Basics Concepts

There are certain tests of divisibility that can help us to decide whether a given number is divisible by
another number.
1. Divisibility of numbers by 2:
► A number that has 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 in its ones place is divisible by 2.
2. Divisibility of numbers by 3
► A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
3. Divisibility of numbers by 4
► A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by its last two digits (i.e. ones and tens) is divisible
by 4.
4. Divisibility of numbers by 5
► A number that has either 0 or 5 in its ones place is divisible by 5.
5. Divisibility of numbers by 6:

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► A number is divisible by 6 if that number is divisible by both 2 and 3.
6. Divisibility of numbers by 7:
► A number is divisible by 7, if the difference b/w twice the last digit and the no. formed by the other
digits is either 0 or a multiple of 7. eg. 2975, it is observed that the last digit of 2975 is '5', so, 297 --(5x2)
= 297 - 10 =287, which is a multiple of 7 hence, it is divisible by 7
7. Divisibility of numbers by 8:
► A number is divisible by 8 if the number formed by its last three digits is divisible by 8.
8. Divisibility of numbers by 9:
► A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
9. Divisibility of numbers by 10:
► A number that has 0 in its ones place is divisible by 10.

10. Divisibility of numbers by 11:

► If the difference between the sum of the digits at the odd and even places in a given number is either 0
or a multiple of 11, then the given
number is divisible by 11.
11. Divisibility of number by 12.

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► Any number which is divisible by both 4 and 3, is also divisible by 12. To check the divisiblity by 12,
we i. First divide the last two-digit number by 4. If it is not divisible by 4, it is divisible by 4 is not
divisible by 12. If it is divisible by 4 them. ii. Check whether the number is divisible by 3 or not.
Ex: 135792 : 92 is divisible by 4 and also (1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +2 =) 27 is divisible by 3 ; hence the number
is divisible by 12.
12. Divisibility by 13
Oscillator for 13 is 4. But this time, our oscillator is not negative (as in case of 7) It is 'one-more'
Oscillator. So, the working Principle will be different now.
Eg: Is 143 divisible by 13 ? Sol: 14 3 : 14 + 3 x 4 = 26 Since 26 is divisible by 13, the number 143 is also
divisible by 13. Eg2 : Check the divisibility by 13. 2 416 7 26/6/20/34 [ 4 x 7 ( from 24167 ) + 6 ( from
24 167) = 34] [4 x 4 ( from 3 4 ) + 3 (from 3 4 ) + 1 (from 24167)] =20 [4 x 0 (from 2 0 ) + 2 (from 20) +
4 (from 24 167)= 6] [4 x 6 (from 6 ) + 2 (from 24 167)= 26] Since 26 is divisible by 13 the number is also
divisible by 13.

13. Divisibility by 14

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► Any Number which is divisible by both 2 and 7, in also divisible by 14. That is, the number's last digit
should be even and at the same time the number should be divisible by 7.

14. Divisibility by 15
► Any number which is divisible by both 3 and 5 is also divisible by 15.
15. Divisibility by 16
► Any number whose last 4 digit number is divisible by 16 is also divisible by 16.
16. Divisibility by 17
► Negative Oscillator for 17 is 5. The working for this is the same as in the case 7. Eg: check the
divisibility of 1904 by 17
Sol: 1904 : 190 - 5 x 4 = 170 Since 170 is divisible by 17, the given number is also divisible by 17. E.g 2:
957508 by 17
So1:95750 8: 95750 - 5 x 8 = 95710 9571 0 : 9571 - 5 x 0 = 9571 957 1 : 957 - 5 x 1 = 952 952 : 95 - 5x2
=85
Since 85 is divisible by 17, the given number is divisible by 17.
17. Divisibility by 18
► Any number which is a divisible by 9 has its last digit (unit-digit) even or zero, is divisible by 18.
Eg.926568 : Digit - Sum is a multiple of nine (i.e, divisible by 9) and unit digit (8) is even, hence the
number is divisible by 18.

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18. Divisibility by 19
► If recall, the 'one-more' osculator for 19 is 2. The method is similar to that of 13, which is well known
to us. Eg. 1 4 9 2 6 4 19/9/12/11/14
General rules of divisibility for all numbers:
♦ If a number is divisible by another number, then it is also divisible by all the factors of the other
number.
♦ If two numbers are divisible by another number, then their sum and difference is also divisible by the
other number.
♦ If a number is divisible by two co-prime numbers, then it is also divisible by the product of the two co-
prime numbers.

