Ps) 1 TOPIC 1, INTRODUCTION + The period from birth to the natural sea of ‘an organism represents its life span. . Reproduction is defined as 2 biological process in which an orgarism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to itself. + Reproduction enables the conti of the species generation after gener TOPIG 3, ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION y~ + A single individual (parent) is capable of producing offsprin; “LI + The offspring are Wentical to one another, and are exact copies of their parent. « The term clone ts used to dense ich — . morphologically and genetically similar individ uals, = + Common among single-celled organisms. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATIONY~ Gans, eT + Runner, rhizome (b; inger), sucker, tuber_[potato), offset (water hyacinth), bulbil (Agave) are all capable of giving rise to new offspring. Water hyacinth: Invasive weed drains oxygen from water leads to death of fishes. 1. JUVENILE PHASE (ANIMALS )/VEGETATIVE PHASE (PLANTS) + Period of growth and maturity before they can reproduce sexually. 72. REPRODUCTIVE PHASE + End of juvenile phase represents the beginning of reproductive phase. + unusual flowering phenomenon. + Bamboo flower only once in their life ti after the 50-100 years J Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelakuranji], flowers once in 12 years. we Budd REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS TOPIC 2. TYPES OF REPRODUCTION + Reproduction is of two types : (1) When offspring is produced by a single parent without the involvement of gamete formation, called asexual reproduction. (2) When two parents (opposite sex) participate in the process and also involve fusion of gametes, called sexual reproduction. TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION WAaiinary fission, a cell divides into two halves and each grows into an adult. E.g. Amoeba, Paramecium. Yeast small buds remain attached lly to the parent cell which eventually gets seperated at maturation. E.g. Hydra, Yeast, etc. TT WH Conidia (Penicillium) gemmules (sponge, + Zoespores are ‘oscopic motile structures TOPIC 4. SEXUAL PREPRODUCTION + Involves fusion of the male and female gametes to form the zygote which develops to into the new organism. ‘% SENESCENT PHASE v7 - ‘+ End of reproductive phase Placental Mammals eee YF omonmates (cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger! - Primates (Human, ape monkey) (_ HawOchRPre 4 LMonoec’ oun plat —> Coconut; Cuca bite 1 Chava ORGANISMS 4 Unisexual Bisexual (Mpfeecious) Animals sernabhvttes (Cockroach) GAMETE TRANSFER 4—Male and female gametes physically brought together to facilitate fusion + Large number of the male gametes are released to compensate loss the of male gametes during transport TYPES OF FERTILIZATION a EXTERNAL FERTILISATION + Syngamy occurs in the external medium (water). + Eg. Most of aquatic organisms and amphibians. « Disadvantages: Offspring are extremely ‘vulnerable to predators. POST - FERTILISATION EVENTS + It is the product of fertilisation, and is a single cell. L T.oT™ Diplordd, Mardhonkion Vint senuac ~ Coote, fawn {7 Bisxunl~ Eacthusoon 5 lath Dioctiong —+ PapAYA ; OATS PA Cc TOPIG 5. EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION U-~ |. PRE ~ FERTILISATION EVENTS + Gametogenesis is the process of formation of gametes. . + Garhetes are haploid cells. ~~ « Two gametes are morphologically similar, called homogametes (sogametes). + Gametes which are morphologically distinct, called heterogameters. AS MW FERTILISATION EVENTS Le + Syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote, —» Alusays diploid ua INTERNAL FERTILISATION + Syngamy occurs inside the body of the organism. + Eg. Reptiles, birds, mammals, bryophytes, co ee + Female gamete undergoes development to form new organism without fertilisation, called parthenogenesis. _ y Drones 2. eanvaceKesis AA + Zygote undergoes cell-division (mitosis) & cell differentiation leading to formation of embryo. Oviparous animals like reptiles and birds, lays fertilised eggs covered by hard calcareous shell. Uvivarous animals develops zygote inside the body of the female, like mammals.Pa a) 0-4 - Androgcium ywhorl of stamens (male reproductive orgon ~ Lang and slender stalk called filament, and the terminal bilobed structure called anthen - Anther is @ four-sided (tetragonal) microsporangia at the comers. - Surrounded by four wall layers epidermis, endothecium, middle layers and tapetum. ‘The cuter three wall Byers 2re for protection and dehiscence. aye ames layer, fst murine te dep eing pollen grains + Microsporagenesis cells of the sporagencus tissue Undergo meiotic divisions to form microspore tetrads UA Mkrossores associate fromeachotet and Weveton