III.
NANOMATERIALS
What is nanomaterial
 Nanomaterials are commonly defined as materials
with an average grain size less than 100 nanometers
 Nanomaterials have extremely small size which
having at least one dimension 100 nm
 One billion nanometers equals one meter
 The average width of a human hair is on the order of
100,000 nanometers
 A single particle of smoke is in the order of 1,000
nanometers
Nanomaterial shapes
 nanomaterials can be nanoscale in
dimension (surface films)
• Two dimensions (strands or fiber)
• Three dimensions (particles)
They can exist in single or fused forms with spherical,
tubular, and irregular shapes.
Why nanomaterials ?
• Nanotechnology exploits benefits of ultra small size,
enabling the use of particles to deliver a range of
important benefits
- Small particles are 'invisible':
• Transparent Coatings/Films are attainable
- Small particles are very weight efficient:
• Surfaces can be modified with minimal material
 the behavior of nanomaterials may depend more
on surface area than particle composition itself.
 Relative-surface area is one of the principal
factors that enhance its reactivity, strength and
electrical properties.
Weight efficient and Uniform coverage
 Large spherical particles do not cover much
surface area
 Nanoparticles Equal mass of small platelet
particles provides thorough coverage (1 x 106
times more)
 by patterning matter on the nano scale, it is
one possible to vary fundamental properties of
materials without changing the chemical
composition
Approaches
 Top-down- Breaking down matter into more
basic building blocks. Frequently uses chemical or
thermal methods.
 Bottoms-up - Building complex systems by
combining simple atomic-level components
Methods for creating nano structures.
 Mechanical grinding
Example of (top-down) method
 Wet chemical
Example of both (top-down) & (bottom up)
 Applications of nanomaterials

 nanophase ceramics
 nanostructured semiconductors
 Nanosized metallic powders
 Single nanosized magnetic particles
 Nanostructured metal-oxide thin films

Methods for creating nanostructures

IV. COMPOSITE MATERIALS
 Sol-gel process
 A composite material is a combination of two or
more materials that results in better properties
than those of the individual components used
alone.
 In contrast to metallic alloys, each material
retains its separate chemical, physical, and
mechanical properties.

INTRODUCTION
 Gas phase (furnace)
 A composite material can be defined as a
combination of two or more materials (having
significantly different physical or chemical
properties) that results in better properties than
those of the individual components.
 The constituents retain their identities in the
composite; that is, they do not dissolve or
otherwise merge completely into each other,
although they act in concert.
 Composites are one of the most widely used
Different types of Nanomaterials materials because of their adaptability to
different situations and the relative ease of
 Nano powder
combination with other materials to serve
 Nanotube
specific purposes and exhibit desirable
Tiny strips of graphite sheet rolled into tubes
properties.
 The main advantages of composite materials are
their high strength and stiffness, combined with
low density, when compared with bulk materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The composites are classified as mainly two constituents

are matrix and reinforcement

Why are nanomaterials important

These materials have created a high interest in recent

years by their high mechanical, electrical, optical and
magnetic properties.

ORGANIC/POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE (PMCs)
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and
thermoplastic
 Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded
three dimensional molecular structure after
curing. They decompose instead of melting on
hardening.
 Thermoplastics have one or two dimensional
molecular structure and they tend to at an
elevated temperature and show exaggerated
melting point. Another advantage is that the
process of softening at elevated temperatures
can reversed to regain its properties during
cooling.
METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE (MMCs)
 Metal matrix composites are High strength,
fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by
metal matrices than those offered by their
polymer counterparts. They can withstand
elevated temperature in corrosive environnment
than polymer composites.
 MMCs are widely used in engineering
applications where the operating temperature
lies in between 250 °C to 750 °C.
 Matrix materials: Steel, Aluminum, Titanium,
Copper, Magnesiumn and Super alloys.
CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE (CMCs)
 Ceramics can be described as solid materials
which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general
and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting
points, good corrosion resistance, stability at
elevated temperatures and high compressive
strength
 CMCs are widely used in engineering applications
where the operating temperature lies in between
800°C to 1650°C
CARBON/CARBON MATRIX COMPOSITE
 C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that
must operate in extreme temperature ranges.
Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with
carbon yarn fabric,3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding,
etc.
 C/C composites meet applications ranging from
rockets to aerospace because of their ability to
maintain and even increase their structural
properties at extreme temperatures.
Advantages:
 Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C -
2760 °C).
 Strength actually increases at higher
temperatures (up to 1930°C).
 High strength and stiffness
 Good resistance to thermal shock.
FUNCTIONS OF A MATRIX
 Holds the fibers together.
 Protects the fibers from environment.
 Distributes the loads evenly between fibers so
that all fibers are subjected to the same amount
of strain.
 Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
 Improves impact and fracture resistance of a
component.
 Carry inter laminar shear
DESIRED PROPERTIES OFA MATRIX
  Reduced moisture absorption.
 Low shrinkage.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Strength at elevated temperature (depending on
application)
 Low temperature capability (depending on
application).
PARTICULATE REINFORCED COMPOSITIONS
 Excellent chemical resistance (depending on
application).  Microstructures of metal and ceramics
composites, which show particles of one phase
strewn in the other, are known as particle
reinforced composites. Square, triangular and
round shapes of reinforcement are known, but
the dimensions of all their sides are observed to
be more or less equal. The size and volume
concentration of the dispersed distinguishes if
from dispersion hardened materials.