INTEGERS
• Whole numbers are represented on the number line as shown here:
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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• If you move towards the right from the zero mark on the number line, the value of the numbers
increases.
▪ If you move towards the left from the zero mark on the number line, the value of the numbers decreases.
i. Integers: The collection of the numbers, that is, ... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...., is called integers.
ii. Negative integers: The numbers -1, -2, -3, -4... which are called negative numbers.
iii. Positive integers: The number 1, 2, 3, 4 ...s, which are called positive
• Euclid's division lemma can be used to: a = b q + r
• Find the highest common factor of any two positive integers and to show the common properties of
numbers.
• Finding H.C.F using Euclid's division lemma.
• Suppose, we have two positive integers 'a' and 'b' such that 'a' is greater than 'b'. Apply Euclid's division
lemma to the given integers 'a' and 'b' to find two whole numbers 'q' and 'r' such that, 'a' is equal to 'b'
multiplied by 'q' plus 'r'.
• Check the value of 'r':
If 'r' is equal to zero then 'b' is the HCF of the given numbers.
If 'r' is not equal to zero, apply Euclid's division lemma to the new divisor 'b' and remainder 'r'. Continue
this process till the remainder 'r' becomes zero. The value of the divisor 'b' in that case is the HCF of the
two given numbers.
• Euclid's division algorithm can also be used to find some common properties of numbers.

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Some Rules on Counting Numbers
i. Sum of all the first n natural numbers =
For eg.:1 + 2 + 3 +....+ 105 = =5565
ii. Sum of first n odd numbers = n2
Eg: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42 = 16 (as there are four odd numbers)
Eg: 1 + 3 +5 + +20th odd numbers
(ie. 20 2 - 1 = 39 ) = 202 = 400
iii. Sum, of first n even numbers = n(n + 1)
Eg: 2 + 4 +6 +8 + +100 (or 50th Even number)
= 50 x (50 + 1 )= 2550
iv. Sum of Squares of first n natural numbers =
For eg : 12 + 22 + 32 + ……….102
=
v. Sum of cubes of first n Natural numbers
=
i. For eg : 13 + 23 + + ………… 63

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 Department of Analytical Skills, Centre for Professional Enhancement
• Square number:
In mathematics, a square number or perfect square is an integer that is the square of an integer; in other
words, it is the product of some integer with itself. For example, 9 is a square number, since it can be
written as 3 x 3.
Some Important Points
1. A number n is a prefer. square if n = m for some integer m
2. A perfect square number is never negative
3. A square number never ends in 2, 3, 7or 8
4. The number of zeros at the end of the perfect square is even.
5. The square of an even number is odd and odd number is even.
6. A perfect square number never leaves remainder 0 or "I on division by 3.
7. If a number has a square root then its unit digit must be 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9.

8. For every natural number n,

For example:
81 – 64 = 17
9. The square of natural number n is equal to the sum of first an odd natural numbers

Eg: 1 = 1 + 3 = 1 + 3 + 5 =
10. For any natural number m > 1, (2m, m2 -1, m2 + 1) is a Pythagoras triplet
Averages

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"Average is a very simple but effective way of representing an entire group of by a single value.
"Average of a group is defined as
Average =
Sum of all items in the group
Number of Items in the group
“Sum of all the items in the group” means “sum of the values of all the items in the group.”
A batsman‟s performance can be expressed as the average number of runs scored per innings rather than
giving the scores in individual innings. For example, let us say a cricketer scored the following runs in 9
different innings in a year: 35, 56, 124, 29,0,87,98,45 and 75. Then his average score (per innings) for the
year is
35  56  124  29  0  87  98  45  75
9 = 61
Similarly, if there are 60 students in a class, instead of talking of the height of each individual student, we
can talk of “average” height of the class. The average height of the class is equal to the sum of the heights
of all the students of the class divided by the number of students in the class.
Average is also called the “mean” or mean value of all the values.

Points to remember
(i) If the value of each item is increased by the same value P, then the average of the group

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or items will also increase by p.
(ii) If the value of each item is decreased by the same value p, then the average of the group
or items will also decreased by p.
(iii) If the value of each item is multiplied by the same value, then the average of the group or items
will also be multiplied by p.
(iv) If the value of each item is divided by the same value P (P ≠ 0), then the average of the
group or items will also be divided by p.
(v) The average of a group of items will always lie between the smallest value in the group
and largest value in the group – i.e., the average will be greater than the smallest value
and less than the largest value in the group.

Weighted Average
When two groups of items are combined together, then we can talk of the average of the entire group.
However, If we know only the average of the two groups individually, we cannot find out the average of
the combined group of items.

