trap). The calorimeter and mslv  ms cw 100  2   mwcw 2  1   mccc 2  1 

its contents are weighed when a steady  mil f  mi cw  2 

temperature is attained after stirring to  2260ms  ms x4.2100  20  400x4.2x20
determine the mass of condensed steam.
 250 x0.4 x20  50 x336  50 x4.2 x20
Theory
Heat given out = heat gain by water and
 2260 ms  336 ms  33600  2000  16800  4200
by the steam the calorimeter
 2596 ms  56600
mslv  mscw 100  2   mwcw 2  1   mccc 2  1  56600
 ms   21.8 g
Hence the specific latent heat of 2596

vaporization of water, lv can be calculated. Graph to illustrate the physical changes of

state which occurs when a block of ice at -
100C is heated until it is converted to steam
at 1100C
 /0 C
110
steam
boiling point
100
water
melting point
0 t/s
- 10
ice
VAPOUR PRESSURE
Evaporation
The kinetic theory states that all matter is in
a state of continuous random motion.
Particles in a liquid, for example, have a
range of velocities, and the average speed of
the molecules depends on the temperature of
the liquid.
Some molecules close to the surface of the
liquid may have sufficient speed to escape
from the liquid to become vapour molecules.
These molecules may escape completely,
causing the liquid to evaporate. As the
molecules of the vapour are in constant
motion, they exert a pressure known as
vapour pressure.
Saturated and unsaturated vapours
An unsaturated vapour is one which can
receive more vapour from the liquid with
which it is in contact.
A saturated vapour is a vapour in contact
with its own liquid in an enclosed space. It
cannot take in more vapour.
Effect of temperature on saturated
vapour pressure (svp)
Increasing the temperature of a saturated
vapour and its liquid causes the average
kinetic energy of the molecules to increase.
More molecules leave the liquid to become
vapour and these molecules move at a
greater speed. Therefore the vapour pressure
increases.
At the temperature at which the svp equals
the atmospheric pressure, the liquid boils.
Humidity
It is the amount of water vapour present in
the atmosphere.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of
water vapour in a certain volume of air to
the mass of water vapour needed to saturate
the same volume of air at the same
temperature.
Humidity is measured by hygrometer.
Dew Point
As the air temperature is cooled, a point is  raising the temperature
reached at which the water vapour saturates  removing the vapour as it forms
the air. Below this temperature (called dew  reducing the pressure
point) water droplets condense, forming The Refrigerator
dew. The operation of the refrigerator relies on
Dew point is the temperature at which the cooling by evaporation. A volatile liquid is
water vapour present in the air is just subjected to reduced pressure, causing it to
sufficient to saturate it. evaporate rapidly. This occurs inside a
BOILING AND EVAPORATION copper coil situated at the back of the
Difference between boiling and evaporation. freezing compartment of the refrigerator. In
Boiling Evaporation evaporating, the liquid absorbs heat from its
Takes place Takes place only at surroundings. The vapour is pumped away
throughout a liquid the surface of a to the condenser, where it is compressed and
liquid liquefies. In liquefying, heat is produced,
Takes place only at Takes place at any and this is dissipated by cooling fins at the
the boiling point temperature back of the refrigerator. The casing of the
Cooling and Evaporation refrigerator is well insulated, usually by
When evaporation occurs, molecules having expanded polystyrene or a similar material.
the highest energy escape from the liquid.
Therefore, as a high energy molecules
escapes, the average energy of the liquid
must decrease. This means the temperature
of the liquid falls.
This can be illustrated by dipping one’s
finger into a volatile (low boiling point)
liquid, such as ether. As the ether
evaporates, the finger feels colder. The ether
takes heat from the finger itself.
The rate of evaporation of a liquid can be
increased by
 increasing the surface area

The Refrigerator
Effect of pressure on boiling point
If the atmospheric pressure is reduced,
boiling point also reduces. At high altitudes,
the atmospheric pressure is reduced and
hence the boiling point of water may be
reduced to about 95 0C. It is therefore
difficult to cook properly in mountainous
regions.
Conversely, increasing the atmospheric
pressure causes the boiling point to be
increased.
TRANSFER OF HEAT
Heat is a form of energy which flows from a
region of high temperature to a region of
low temperature.
The three modes of heat transfer are
conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction
It is a type of heat transfer in which
molecules pass on their energy by collision
with neighbouring molecules without the
movement of the molecules.
Conduction is the main method of heat
transfer in solids.
Liquids are poor conductors of heat but
better than gases. Conduction does not take
place in vacuum.
Convection
It is the main method of heat transfer in
liquids and gases. Unlike conduction, where
energy is transferred but molecules retain
their position, in convection the heat transfer
is by movement of the molecules
themselves.
Demonstration of convection in a liquid
Diagram
Method
A beaker of cold water is set up on a gauze
and tripod. A small crystal of potassium
permanganate is placed at the bottom using
a spatula. The beaker of water is gently
heated and the pattern of movement of the
water is noted as the potassium
permanganate dissolves.
Land and sea breezes
Sea breeze occurs during the day. The land
heats up much more quickly than sea.
During the day, hot air above the land rises
and is replaced by cool air blowing in from
the sea.
Land breeze occurs during the night. At
night, the land cools down more quickly and
the sea stays comparatively warm. Hence,
warm air above the sea rises and a breeze
blows from the land.
sea breeze land breeze
Radiation
This type of heat transfer does not need a
material for its propagation and hence is the
way in which heat is transferred across a
vacuum.
Dull black surfaces absorb and emit heat
radiation better than shiny, light-coloured
surfaces.
Black body
A black body is an idealized physical body
that absorbs all incident electromagnetic
radiation regardless of frequency or angle of
incidence.
A black body in thermal equilibrium emits
electromagnetic radiation called black-body
radiation.
Graph of Intensity against wavelength for
different temperatures.
Intensity T3 > T2 > T1
T1
T2
T3
wavelength
The thermos flask
It is used for keeping hot substances hot and
cold substances cold. It is designed to
minimize heat loss or heat gain by
conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction is reduced by using good
thermal insulators for the walls and for the
stopper. The stopper may be cork or plastic
and the glass inner vessel is usually
supported by a glass or plastic base.

Convection and conduction are eliminated

by making the inner vessel a double walled
container which is then evacuated.
Radiation is reduced by silvering the inner
and outer walls of the inner vessel thus
making it a bad absorber and a bad emitter
of radiation.