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they

satisfy the desired conditions and transfer strength to the
matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their
properties as desired. FLAKE COMPOSITES

 Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be

densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close
contact with each other in polymer matrices can
conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes and
glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to
produce and usually cost less than fibers.

LAMINAR COMPOSITES

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations

as the number of materials. They can be described as
materials comprising of layers of materials bonded
together. These may be of several layers of two or more
metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined
order more than once, and in as many numbers as
required for a specific purpose.

FILLED COMPOSITES

 Fillers may be the main ingredient or an

additional one in a composite. The filler particles
may be irregular structures, or have precise
 geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibers
or spheres.
Fillers may be the main ingredient or an
additional one in a composite. The filler particles
may be irregular structures, or have precise
geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibers
or spheres.
MICROSPHERES
 Microspheres are considered to be some of the
most useful fillers. Their specific gravity, stable
particle size, strength and controlled density to
modify products without compromising on
profitability or physical properties are it’s their
most-sought after assets.
 Solid Microspheres have relatively low density,
and therefore, influence the commercial value
and weight of the finished product. Studies have
indicated that their inherent strength is carried
over to the finished molded part of which they
form a consistent.
 Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate
based, made at controlled specific gravity. They
are larger than solid glass spheres used in
polymers and commercially supplied in a wider
range of particle sizes.
FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES
 The type, distribution, size, shape, orientation
and arrangement of the reinforcement will affect
the properties of the composite material and its
anisotropy.
ADVANTAGES
 Light in weight and Lower density
 High creep resistance
 Strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight are
greater than steel or aluminum.
 Fatigue properties are better than common
engineering metals
 Composites cannot corrode like steel
 Ease of fabrication of large complex structural
shapes or modules-Modular construction
 Ability to incorporate sensors in the material to
monitor and correct its performance-Smart
composites
 High resistance to impact damage
 Improved corrosion resistance
LIMITATIONS
 High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
 Composites are more brittle than wrought metals
and thus are more easily damaged.
 Transverse properties may be weak.
 Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
 Reuse and disposal may bee difficult.
 Difficult to attach.
 Difficulty with analysis.
 Cost can fluctuate.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SMART AND COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
 Smart materials have multiple functions, which
generally include sensor/actuator ability in
addition to having form, or being able to support
at least some structural weight. The classic
example is Nitinol, which is a Nickle-Titanium
allow. After mechanical deformation (for
example, bending), it can be heated up and will
return to the pre-deformed structural shape.
 Composites are materials that are combinations
of the least two different materials, which allow
 the engineering of desired properties (like  Use of 64 fiber optic sensors and 16
tailoring mechanical stiffness, conductivity, etc.) conventional electric resistance strain
Classic examples are glass fiber composites. gauges to monitor the bridge from a
CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE central monitoring station remote from
MATERIALS the bridge.
1. SMART CONCRETE 4. ROAD BRIDGES
 Unlike conventional concrete, the smart The Fiber-line Bridge, Kolding, Denmark was
concrete has higher potential and designed by the Danish engineering Company,
enhanced strength. Smart concrete can Ramboll using the pultruded profiles. The 40-m
be prepared by adding carbon fibers for (131-ft) long, 3-m(9.8ft) wide crossing carries
use in electromagnetic shielding and for pedestrians, bicycles and motorbikes over a
enhanced electrical conductivity of previously dangerous set of railroad tracks.
concrete.
 Smart concrete under loading and
unloading process will loose and regain
its conductivity, thus serving as a
structural material a well as a sensor.
Smart concrete plays a vital role in the
construction of road pavements as a
traffic-sensing recorder, and also melts
5 RFP DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES
ice on highways and airfields during
The doors made of FRP skins, sandwiched with
snowfall in winter season by passing low
core materials such as rigid polyurethane foam,
voltage current through it.
expanded polystyrene, paper honeycomb;
2. REHABILITATION AND RETROFIT
jute/coir felt etc. can have potential usage in
In theses cases the materials are usually bonded
residential buildings, offices, schools, hospitals,
externally to the structure in the form of tows
laboratories etc.
(fiber bundles), fabrics, plates, stirrups and
jackets. The advantages offered by composites in
these forms include their ability to bond well to
many substance materials and to follow complex
shapes.
3. ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR
HIGHWAY BRIDGES