For example, there are two sections A and B of a class where the average height of section A is 150 cm
and that of section B is 160 cm. On the basis of this information alone, we cannot find the average of the
entire class (of the two sections). As discussed earlier the average height of the entire class is
total height of the entireclass
total numberof students in the entire class

Since we do not have any information regarding the number of students in the two sections, we cannot
find the average of the entire class. Now, suppose that we are given that there are 60 students in the
section A and 40 students in section B, then we can calculate the average height of the entire class which,
60x150  40x160
in this case will be equal to 60  40 = 154cm.
This average height 154 cm of the entire class is called “weighted average” of the class.
The above step in calculating the weighted average of the class can be rewritten as below:

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60x150  40x160 60 40
60  40 = 100 *150 + 100 *160
3 2
= 5 150 + 5 160
It is clear from the above step that we would have been able to calculate the average height of the entire
class even if we had not been given the number of students in the individual sections but only the ratio of
the number of students in two sections (which in this case is 3: 2).
Even if there are more than two groups of items to be combined, then also the weighted average can be
calculated by the same method. For example, if three sections in a class have their average marks as 75,
76 and 79 respectively and their respective strengths are 30, 35 and 35, then the average mark of the
entire class is given by
30x75  35x76  35x79
30  35  35 = 76.75
The method of deviations we use for calculating averages can be applied to calculate weighted average
also. Here, that method will involve finding out deviations from the arbitrarily chosen number and
calculating the weighted average of these deviations. In the above example, if we take 70 as the arbitrary
figure, then the deviations of the three observed values given from 70 are +5,+6 and +9. The weighted
average of these deviations is
30x5  35x6  35x9 675

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30  35  35 = 100 = 6.75
Hence, the weighted average will be
70+6.75 = 76.75

The arbitrary figure chosen can be any figure and if it is selected, as in the previous case, between the
smallest and largest observed figure, some of the deviations will be positive and some negative making
the final division relatively simpler. For example, in the above case, if we take with 76 as the arbitrary
figure, the deviations are -1, 0 and +3. Then the weighted average will be

30x(1)  35x0  35x(3) 75

30  35  35 = 100 = 0.75

Hence, the weighted average will be 76 + 0.75 = 76.75

“Weighted Average” can be defined or calculated for any MIXTURE.

Mixtures
Mixing of two or more qualities of things produces a mixture. When two items of different qualities are
thus mixed, the quality of the resultant mixture lies in between the qualities of the original constituent
items, i.e. it will be higher than the lowest quality and lower than the highest quality of the items being
mixed.

In the above example that we took, the “quality” that we looked at was the height of the students. We
could also have taken their weights or the marks scored by them or any other “Quality” of “parameter”
and calculated the “weighted average” value of that particular “quality” for the entire group.

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Similarly, if two types of a product of different prices per unit are mixed, the unit price of the resultant
mixture will lie between the prices of the two types that form the mixture.

Here, the average quality is essentially the weighted average of the two constituent items. If q1 is the
quality (or number of items) of one particular item of quality p1 and q2 be the quantity (or number of
items) of the second item of quality p2 are mixed together to give a new mixture, then the weighted
average value (p) of the quality of the mixture is given by

p1q1  p 2q 2
P=
q1  q 2

Even if there are more than two groups of items mixed, the weighted average rule can be applied. We will
only have to take figures (as shown in the formula for the two groups) for all the groups in the numerator
as well as the denominator and calculate the weighted average. For example, if there are four groups of
quantities q1, q2, q3 and q4 whose respective quantities are p1, p2, p3 an p4, then the weighted average
quality of the group can be written as

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p1q1  p 2q 2  p3q3  p 4q 4
P=
q1  q 2  q3  q 4
A mixture can also be a solution – that is, a liquid mixed with another liquid which is normally water. The
concentration of the solution is expressed as the proportion (or percentage) of the liquid in the total
solution.
For example, if 10 litres of pure alcohol is mixed with 40 litres of water, then in a total solution of 50
litres. There is 10 litres of alcohol. Hence the concentration of this solution is 0.2(=10/50) or 20%.
Similarly, if 30 litres of pure milk is mixed with 10 litres of water, the concentration of this solution can
be expressed as 75% (=30/40) milk or 25% water.
We can also have two solutions mixed together to give a new solution. Such problems can also be
handled in the same manner as other mixtures. In the weighted average rule, the quality of the
constituents (p1,p2etc.) will then be the concentrations of various solutions mixed together.
Alligation
It is the rule that enables us to find the ratio in which two or more ingredients at the givenprice must be
mixed to produce a mixture of a desired price.
Mean price: The cost price of a unit quantity of the mixture is called the mean price.
Rule of Alligation: If two ingredients are mixed, then:

We present as under:
C.P. of a unit quantity of cheaper C.P. of a unit quantity of dearer

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 Mean Price ( m)

∴ (Cheaper Quantity) : (Dearer Quantity) .