inte SoTER grains. ue POLLEN GRAIN (MALE GAMETOPHYTE) ~Tworayered wall, SA Hard outer layer called exine is made un of retistant organic material sporagolenia ~ Eine has apertures called germpores: WA “inner wal called Intne fis made up of cellulose and gest = allen gram contains to calls: (al Vegetative celle bigger, har abundant foed (t) Generative cell is small spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm & 3 nucleus. ln over 60,par cent of angiosperms, pallen grains ae shed at 2 celled stage. wheat, pollon grain Use viabity within So mines ip Rosaceae, Legumnaseae ard age, ‘Solanaceae, it remains viable for months. = + In rice, - Pollen grains of many species cause allergies ike gq ANTE asthma & bronchitis. —» PARTAB NLM + Pollen grains are rich in nutrients used as food supplements. wa -Gynoecium (pisti) represents female reproductive part - Pigtithas three parts the stigma, style and ovary ide the ovarian cavity. “SEXUAL REPROD IN FLOWERING PLANT UCTION THE MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE) - Attached by a stalk called funicle, ~ Hllum junction between qvule & funicle ~ Syale has pretective etvelopes ced integuments. ~At the tip small opening micropyle. Opposite the rricropylar end chalaza (basal part) = Mass of cells called nucellus. abundant reserve food materia - Magasporogenesis: formation of magaepores from megaspore mother cell (MMC). aoe =IMIMC undergoes meiotie division producing four = One of the megaspores i degenerate ~ Furetional megaspore develops into female gametophyte, (embryo sac) (monasporic development) y=” ~ Sequential mitotic naclear divisions result in &nucleate stages of the enbyoseg - Three eels atthe micropylar end constitute epg apparatus (two synergids and one ee cell) functional, other three Srergies have special cellular thickenings called faiform apparatus, guiding the pollen tubes - Threg gell at chalSval ard are called antipodals. The lirge ‘central cell, has two paler nucle | ~Bhucleate is 7 celled, a POLLINATION —~ ‘Transfer of pollen grains (shed from the anther) to stigma La Pollination [> Autogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same flower Geitonogamy : Transfer of pollen {gains from anther to stigma of ‘nother flower of same|plant LL. Xenogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to, stigma of foot patAUTOGAMY | Viola {common pansy), anal 2n4 Commelina produce [Chasmogarous flowers with exposed anthers and stigma, nd cleistagamaus flowers which do not open. Continued selfpollination result in inbreeding depression, Flowering plants. have developell devices to discourage belf pollination. + Pollen release & stigma receptivity are not bynchrorised que? Outbreeding and Artificial fertilisation | Anther and stigma are placed at liferent ositions | yao | Self incompatibility inhibiting, 4 pollen germination o: pollan tube growth with cel polien | Urisenval flowers | |dioecy). Prevent both autogamy & peltonagamy. Agents of Patination— 4 A sit gets izoophiy) t Insects (Bees, Wine A water ral Aosmophiy ayropiy) le + 4 Amorphophailus ep: Male pti eT ~ Grasses ~ Vallisneria 0 7 —_— = Zostera | Wel-esnosed stamens large feathery stigma 7 wp, | Longs ribbon, tke pollen grains|are protected wee From wetting by a mucilaginous, covering. + Bees, butterflies, Mies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds bats. Primates rodents, reptiles are vue also example of pollinators. - Flowers are large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar ~ Relatignship between moth and the Fucea plant - ‘cannot complete their lfe cycles without each other. Moth deposits its eggs in the ovary's locule, the flower gets pollinated by the moth. ug POLLEN: PISTIL INTERACTION =— Ability of the pistil to recognise the pollen followed by its ecceptence of rejection is the result of a dialogue mediated by chemical campornts of the palen interacting with those of the pti. Artificial hybridisation = In bisexual flower In unisexual [> Emasculation female flower + ——> Bagging UO” UP hagging DOUBLE FERTILISATION Palin tube releases two male gamete nto the syne ‘One of the male gametes fuses with the egg to produce 2 dig cll the sygote [symgamy) ae To produce @ triploid primary endesperm nucleus (PENI er = UA rimary endosperm cell PEC] develops into the endosperm re develops into 3 2. aygot 1, ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT ~Endosperm development precedes embryo development. =Cells of this tissue are filled with resetve food materials = PEN undergoes succestive nuclear divisions to give ris¢ to fret nuclei. (free-nictear| endasperth). Then cell wall forination occurs and the endosperm becomes cellu Weve water liroe hte tit endnptrm da ele ‘surrounding white kemel is the cellular endosperm,ue 2. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT lar in Eearly stages of lembryogeny) are both monocotyledans and dcotyledons. ~The zygote proembryo globular heart: shaped mature embryo. 3, SEEDS FROM OVULE + Ovules mature into seeds, the ovary Sea More than one embryo in a seed is referred as polyembryony. eg: citrus, mango =—== Zyq0t, - 2n endotpurm-3n Mievospore = 1) embryo Sqe- 1 Albume loyw -3nHUMAN REPRODUCTION TOPIC 1, THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, ue, TESTIS + Tastes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within scrotum, —— + Scrotum maintains low temperature of testes for ‘spermatogenesis. —— male germ cells spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions” Sertoli cells provide nutrition to germ cells. Interstiffal spaces, contain Ley cells. aa Leydig cells secrate androgens. |= 2 accessory pucTs —~ WA Seminiferous tubules —- rete testis —. vasa efferentia —. epididymis —. vas deferens — ‘ejaculatory duct. yyese 3. PENIS. —=— ls made up of special tissue to facilitate insemination. Glans penis is covered by foreskin / prepuce’ —— testis has 250 compartments called testicular lobules. uw Reproductive System mate |» serorgan ——» - Testes = = 1 Accessory duct —o + Rete tests +. oviduct a Sens ‘fierenta = —= 2 kits 1 Woe deferens [+ extort = Pei + Mote outs vita — abe majors = + Labia minora: 1 Hiymen | ite La nccessry I weeks (first trimester, major organ ‘endometrium of the uterus, This is called systems are formed limbs and external eat eens we EB appenane ct poten v (24 weeks eyelids separate, and eyelashes ‘are formed on the TOPIC 9. PARTURITION AND LAGTATION + Signals for parturition originate from fully developed foetus and placenta triggers release of oxytocin from the ternal piturtar — ixytoein causes stro! @ Milk produced during ti uterine contractions, which stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. mital days of lactation colostrum contains antivgsies essentTa-ES EW Bom babies, Ca)— Colostrum,Pas ri REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH World population was 2 billion (2000 In 1947 , population of India was 350 million —> 1 billior ‘Family planning’ programmes were initiated in 1951 Programmes covering reproduction related areas ~* RCH (Reproductive and Chil ion) in 1900 —> 6 billion by 2000. Ae Health care) programmes. may 2000. ‘+ Methods which prevent conception - Contraceptive methods or birth control methods. 3 Ideal controcestive should be: Ae — —— D 2 Sipe SEED 4) SCR MES ) GHeapor hersfenta nf wefeepar ge) — 1, NATURAL/TRADITIONAL METHOD + Avoiding chances of ovum & sperm meeting YP Periodic Abstinence: Abstain from coitus from day 10 19 17 of the menstrual cycle TT ee "Withdrawal or Coitus interruptus: Male partner withdraws his penis from vagina just before ejaculation ayxtational Amenorrhea: Ovelation and menstrual cycle do not occur during the period of intense lactation following parturition; Chances of conception are almost rik; effective up to period of 6 months 3, ups ue" + Inserted by doctors or expert nurses through vagina EES GEE Ea + IUDs increases phagocytosis of sperm &~ + Cu ions suppress sperm motility & the fertilizing capacity of sperms. we + Hormone releasing |UDs, make the uterur unsuitable for implantation & the cervic hostie to sperms. La + Most widely accepted methods of contraception in india. . BARRIER METHODS ‘+ Ovum & sperms are prevented from ohysically meeting — poem > convoms ws ‘+ Barriers made of thin rubber/latex sheath. ‘+ Additional benefit of protecting the user from STDs ‘+ Nirodh is @ brand of condom for male uw _ > DIAPHRAGMS, CERVICAL CAPS & VAULTS + Barrier made of rubber inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES —~ + Administration of small doses of either, progestogens or progestagen-estrogen combinations = + Have to be taken dally for 2 period of 21 days «After a gap of 7 days it has to be repeated in the same pattern — Arrhibt ovation implantation ater quality of cervical mucus Sahel: Non steroidal preparation, @ once @ week pill developed by scientists of CDRI (Central Drug Research Institute) in Lucknow. — AD. ttrective as emergency contraceptives5, INJECTABLES/IMPLANTS 6. SURGIGAL/ STERILISATION METHODS. + Effactine paid mich longer gg «Blocks gamete transport» Sterilsatin procedure inthe than ple | seeistion procedure in female called tabector the males clled | Highly «fective vasectonyy reversiilty is poor = sOMTP (MEDIGAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY) t= Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term 445 to 50 millions MIPS a year all over the world Government of India legalized MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions. Considered safe during the first trimester [up to 12 weeks of pregnancy). Amniocentesis is 2 foetsl sex determination test based on chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid estTDsS u~ + Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse VD (Venereal élseases! or RT! (Reproductive tract infections). serosa at cma” hn Gi (=> Ger + Hepatitis-B & HIV can also be transmitted by La + Except for HIV, Hepatitis-8 & genital herpes, STDs are curable if detected early. @ INFERTILITY .p- Inability to produce children even after unprotected sexual cohabitation we? ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES + Test Tube Baby Programme : In vitro fertilisation (IVF] Ova & sperms collected and induced to form zygote under simulated conditions Cariyzygote Intra Fallopian Transferl: Zygote or early embryos (up to 8 blastomeres) transferred into the fallopian tube, Covina Uterine Transfer) : Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres transferred into the uterus, + GIFT: Transfer of an ovum collected from 2 donor into the fallopian tube (Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer) of another Female who can not produce one \QAESI intra cytoplasmic sperm injection): sperm is directly injected into the ovum. Technique: inability of the male partner to inseminate the female due to very low sperm counts. Semer introduced eter into the vagina or int the uterus Wnt Uterine nsemnation is artificiallyIheitance proces ly which charactors are potsed from pret to bogey roger Mere, conducted experinents on garden peas (Pisum sativa) 9m 5 1 Ora eevee Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties - INHERITANCE OF ONE Uke“ GENE ‘© Mendel crossed tall and dwart pea plants F, progeny plants were tall, none were dwarf, in the Filial-1 generation — were dwarf 4% 3/4" were tall alleles, slightly different forms of same gene. ‘+ Punnett Square was developed Reginald C Punnett. ‘© Phenotypic ratio 2 3: 4, genotypic ratio 1: 2: 1 © Organism showing dominant phenotype is crossed with recessive parenttest cross Law oF poMinance 27 * Characters are controlled by discrete unite called factors That occur in pairs dominates © One member of the pai (dominant) the other tecessive). Used to explain expression of only one parental characters in a monohybrid cross F, and expression of both in the F:. ‘+ Also explains the F, proportion of & 1 RINCIPLE OF INHERI AND VARIATIO N LAW OF SEGREGATION Alllales do not show any blending during gamete formation. Alleles get segregated from each other INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE — * Flower colour in dog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp) = © True-breeding red flowered (RR) and white flowered plants (rr) were crossed, F; (Rr)$ was pink. © Fp ratio 1 (RR) Red: 2 (Rr) Pink: 1 (rr) White. : phenotype ratio aut |: © R was not completely dominant over F size shows incomplete CO-DOMINANCE «~~ © F, generation resembles both parents. example ABO blood grouping inhuman beings. Gene (l) has three alleles 14 and i. ‘© When I and I? are present together they both express * ABO blood grouping good example of multiple alleles. yy PLELOTROPY ~~ Single gene can exhibit multiple phenotypic expression. example phenylketonuria(Ee= 16S) — Hel INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES ee * Crossed pea plants having seeds with yellow ‘colour and round shape seeds of green colour and wrinkled shape. © Phenotypes round, yellow; wrinkled, yellow; round, green and wrinkled, green appeared in the rato CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE. ue —_ (de Vries, = In 190 Correns and von ‘cher independently rediscovered Mendel's results Sutton and Boveri noted behaviour of hromasomes was parallel 0 genes (i902) 7 Two alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous chromosomes. s,dhomas Hunt, Morgan worked with (ruit fies), Drosophila melanog: — —— ‘¢ Morgan carried out dihybrid crosses in Drosophila Hypbridised llow-bodied, white-eyed females to —rltiiss gebaliek. weber | ‘+ F, ratio deviated from the 9: 3: 9:1 ratio, Lee © The genes were located on the X chromosome proportion of parental gene combinations were much Figher + Linkage; physical association of genes on @ cchrormosome ightly linked genes (showed very low recombination) loosely linked genes Ishowed higher recombination! “Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination a a measure of the distance between genes and ‘mappa their position ZW TYPE (22-2W TYPE) * Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment. ~ * segregation of one pair of characters is independent of the other, POLYGENIG INHERITANCE + Traits which are generally controlled by multiple genes + Eg. Human skin colour and human taght = + Henking (1891), traced nuclear structure through spermatogenesis in nsects ‘+ Henking named this structure X-bogy. + Xtbody of Henking was X-chromasome. XO TYPE (XX-KO TYPE) =—— Grasshopper & cockroach males have only one Xchoremocome females have 2 pair of X 1s fertilised by sperm having an x Beimesome become temas" fags fertilised by sperms that do not have an GEhromosome become males. XY TYPE (X-KY TYRE), + Drosophila and mammals ii human lu + Males have one X and one Y chromosome, females have a pair of X-chromosomes e.g, birds + In both (XO and XY type, Male ‘+ Females have one Z and one W chromosome, heterogamety. males have a pair of Z-chromosomes. m2 -2o SEX DETERMINATION IN HONEYBEE. — EY Based on the number of sets of chromosomes + Offspring formed from union of sperm and egg develops as female queen or worker), unfertilized egg develops as male (drone), parthenogenesis. 2 ‘+ Females are diploid 32 chromosomes males are haploié 16 chromosomes ‘+ Haplo-diploid sex-determination ® & ®4 Meorcnee ANALYSIS 6 9 we © ne DISORDERS ‘+ Analysis of traits in generations of @ family is called 2s pedigree analysis. A strong tool, to trace the inheritance of a specific trait, MENDELIAN DISORDER Mendelian Disorders are mainly determined by aeration or mutation in the single gene. ‘Symbols of human pedigree anys Ome Orem © se iepeatag ced mis Nang Mating between relatives (cntnguncout mang Parents above and ae darn blow On rn of ttt rh uM Parent with male cid affected with dvases emi old £38 Five unaffected fforing SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA © Autosome linked recessive trait (chromosome t1) * Controlled by alleles Hb* and Ht: ‘+ (Hb-Hi>) show diseased phenotype. ‘Substitution of Glutamic acid(Glu) by Valine (Val) at sixth position of beta globin chain of haemoglobin et ‘Single base substitution from GAG to GUG. '* Change in the shape of the REC to elongated sickle structure THALASSEMIA ——~ ' Autosome Inked recessive blood disease * Reduced rate of synthesis of globin chains that make up haemeblobin aa * Thalassemia a is controlled by two linked genes HBA1 and HBA2 on chromosome 16 “Thalesenia e cortrlied by gene chromosome 11 byae ‘Thalassemia is a quantitative problem while sickle cell anaemia is a qualitative problem Ddaim Frame, Shejt Nugabion, HAEMOPHILIA —~ _ ‘Protein involved in clotting of blood is, weet oLieetis, ‘* Heterozygous female (carrier) may transmit disease to sons. ‘Sex linked recessive disease * Queen Victoria was a carrier. mH Mo etd danined” COLOUR BLINDNESS ye ‘© Sex linked recessive disorder due to defect in red or green cone of eye. Mutation in certain genes Present in X chromosome. '* Occurs in about 8 per cent males and 0.4 per cent females. '* Son of 2 cartier woman has 50 per cent. ‘chance of being colour blind. PHENYLKETONURIA =~ ar ‘Error of metabolism autosomal recessive trait (chromosome 12) — >= ‘Affected individual lacks an enzyme (Phenyislanine hydroxylase) ygetior ‘© Phenylalanine gets accumulated It gets converted to Phenyloyruvic acid and other derivatives. a ‘+ Mental retardation yao ‘© Reduction in hair & skin pigmentationCHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS Absence or excess of chromosomes gee or their abnormal arrangement DOWN'S SYNDROME (43) ‘* Additional copy of chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21) ‘+ First described by Langdon Down (1866) 4 ‘¢ Short stature small round head , furrowed tongue partialy open mouth» ‘© Palm crease. * Development is retarded. WN — Tred syndrome, — Male — fon KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME ‘Additional copy of X-chromosome (47, XXY) RE '* Overall masculine development efter ‘+ Gynaecomastia sterile male. TURNER'S SYNDROME ‘Absence of one X chromosome (45 with XO) females are sterile =— Lack of secondary sexual characters. Short Stel, ~ Su AX ‘pe derrede No of baw bodin = Ato e| % thyomo com, -MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE “~~ THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL 4y TRANSFORMING PRINCIPLE 1928, Fredeick Griffith, Streptococcus pneumoniae ' strain Inject into mice ~> Mice die “—~ R strain —> Inject into mice ~* Mice lve, S strain» Inject into mice —> Mice lve qo (heat killed! S strain (heat killed) * R strain (live! SW THE GENETIC MATERIAL IS DNA ‘* Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952) Seggrown in the presence of radioactive phosphorus contained radioactive DNA but not radioactive protein because DNA contains phosphorus but protein does not «Similarly, viruses grown on radicactive sulfur ‘contained radioactive protein but not radioactive DIVA because DNA does not contain sulfur. + Radioactive phages were allowed to attach to E. coll bacteria, + Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had