5. THE TRAIN MADE UP OF FRP COMPOSITES

 Use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer
(CFRP) straight and draped tendons for
pre stressing four, 31.2 meter span
grinders.
 Use of CFRP stirrups for shear
reinforcements of two main grinders. Use
of CFRP for the deck slab.
 Use of glass fiber reinforced polymer
(GFRP) reinforcements for the bridge
curbs.
Composite materials are increasingly being used
in the Railway industry, weight saving of up to
50% for structural and 75% for non-structural
applicants bring in associated benefits of high-
speed, reduced power consumption, lower
inertial, less track wear and the ability to carry
greater pay-loads. Now more and more parts are
made of GFRP, which also resists corrosion and
 has excellent workability.
 Built on a Golf Course
 World’s first cable-stayed footbridge
 Constructed in 1992
 113m long with 63m main span
 All composite materials used for construction of
this bridge
 Delamination
 Matrix tensile failure
 Matrix compression failure
 Fiber tensile failure
 Fiber compression failure
V. CEMENT AND CONCRETE
CEMENT
 Cement is the costliest and most important
ingredient of concrete
 Cement has cohesive and adhesive properties
which make him capable of bonding the
materials.
 The cements of interest in the making of concrete
have the property of setting and hardening under
water by virtue of chemical reaction with it are,
therefore called HYDRAULIC CEMENT.
 Hydraulic Cement consist of mainly of silicate,
sand aluminates of time and can be classified
broadly as natural cements. For e.g. Portland
cement, high alumina cement, etc.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
 Cement mainly consist of lime, sand, alumina,
and iron oxide. The major compounds of cement
are classified as follows:
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT
CONCRETE
 Concrete is a composite material composed of
gravels or crushed stones (coarse aggregate),
sand (fine aggregate) and hydrated cement
(binder), and imparts considerable hardness to
the mixture.
 The cement reacts chemically with the water and
other ingredients to form a hard matrix which
binds all the materials together into a durable
stone-like material that has many uses.
 Sometimes, additives such as pozzolans or super
plasticizers are included in the mixture
 Most concrete is poured with reinforcing
materials (such as rebar) embedded to provide
tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
 Compressive Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Elastic Deformation
 Shrinkage
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH  The initial tangent modulus Ec is also known as
short term static modulus of elasticity of concrete
 Compressive strength is defined as the measured
in N/mm2 and is used to calculate the elastic
maximum resistance of a concrete or mortar
deflections.
specimen to an axial load, usually expressed in
PSI (pound per square inch) at an age of 28 days.
 Concrete compressive strength depends upon
many factors:
o Quality & Proportions of the ingredients
o The curing environment
 The grades are designated by one letter M (for
mix) and a number from 10 to 80 indicating the
characteristic compressive strength (F ck) in
N/mm2.
 As per 456 (Table 2), concrete has three groups
as (i) ordinary concrete (M 10 to M 20), (ii)
standard concrete (M 25 to M 55) and (iii) high
strength concrete (M 60 to M 80).

NOTE: The following grade to concrete are generally used

in highway pavements and are M30 M35 M40 M45.