Suppose a container contains units liquid from which units are taken out and replaced by water. After
operations, the quantity of pure liquid units.

Example 1: In what proportion must wheat at R 6.20 per kg must be mixed with wheat at R 7.20
per kg so that the mixture is worth R 6.50?
Solution: According to the rule of mixture/alligation,

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CP of Cheaper CP of dearer
(620 paise) (720 paise)

Mean price
(650 paise)

720 – 650 = 70 650 – 620 = 30

Required ratio = 70 : 30 = 7 : 3

BASIC ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

We know that the algebraic identities of second degree and these idens titles can be used to factorise
quadratic polynomials.
A polynomial is said to be cubic polynomial if its degree is three
The algebraic identities used in factorizing a third degree polynomials are :

1. (α+в)²= α²+2αв+в²
2. (α+в)²= (α-в)²+4αв b
3. (α-в)²= α²-2αв+в²
4. (α-в)²= f(α+в)²-4αв
5. α² + в²= (α+в)² - 2αв.
6. α² + в²= (α-в)² + 2αв.
7. α²-в² =(α + в)(α - в)
8. 2(α² + в²) = (α+ в)² + (α - в)²
9. 4αв = (α + в)² -(α-в)²
10. αв ={(α+в)/2}²-{(α-в)/2}²

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11. (α + в + ¢)² = α² + в² + ¢² + 2(αв + в¢ + ¢α)
12. (α + в)³ = α³ + 3α²в + 3αв² + в³
13. (α + в)³ = α³ + в³ + 3αв(α + в)
14. (α-в)³=α³-3α²в+3αв²-в³
15. α³ + в³ = (α + в) (α² -αв + в²)
16. α³ + в³ = (α+ в)³ -3αв(α+ в)
17. α³ -в³ = (α -в) (α² + αв + в²)
18. α³ -в³ = (α-в)³ + 3αв(α-в)

Percentages
It is one of the most important chapters which is backbone of calculations either involved in commercial
arithmetic or in real life. So in context of calculation it is necessary to know the clear concepts of
percentage which plays a vital role in Data Interpretation.
Percentage – A fraction with denominator 100 is called percent. Basically percent means per hundred.
Conversion of a fraction into percentage- To convert a fraction into percentage, multiply the fraction by
100 and put % sign.
Ex. If fraction is 1/2 then 1/2 x 100 = 50%
If fraction is 7/8 then 7/8 x 100 = 87.5%

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Conversion of a percentage into fraction- To convert a percentage into fraction, replace the % sign with
1/ 100 and reduce the fraction into simplest form.
Ex. 20% = 20/100 = 1/5
45% = 45/100 = 9/20
200% = 200/100 = 2
Relation between Fraction and Percentage

Sr. No. Fraction Percentage

1 ½ 50%

2 1/3 33.33%

3 ¼ 25%

4 1/5 20%

2
5 1/6 16.66% = 16 %
3
2
6 1/7 14.28 % = 14 %
7
1
7 1/8 12.5 % = 12 %
2

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 1
8 1/9 11.11% = 11 %
9
9 1/10 10% =

1
10 1/11 9.09% = 9 %
11
1
11 1/12 8.33 % = 8 %
3
9
12 1/13 7.69% = 7 %
13
1
13 1/14 7.14 % = 7 %
7
2
14 1/15 6.67 % = 6 %
3
1
15 1/16 6.25 % = 6 %
4

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15
16 1/17 5.88 % = 5 %
17
5
17 1/18 5.55% = 5 %
9
5
18 1/19 5.26 % = 5 %
19
19 1/20 5%

Concept of percentage change-

Percentage increase/decrease in a quantity = (change in quantity/original quantity) x 100 %

PROFIT AND LOSS

Profit & Loss

Cost Price: The price, at which an article is purchased, is called its cost price, abbreviated as C.P.
Selling Price: The price, at which an article is sold, is called its selling price, abbreviated as S.P.
Profit or Gain: If S.P. is greater than C.P., the seller is said to have a profit or gain.
Loss: If S.P. is less than C.P., then the seller is said to have incurred a loss.

 Gain = (S.P.) – (C.P.)

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  Loss = (C.P.) – (S.P.)

Loss or gain is always reckoned on C.P.

 Gain% =
 Loss% =

 S.P. =

 S.P. =

 C.P. =

 C.P. =

 If an article is sold at a gain of say, 35%, then S.P. = 135% of C.P.