radioactive DNA were radioactive, indicating that DNA wat the material that passed from the virus to ‘the bacteria Ue ‘+ Bacteria that were infected with viruses that had radioactive proteins were not radioactive. ‘+ This indicates that proteins cid not enter the bacteria ‘rom the viruses. DNA Is therefore the genetic. material that is passed from virus to bacteriag” > Inject into mice > Mice die wo” 4 BIOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISATION OF TRANSFORMING PRINCIPLE + Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maciyn McCarty + DIgestion with DNase did inhibit transformation, suggesting that the ONA ‘caused the transformation. ese DNA ‘+ Deoryribonuclelc. acid JONA), and ibonuclele_acid (RNA) are the two types of nucleic acids found im living systems. —_— + Gx1747Faq_B5BE nucleotides, Bacteriophage lambda has 48502 base pairs (bp), Escherichia coli has 46x10" bp, and haploid content of human DNA is saa TT) 1 + SSDNA acts as genetic material is some viruses tke x74 ‘y STRUCTURE OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE CHAIN * A nucleotide has three components « 2 nitopencus base, @ pentose ar (ribose in case of RNA, and deoxyribose Tor DNA\, and a phosphate group. «Two types of stragenous baer Bates TAdenine ‘and Guanine), and Pyrimidines (Cytotine, Uraci and Thyme « Cyorine ie commen for both DNA and RNA and ‘Thymine is present in DNA. Uracil is present in RNA ‘at the place of Thymine. + A nitrogenous base is liked to the pentose sugar through @ N-glyosidc linkage to form a nucleoside, such as ‘adenosine or deoxyadenosine, guanosine or deoxyguanosine, cytidine or deoxycytidine and uridine or deoxythymidine. + When 2 phosphate group is inked to 5-OH of a nucleoside through ohosohgester linkage, a corresponding nucleotide (or deoxynucleotide depending upon the type of sugar present) is formed. hwo nucleotides are linked through 9-5’ phosphodiester linkage to form a dinucleotide. DNA as an acidic substance present in nucleus Friedrich Meischer_in 1869, ames Watson and Francis Cisk posed onthe “diffraction d reduced by Maurice Wilkins and Ros lind Franklin, proposed a very simole but famous Double Hellx model for the strycture of DNA. ——— ENT FEATURES OF THE DOUBLE HELD STRUCTURE OF DNA ARE AS FOLLOWS ‘+ Made of two polynucleatide chains, where the backbone is constituted by sug ar-phosphate, and the bases project inside ‘© ‘Wo chains have antt-parallel polarity, =~ AA The two che ‘are coiled in a right-handed fashion. The pitch of the helix is 24 nm and there are roughly 10bp in ‘each turn. Consequently, the distance between a bp in a helix is approximately equal to 03 nm + Diameter of helix is 20 A ‘Francis Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology, which states that the genetic information flows from. FS een Se = In some vi reverse tranecription es the flow of information is in reverse direction, that is, from RNA to DNA. This process is called —=‘K PACKAGING OF DNA HELIK ~~ PROKARYOTES ——~ ‘© DNA (being negatively charged) is held with_some proteins (that, have positlve charges)_in 2” Tegion termed as nucleoid. = The DNA in nucleoid is organised in large loops held by proteins. ae *& EUKARYOTES ‘+ DNA is negatively charged due to photphate groups. Histones are ich Th the batie amino acid residues lysines. and arginines. Both the amino acid residues carry positive charges in their side chains. Histones are organised to form @ unit of eight, molecules called as histone octamer. The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively charged histone octamer to form a structure called nucleosome. + A typical_ nucleosome contains 200 bp of DNA helix + Nucleosomes confiltute the” repeating anit of 2 structure in nucleus called chromatin, thread-ike stained (coloured) bodies seen in nucleus. Tre beads-omstring structure in chromatin is packaged to form chromatin fibers that are further coiled and condensed at metaphase stage of cell division to form chromosomes. IOP The peckeging of chromatin at higher level requires ‘additional set of proteins that collectively are referred to as Nomhistone Chromosomal (NHC! proteins. ‘+ The chromatin that is mare densely packed and st dark are called as Heterochromatin. ‘+ Euchtomatin is said to be transcriotionally active chromatin, whereas heterochromatin is inactive, = % eepuication ~~ ‘Semriconservative DNA replication * THE EXPERIMENTAL PROOF «Matthew Maseggn and Franktn Stahl grew £.cok in 3 medium contaning “NHICITN E the heavy sovape of ntroger) asthe ontynttepen sates for many generetios «Ths beavy DNA molecule coul be dtngubhed from the ormal ONA by certrifigotion na cesiom chloride ( CeCl) density gradient. —T «Fhe bavbge narplas Sate TapTBtod inde pendently