TENSILE STRENGTH

 Concrete is not normally resist to direct tension,

SHRINKAGE
the knowledge of tensile strength is use to
estimate to load under which cracking will  Shrinkage is the time dependent deformation,
develop. generally compressive in nature.
 This is due to its influence on the formation of  The constituents of concrete, size of the member
cracks and its propagation to the tension side of and environmental conditions are the factors on
the reinforced concrete flexural member. which the total shrinkage of concrete depends.
 The tensile strength of concrete is relatively low. However, the total shrinkage is most influenced
 The flexural and splitting tensile strengths are by the total amount of water present in the
obtained as described in IS 516 and IS 5816, concrete at that time of mixing for a given
respectively humidity and temperature.
 However the following expression gives an  The approximate value of the total shrinkage
estimation of flexural strength (f cr) of concrete strain for design is taken as 0.0003
from its characteristic compressive strength.
ADDITIVES & ADMIXTURE

 Admixtures are chemicals which are added to

concrete at the mixing stage to modify some
properties of the mix.
 The reason of using admixtures in concrete are as
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
follows:
 It is seen that the initial tangent modulus is much  To improve durability.
higher than E, (tangent modulus inelastic  Water reduction in the mix without
respectively) components of strain. The initial changing workability.
tangent modulus Ec in N/mm2 is estimated from  To produce high strength concrete.
Ec =5000√ f ck  Accelerate the rate of strength
development at early stages.
  Strength enhancement.
 Crack Control (shrinkage reduction)
 To improve pump ability.
 Finish Enhancement
 Early Strength and Reduced Permeability.
 Produce a fluid backfill, which flows
easily and is self-leveling.
 To reduce the total cost of the materials
used. In concrete.
TYPE OF ADMIXTURE
 Plasticizers (water-reducing agent): When
concrete of high workability without using excess
of water is required then, Plasticizers are used.
The main types of plasticizers are : Lingo
Sulphates based, Melamine Sulphate based, and
Naphthalene Sulphate Based.
 Super Plasticizers (high range water reducers):
The use of plasticizer is practiced for production
of flowing, self levelling, self-compacting and for
the production of high strength concrete and high
performance concrete. Super-plasticizer are
chemical compounds such as modified Lingo
Sulphates (MLS), sulphonated melamine
formaldehyde (SMF), sulphonated naphthalene
formaldehyde (SNF) and other polycarboxylate
based materials.
Types of concrete used in pavement construction:
● High strength concrete
● High performance concrete
● Stamped concrete
● Fibre reinforced concrete
● Self Compacting concrete
High strength concrete
● High strength concrete has a compressive
strength greater than 40 MPa (6800 psi).
Recently, this strength has rose to 50 to 60 MPa
and its use has increase in construction of high-
rise bldg, and long span bridges. High strength
concrete is made by lowering the w/c ratio to
0.35 or lower.
● Often silica fume is added to prevent the
formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in
the cement matrix, which reduce the strength at
the cement-aggregate bond.
● Low w/c ratios and use of silica fume make
concrete less workable, which is particularly likely
to be perform in high-strength concrete
applications where dense rebar cages are likely to
be used.
● To compensate for reduced workability, super-
plasticizers are commonly added to high-strength
mixtures.
High Performance concrete
● HPC is being vastly used for highway pavement
due to potential economic benefits that can be
derived from early strength gain of HPC, it
reduced permeability, increased water or
abrasion resistance to steel studded tires and
improved freeze-thaw durability.
● Different types of HPC are being considered for
pavement repairs for early opening of traffic,
bridge deck overlays, etc.
● A durable concrete called fast track concrete
designed to give high strength at very early stage
without using special materials or techniques has
been developed.
● Fast track concrete paving (FTCP) technology can
be used for complete pavement reconstruction,
partial replacement by an inlay of at least one
lane, strengthening of existing bituminous or
concrete pavements by a concrete overlay, rapid
maintenance and reconstruction processes, and
air-field pavement.
● Benefits of applying FTCP is to reduce
construction period, early opening of pavement
to traffic, and minimizing the use of expansive
concrete paving plant.
Stamped concrete
● Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete
which has superior surface finish.
● After a concrete floor has been laid, floor
hardeners (can be pigmented) are impregnated
on the surface and a mold which may be textured
to replicate a stone/brick or even wood is
stamped on to give an attractive textured surface
finish.
● After sufficient hardening, the surface is cleaned
and generally sealed to give protection.
● The wear resistance of stamped concrete is
generally excellent and hence found in
applications like parking lots, pavements,
walkways, etc.
Fibre reinforced concrete ● The work should not proceed if the temperature
rises above 30c and in that case ice water may be
● Fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete
applied.
containing fibrous material which increases its
● The curing of DLC can be done by spraying liquid
structural integrity.
curing compound or by covering the surface with
● Fibres include steel fibres, glass- fibres, synthetic-
wetted jute bags.
fibres and natural fibres each of which lend
varying properties to the concrete. VI. SEMICONDUCTORS
● The amount of fibres
● Semiconductors are materials that essentially can
added to a concrete mix
be conditioned to act as good conductors, or
is ranging from 0.1 to
good insulators, or any thing in between.
3%.
● Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and
● Fibre reinforced
germanium are semiconductors.
concrete is increasingly
● Silicon is the best and most widely used
used on account of the
semiconductor.
advantages of increased
static and dynamic Semiconductor Valence Orbit
tensile strength, energy
absorbing characteristic ● The main
and better fatigue characteristic
strength. of a
semiconductor
Self Compacting Concrete element is that
it has four
● Self-consolidating concrete or self-compacting
electrons in its
concrete (SCC) is characterized by a low yield
outer or
stress, high deformability, and moderate viscosity
valence orbit.
necessary to ensure uniform suspension of solid
particles during transportation, placement
(without external compaction), and thereafter Crystal Lattice Structure
until the concrete sets.
● Such concrete can be used for casting heavily ● The unique capability
reinforced sections, places where there can be no of semiconductor
access to vibrators for compaction and in atoms is their ability to
complex shapes of formwork which may link together to form a physical structure called a
otherwise be impossible to cast, giving a far crystal lattice.
superior surface than conventional concrete. ● The atoms link together with one another sharing
● It has been demonstrated that a total sand their outer electrons.
content of about 50% of total aggregate is ● These links are called covalent bonds.
favorable in designing for SCC.