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If an article is sold at a loss of say, 35%, then S.P. = 65% of C.P.

 When a person sells two similar items, one at a gain of say, , and the other at a loss of ,
then the seller always incurs a loss given by:

 If a trader professes to sell his goods at a cost price, but uses false weights, then

Concept of Marked Price

Marked Price:- When we purchase any item we saw the label on it as price or marked price & i.e. said
to be MP.
Generally, the SP is less than the marked price (MP), the difference MP-SP is known as discount, D.
Discount = MP – SP

Discount % = Discount/MP x 100

Successive discount
Suppose we have given a discount of x %, then y % then the overall discount % would be

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  xy 
x y  
 100 
For example
If a shopkeeper gives a successive discount of 30 % & 20 % to the customer, then overall discount % the
customer would get
 30  20 
 30  20   % = 44%
 100 
 If the cost price of „m‟ articles is equals to the selling price of „n‟ articles , then overall gain or loss %
would be
mn if m  n, it is gain
  x 100 if m  n, it is loss 
 n   

 If an article is sold at a price S1, and % gain or % less is x & if sold at a price S 2, & gain or loss % is y,
S1 S2
Then, =
100  x 100  y

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Simple & Compound Interest

Simple Interest
Principal: The money borrowed or lent out for a certain period is called the principal or the sum.
Interest: Extra money paid for using other‟s money is called interest.
Simple Interest (S.I.): If the interest on a sum borrowed for a certain period is reckoned uniformly, then it
is called simple interest.
Let principal = , Rate = per annum (p.a.) and Time = years. Then,

S.I.

Compound Interest
Let principal = , Rate = per annum (p.a.) and Time = years. Then,

1. When interest is compounded Annually: Amount

2. When interest is compounded Half – yarely: Amount

3. When interest is compounded Quarterly: Amount

4. When the interest is compounded annually but time is in fraction, say years.

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 Amount

5. When Rates are different for different years, say ₁%, ₂%, ₃% for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year
respectively.

Then, Amount
6. Present worth of due years hence is given by:

Present Worth

TIME AND WORK

In solving the problems based on time and work, we need to calculate the following parameters.

(A) Time: - Time taken to complete an assigned job.

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(B) Individual time: - Time needed by single person to complete a job.

(C) Work:- It is the amount of work done actually.

 If a man can do a piece of work in 5 days, then he will finish 1/5th of the work in one day.

 If a man can finish 1/5th of the work in one day then he will take 5 days to complete the work.

 If a man 5/6th of work in one hour then he will take 6/5 hours to complete the full work.

 If A works three times faster than B then A takes 1/3rd the time taken by B.

Rules and Tricks:

Rule 1: Universal Rule

This rule can be used in almost every problem.

• If M1 persons can do W1 work in D1 days and M2 persons can do W2 works in D2days then we can
say
M1D1W2 = M2D2W1

• If the persons work T1 and T2 hours per day respectively then the equation gets modified to
M1D1T1W2 = M2D2T2W1

• If the persons has efficiency of E1 and E2 respectively then,

M1D1T1E1W2 = M2D2T2E2W1

• Rule 2:
If A can do a piece of work in n days, then
The work done by A in one day = 1/n

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Example:

• If A can repair 50 cycles in 5 days then A can repair 50/5 = 10 cycles in one day.

• Rule 3:
If A can do a piece of work in X days and B can do the same work in Y days, then both of them
working together will do the same work in

XY/X+Y days.

Rule 4:
If A is twice as good a workman as B, then A will take half of the time taken by B to complete a piece
of work.

Example:

A is twice as good a workman as B. Together, they finish the work in 14 days. In how many days can
it be done by each separately?
Solution 1:
Let‟s assume that A alone can finish the work in x days.

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It is given that A is twice as good a workman as B so B alone can finish the work in 2x days

= x * 2x / x + 2x = 2x2/3x = 14.

So x = 21 days.
So A can finish the work in 21 days and B can finish the work in 42 days.

Solution 2:

If A and B working together can finish a work in X days and A is K times efficient than B, then the
time taken by

(i) A, working alone, to complete the work is

{(K + 1) * X }/K days.

Here, X = 14, K = 2

Hence, = (3/2)14

= 21 days.

Rule 5:

If A can finish a work in X days and B is K times efficient than A, then the time taken by both A and
B working together to complete the work is = Days

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 Rule 6:

If A, B and C, while working alone, can complete a work in X, Y and Z days respectively, then they
will together complete the work in

= days.

Rule 7:

Two persons A and B, working together, can complete a piece of work in X days. If A, working
alone, can complete the work in Y days, then B, working alone, will complete the work in

= days.