an Cal gradients to esture the denies of ONA Wen} ska elperFians involve tw af radioactive thymadine to detect dtr bution of newly synthesised DNA in the chromosomes was performed on Vicia faba by Taylor and colleagues in 1958, SS =— MACHINERY AND THE ENZYMES In living cells, such as E.coli, the process of replication requires a set of catalysts The main enzyme is referred to as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, —_— TRANSGRIPTION Oo) area eer) TRANSCRIPTION UNIT AND THE GENE + Defining a cistron as @ segment of DNA coding for a potypentide, the structural gene in a transcription unit could be s2id as monocistronic (mostly in eukaryotes) or polycistronic mostly in bacteria or prokaryotes) + Ineutaryotes, the monocistronic structural genes have interrupted coding sequences - the genes in eukaryotes are split, 7 . The coding sequences or expressed sequences are defined as exons. + Exons are Said to be those sequence that appear in mature or processed RNA. The exons are interrusteed by introns. Itrons or intervening sequences do rot aopear in mature or processed RNA.‘ PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION GENETIC CODE —~ Since the two strands have opposite polarity and the DNA- “p-George Gamow, a ohysicist, who argued that since dependent RNA polymerase also catalyse the ~~ ‘there are only 4 bases and if they have to code for polymerisation in only one direction, that is, 5'->3' the 20 amino acids, the code should constitute a strand that has the polarity 3-5! acts as 2 template, and ‘combination of bases. ig also referred to as template strand + Har Gobind _Khorang was _ instrumental in synthesising RNA molecules with defined + The promoter and terminator fiank the structural gene combinations “of bases (homopolymers and ina transcrl . The promoter is said to be copolymers). located towards 5" end (upstream) of the structurat + Marshall_Nirenberg's cell-free cystem for pro gene (the reference ir made with respect to the syrthesis finally helped the code to be deciphered olarity of coding strand) + Severo___Qchoa__enayme (polynucleotide + Tis a DNA sequence that provides binding site for RNA, whosphoryiase ‘was also helpful in polymerising RNA polymerase, and it is the presence of a promoter in @ with defined sequences in 2 template independent Sranscipion unit that also defines the template and manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA). coding strands + By switching its position with terminator the definition ‘of cading and template strands could be reversed + In bacteria, there are three major types of RNAS: mRNA (messenger RNA), tRNA (transfer RNAI, and FRNA Iribo: rT ~ T ‘There is single DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that ‘catalyses transcription of all types of RNA in bacteria RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates ‘transcription (Initiation. It uses nucleoside triphosphates as substrate and palymerises in a ‘template depended fashion following the rule of complementarity. ue + The RNA polymerase is only capable of catalysing the process of elongation. It associates transiently with initiation-factor (o)_and termination fg In eukaryotes, there are two additional complexities ‘The RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA (285, 185, and 589) EF Pere rrr we «The RNA polymerase Il transcribes precursor of mRNA, “x MUTATION ‘the heterogeneous nuclear_RNA (hnRNAL. ‘SUES TITUTION POINT MUTATION + RNA polymerase Il is responsible for transcri oH (ISERTION/ DUPLICATION) tRNA, SstRNA, and snRNAs (small nuclear RNAS). FRAME SHIFT MUTATION + BaRNA undergoes addtional processing called 25 TRRA-THE ADADTER MOLECULE ‘capping and tailing. ir capping an unusual nucleotide mm guafosine triphosphate) is added to the S-end of hn RNA. In tailing, adenylate residues (200-300) are ‘added at 3'end in template independent manner. ‘+ SALIENT FEATURES OF GENETIC CODE Codon is triplet. + Termination codons UAA (Ochre), UAG (Amber) & UGA (Opa. ‘+ One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence, itis unambiguous and specific. —— + Some amino seids are coded by more than one codon, hence the code is degenerate. This property is called degeneracy or redundancy. \-—— Taatstarion =~ + Codon i read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion, ‘+ FRNA plays structural & catalytic role. There are no punctuations. «+ The amino acids are joined by @ bond which is ‘ode it nearly universal: for example, from bacteria known at 2 peptide bond. Formation of 2 pepti to human UUU would code far Phenylalanine (phe) bond requires energy. Some exceptions to this rule have been ToUnd in + The ribosome also acts as 2 catalyst (295 rRNA mitochondrial codons, and in some protozoans. in bacteria