Dry Lean Concrete (For Sub-Base)

● Dry lean cement concrete (DLC) is used as a sub-

base for concrete construction.
● It is a plain concrete with a large ratio of
aggregate to cement than conventional concrete.
(i.e. 15:1)
3D Crystal Lattice Structure ● If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be
fewer free electrons so the resistance will be high
and less current will flow.
● By controlling the doping amount, virtually any
resistance can be achieved.

Another Way to
Dope

● You can also

dope a

Semiconductors can be Insulators

● If the material is pure semiconductor material like

silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an semiconductor material with an atom such as
excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound boron that has only 3 valence electrons.
to one another and are not free for current flow. ● The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form
● Good insulating semiconductor material is covalent bonds with its neighboring
referred to as intrinsic. semiconductor atoms as before. But one atom is
● Since the outer valence electrons of each atom missing from the bond.
are tightly bound together with one another, the ● This place where a fourth electron should be is
electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow. referred to as a hole.
● Silicon in this form is a great insulator. ● The hole assumes a positive charge so it can
● Semiconductor material is often used as an attract electrons from some other source.
insulator. ● Holes become a type of current carrier like the
electron to support current flow.
Doping
Types of Semiconductor Materials
● To make the semiconductor conduct electricity,
other atoms called impurities must be added. ● The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an
● “Impurities” are different elements. “N type” semiconductor.
● This process is called doping o “N” is for negative, which is the charge of
Semiconductors can be Conductors an electron.
● Silicon doped
● An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5 with material
valence electrons. missing
● Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the electrons that
arsenic valence electrons to bond with the produce
neighboring silicon atoms. locations
● The one electron left over for each arsenic atom called holes is
becomes available to conduct current flow. called “P
type”
Resistance Effects of Doping

● If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there semiconductor.

vwill be lots of extra electrons so the resistance o “P” is for positive, which is the charge of
of the material will be low and current will flow a hole.
freely.
Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors Elements in Semiconductors

● The DC voltage source has a positive terminal Range of Conductiveness

that attracts
● The
● the free electrons in the semiconductor and pulls
semiconductors
them away from their atoms leaving the atoms
fall somewhere
charged positively.
midway between
● Electrons from the negative terminal of the
conductors and
supply enter the semiconductor material and are
insulators.
attracted by the positive charge of the atoms
missing one of their electrons.
● Current (electrons) flows from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal

Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors

● The DC voltage source has a positive terminal

that attracts the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls them away from their
atoms leaving the atoms charged positively.
● Electrons from the negative terminal of the Range of Conductiveness
supply enter the semiconductor material and are
attracted by the positive charge of the atoms
missing one of their electrons.
● Current (electrons) flows from the positive ●
terminal to the negative terminal. Current Flow in
P-type Semiconductors
● Electrons from the negative supply terminal are
attracted to the positive holes and fill them.
Semiconductors have special electronic properties
● The positive terminal of the supply pulls the
which allow them to be insulating or conducting
electrons from the holes leaving the holes to
depending on their composition.
attract more electrons.
● Current (electrons) flows from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal.
● Inside the semiconductor current flow is actually
by the movement of the holes from positive to
negative.

SEMICONDUCTORS