Rule 8:

If A and B, working together, can finish a piece of work in X days, B and C in Y days, C and A in Z
days, then

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(a) A, B and C working together, will finish the job in = days.

(b) A alone will finish the job in = days.

(c) B alone will finish the job in = days.

(d) C alone will finish the job in = days.

Rule 9:

If A working alone takes X days more than A and B together, then B working alone takes Y days
more than A and B together, then the number of days taken by A and B, working together, to finish a
job is given by √XY

Rule 10:

If the number of men are changed in the ratio of m:n, then the time taken to complete the work will
change in the ratio n:m.

WORK & WAGES

Wages are distributed in proportion to the work done and in indirect (or inverse) proportion to the time
taken by the individual.
There are two methods: -

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Eg. A can do a work in 6days and B can do the same work in 5 days. The contract for the work is Rs. 220.
How much shall B get If both of them work together.
Methods I: -
A‟s 1 day‟s work = 1/6; B‟s 1 days work=1/5

Ratio of their wages =1/6:1/5 = 5:6

B‟s share = (220*6)/(5+6)

Methods II: -
As wages are distributed in inverse proportion of number of days, their share should be in the ratio 5 : 6
B‟s share = (220*6)/11 = 120 Rs

PIPES AND CISTERNS

Pipes & Cisterns: These problems are almost the same as those of Time and work problems. Thus, if a
pipe fills a tank in 6 hrs, then the pipe fills 1/6th of the tank in hour.
There is one difference that pipes & a cisterns problem is that there are outlets as well as inlets. Thus,
there are agents (the outlets) which perform negative work too. The rest of the process is almost similar.
Inlet

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A pipe connected with a tank (or a cistern or a reservoir) is called an inlet, if it fills it.
Outlet
A pipe connected with a tank is called an outlet, if it empties it.
Formulae

I. If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours, then the part filled in 1 hour = 1/x
II. If a pipe can empty a tank in y hours, then the part of the full tank 1 emptied in 1 hour = 1/y
III. If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours and another pipe can empty the full tank in y hours, then the net part
filled in 1 hour, when both the pipes are opened = (1/x - 1/y)
Time taken to fill the rank, when both the pipes are opened = xy/y-x
IV. If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours and another can fill the same tank in y hrs, then the net part filled in
1 hr, when both the pipes are opened = (1/x + 1/y)
time taken to fill the tank = (xy/x+y)

If a pipe fills a tank in x hrs & another fills the same tank in y hrs, but a third one empties the full tank in
z hrs, and all of them are opened together, the net part filled in 1 hr = (1/x + 1/y – 1/z)
time taken to fill the tank =(xy)/ y+x-yz

A pipes can fill a tank in x hrs. Due to a leak in the bottom it is filled in y hrs. If the tank is full, the time
taken by the leak to empty the tank = xy/y-x hrs

PROBLEMS ON TRAINS
1. Time taken by a train of length meters to pass a pole or a standing man or a signal post is equal
to the time taken by the train to cover meters.=
2. Time taken by a train of length meters to pass a stationary object of length meters is the time
taken by the train to cover meters.

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 3. Suppose two trains or two bodies are moving in the same direction at u m/s and v m/s , where , u
> v then their relative speeds = u – v m/s .
4. Suppose two trains or two bodies are moving in the opposite direction at u m/s and v m/s, where,
u > v m/s then their relative speeds = u + v m/s
5. If two trains of length X meters and Y meters are moving in opposite directions at U m/s and V
m/s, then the time taken by the trains to cross each other = (X+Y)/ (U+V) m/s
6. If two trains of length X meters and Y meters are moving in the same direction at U m/s and V
m/s, then the time taken by faster train to cross the slower train = (X+Y)/(V-U) m/s
7. If two trains (or bodies), start at the same time from points A and B towards each other and after
crossing they take X and Y sec in reaching B and A respectively, then:
( A‟s speed) : (B‟s speed) = (√Y : √X )
BOATS AND RIVERS
1. In water, the direction along the stream is called downstream. And, the direction against the
stream is called upstream.
2. If the speed of a boat in still water is u m/s and the speed of the stream is v m/s, then:
Speed downstream= u + v m/s
Speed upstream = v- u m/s

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3. If the speed downstream is S1m/s and the speed upstream is S2 m/s, then:
Speed in still water= ½ ( S1 + S2) m/s
Rate of stream= ½ (S1 – S2) m/s
LINEAR AND CIRCULAR TRACK RACE
In order to understand the concept related to Races and Games first we have to understand some terms
related to such problems.
Start : Suppose A and B are two contestant in a race of 100 m. If before the race start B is 12 m ahead,
then we say that A gives B, a start of 12 m.
In general In a 100 m race “ A can give B 12 m” or “A can give B a start of 12 m” or “ A beats B by 12
m” means that A runs 100 m, B runs (100 – 12 ) = 88 m.
Games : “ A game of 100 means that the person among the contestants who score 100 points first is the
winner”
If A scores of 100 points while B scores only 80 points, then we say that “A can give B 20 points”
Dead Heat Race : If all the persons contesting a race reach the goal exactly at the same time, then the
race is called dead heat race.

The most common formula used in problems related race is that if in a race of Z m A beats B by a m and
B beats C by b m. then A beats C by (a + b – ab/Z) m.
Circular tracks : Second concept comes of circular track. The contestant may run in same direction or
opposite direction and hence the concept of relative speed comes. The below table will help to solve
mostly all type of problems related to circular tracks.

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When TWO people are running around a circular track

When the two person are WHEN THE TWO

running in the SAME PERSONS ARE RUNNING
direction IN OPPOSITE directions

Time taken to meet for the L L

FIRST TIME EVER ( a  b) ( a  b)

Time taken to meet for the L L L L

first time at the LCM of , LCM of ,
STARTING POINT a b a b

When THREE people are running around a circular track

Time taken to meet for the  L L 

FIRST TIME EVER LCM of  , 
 a  b  b  c 

Time taken to meet for the L L L

LCM of  , , 

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first time at the STARTING
POINT
a b c 

TRIGONOMETRY

Pythagoras Theorem: - In a right angled the square of the hypotenuse is sum of the squares of the base
of the perpendicular. h2 = p2 + b2

The ratios of the sides of a right – angled triangle with respect to its angles are called trigonometric ratios.
AB = Perpendicular (P)
BC = Base (B) and AC = Hypotenuse (H)
Hint
Some People Have, Curly Black Hair, Turn Permentely Brown

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» ѕιη²Θ+¢σѕ²Θ=1 » ѕє¢²Θ-тαη²Θ=1

» ¢σѕє¢²Θ-¢σт²Θ=1 » ѕιηΘ=1/¢σѕє¢Θ

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» ¢σѕє¢Θ=1/ѕιηΘ » ¢σѕΘ=1/ѕє¢Θ

» ѕє¢Θ=1/¢σѕΘ » тαηΘ=1/¢σтΘ

» ¢σтΘ=1/тαηΘ » тαηΘ=ѕιηΘ/¢σѕΘ

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LOGARITHMS

In the equation a x  N , we are expression N in terms of a and x. The same equation can be re-written as,
a  N 1 / x . Here we are expressing a in terms of N and x. but, among a, x and N, by normal algebraic
methods known to use, we cannot express x in terms of the other two parameters a and N. This is where
logarithm come into the picture. When a x  N , then we say x  logarithm of N to the base a, and write it
as x  loga N . The definition of logarithm is given as: "the logarithm of any number to a given base is
the index or the power to which the base must be raised in order to equal to given number."
Thus,
if a x  N then x  loga N

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This is read as "log N to the base a".
In the above equation, N is a POSITIVE NUMBER and a is a POSITIVE NUMBER OTHER THAN
1.
This basic definition of logarithm is very useful in solving a number of problem on logarithms.
Example of a logarithm : 216  6 3 2can be expressed as log6 216  3.
Since logarithm of a number is a value, it will have an "integral" part and a "decimal" part. The integral
part of the logarithm of a number is called the CHARACTERISTIC and the decimal part of the logarithm
is called the MANITSSA.
Logarithms can be expressed to any base (positive number other than 1). Logarithms from one base can
be converted to logarithms to any other base. (Once of the formulae, given below will help do this
conversion). However, there are two types of logarithms that are commonly used on the basis of bases.
(i) Natural Logarithms of Napierian Logarithms: These are logarithms expressed to the base of a
number called "e."
(ii) Common Logarithms: These are logarithms expressed to the base 10. For most of the problems
under LOGARITHMS, it is common logarithms that we deal with. In examinations also, if
logarithms are given without motioning any base, it can normally be taken to be logarithms to the
base 10.
The following should be remembered by the student regarding Common Logarithms.
I. The characteristic of the common logarithm of a number greater than unity is positive and is less
by one than the number of digits in its integral part.
For example, the characteristic of log245 will be 2 (because the number has 3 digits and the
characteristic should be one less than number of digits in the number).
Similarly, the characteristic of log4758 will be 3.

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II. The characteristic of the common logarithm of a number between 0 and 1 is negative and its
magnitude is one more than the number of zeros immediately after the decimal point.
For example, the characteristic of log0.0034 will be –3 or 3.
III. The mantissas are the same for the logarithms of all numbers which have the same significant
digits in the same order. The values of mantissas, which are necessary to solve a problem, are
usually given in the problem itself, as part of data.
The above points are helpful in using common logarithms in calculations.
Let us look at the value of log0.02 given that are the value of log2 is 0.3010.

The characteristic of log 0.02 will be 2. The mantissa will be the same as that for log2. Hence the
value of log0.02 is 2. 3010. Here the mantissa 0.3010 is positive while the characteristic is
negative. But the same can be written with a negative mantissa, in which case the characteristic
will be –1. Let us see how to do this conversion.

2..3010  2  0.3010
 2  1  1  0.3010(by adding and subtracting)
 {2  1}  {1  0.3010}

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 1  (0.6990)  1.6990

So, the value of log 0.02 can be written as 2. 3010 or as – 1.6990 and both are the same.
Similarly, given that the value of log3 is 0.4771, we can find out the value of log0.003. Since
there are two zeroes in this number immediately after the decimal point, the characteristic is
3 and the mantissa is positive and the same as that for log3. So the value of log0.003 is
3.4771. This can also be written as – 2.5229 (You should do this conversion of 3.4771into –
2.5229 in the same way we did for log 0.02).
Given below are some important rules/formulae in logarithms:
(i) loga a  1 (logarithm of any number to the same base is 1)

(ii) log a 1  0 (log of 1 to any base other than 1 is 0)

(iii) log a (mn)  log a m  log a n

(iv) log a (m / n)  log a m  log a n

(v) loga m p  p  loga m

1
(vi) log a b 
logb a

logb m
(vii) log a b 
logb a
p
(viii) log a q m p  log a m
q

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 (ix) a loga N  N
(x) a log b  b log a
You should memorize these rules/formulae because they are very helpful in solving problems.
Like in the chapter on INDICES, in LOGARITHMS also there will be problems on
(i) Simplification using the formulae/rules listed above and
(ii) Solving for the value of an unknown given in an equation
In solving problems of the second type above, in most of the cases we take recourse to the basic definition
of logarithms (which is very important and should be memorized).
The following examples will give problems of both the above types and also some problems on common
logarithms.
The following rule also should be remembered while solving problems on logarithms.
Given an equation loga M  logb N .

(i) if M = N, then a will be equal to b; if M  1 and N  1.

(ii) if a  b, then M will be equal to N.

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The examples that follow will explain all the above types of problems. Please note that unless otherwise
specified, all the logarithms are taken to the base 10).

SURFACE AREA & VOLUME

1. CUBOID
Let length = l, breadth = b and height = h units. Then
i) Volume = (l x b x h) cubic units.
ii) Surface area = 2(lb + bh + lh) sq. units.
iii) Diagonal = l2 + b2 + h2 units.
2. CUBE
Let each edge of a cube be of length a. Then,
i) Volume = a3 cubic units.
ii) Surface area = 6a2 sq. units.
iii) Diagonal = 3a units.
3. CYLINDER
Let radius of base = r and Height (or length) = h. Then,
i) Volume = ( r2h) cubic units.
ii) Curved surface area = (2 rh) sq. units.
iii) Total surface area = 2 r(h + r) sq. units.
4. CONE
Let radius of base = r and Height = h. Then,

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 i) Slant height, l = h2 + r2 units.

ii) Volume = r2h cubic units.

iii) Curved surface area = ( rl) sq. units.
iv) Total surface area = ( rl + r2) sq. units.
5. SPHERE
Let the radius of the sphere be r. Then,

i) Volume = r3 cubic units.

ii) Surface area = (4 r2) sq. units.
6. HEMISPHERE
Let the radius of a hemisphere be r. Then,

i) Volume = r3 cubic units.

Curved surface area = (2 r2) sq. units.

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ii)
iii) Total surface area = (3 r2) sq. units.
7. PRISM
In a right prism, if a perpendicular is drawn from the centre of the top face, it passes through the
centre of the base.
For any prism,
Lateral Surface Area = Perimeter of base × Height of the prism
Total Surface Area = Lateral Surface Area + 2 × Area of base
Volume = Area of base × Height of the prism
8. PYRAMID
Volume of a pyramid = 1/3 × Area of base × Height
Lateral Surface Area = ½ × Perimeter of the base × Slant height
Total Surface Area = Lateral Surface Area + Area of the base.
Note: 1 litre = 1000 cm3.

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