is the enzymerrbozyme) for the = AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methioni met), and it also act a¢ initiator codon. formation of peptide bond =‘An mRNA also has some additional sequences that are not translated and are referred 2s untransiated regions (UTR). ‘The UTRs are present at both Send (before start codon) and at 3-end (after stop codonl. They are required for ficient translation process. yz ‘k REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION 12> tac openon =~ ‘The elucidation of the lac operon was also a result of a ‘close association between a geneticist, Francois Jacob and a biochemist, Jacque Monod. They were the first to ‘elucidate a transcriotionally regulated system Lac operon is a type of inducible operon. Zz gene codes for beta-galactosidase gene codes for permease a gene encodes a transacetylase ‘Operator gene it switched off in the presence of a repressor HUMAN GENOME PROJECT -22—~ Human Genome Project was 2 13-year project coordinated by the US. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Heatth. Project was completed in 200: Sequence of chromosome | was complet ‘nly in May 2006 HGP was closely associated with the rapid develapment of a naw area ih bidlogy called Bioinformatics +, GOAL OF HEP (ZMany non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, ‘yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living nor pathogenic nematode), Drosophila (the fruit fly), plants (ice and Arabidopsis), ete, have also been sequenced. up -Raramaniy used hosts were bacteria and yeast, and the vectors were called as BAC (bacterial artificial chromosomes}, and YAC (yeast artifical chromosomes). + Fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencers that worked on the principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger. ‘+ Another challenging task was assigning the genetic ‘and physical maps on the genome. This was generated ‘using information on polymorphism of restriction ‘endoruclease recognition sites, and some repetitive DNA sequences known as microsatellites. & ‘SALIENT FEATURES OF HUMAN GENOME The human genome contains 647 millon nucleotide base pairs. § ee — The average gore consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly, ith the largest kncwn RUT gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million bases. ‘+ Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins. ‘= Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest (231) = '« Scentists FaVE"Wentified about 14 million locations where single base DNA differences (SNPS nucleotide polymorphism, sFonouncel @s ‘snips occur inhumane. —_ = = DNA FINGERPRINTING ‘+ 99.9 percent of base sequence among humans is ‘the same. Uke WONA fingerprinting involves identifying differences in some specific regions in DNA sequence called as repetitive DNA, because in these sequences, 2 small stretch of DNA is repeated many times. '« These sequence show high degree of pelymorptsm and form the Bese oF BNA fingerprinting. Since DNA from every tesue (such as blood, harfolice, skin, bone, salva, sperm etc), from an individual show the same degree of polymorphism, they become very useful identification tool in forensic applications. « Polymorphisms (variation at genetic level arises due to mutations. Technique of DNA Fingerprinting was initaly developed by Alec Jeffreys He used a sat8TH= BNA oe probe that shows very high degree of polymorphism It was called as Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR). '« It includes: Isolation of DNA, digestion of DNA. fectsetionendonagseer cepeaton of DRA” fragments by electrophoresis, transferring tbittingl of separated DNA fragments to synthetic membranes, such as nitrocellulose or nylon, hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe, and detection of hybridized ONA Fragments by autoradiography.EVOLUTION .— TOPIC 1. ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE i UY rays from the sun brokeup water into hydrogen and oxygen and the ghter Ha excaped. Q Universe is almost 20 billion years oid Q Samper combines with armenia and methane w form water, CO, and others. The ezone ayer was O Baberg eer seerett te fen fo ws the oti formed Ae cole, tha asia vapour fal ae *9h, {fil ak the depresions and formaceana Lie annesred 500 milion years ater the forms Beart ie, sao OYE TOPIG 2, ORIGIN OF LIFE .~ 1. THEORY OF SPONTANEQUS GENERATION 2. THEORY OF BIOGENESIS 2 (ABIOGENESIS OR AUTOGENESIS) _—— © Life came out of decaying] and rotting) matter Uke Hraw, mu, etc Univers somal tarperatare coe dh © Wsmermeavenereimcart Ast, 9 1D Fach was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back @_ tesis Pasteur demonstrated that fife cones enly From pre-existing life, Redis and Spallanzanis experiments alee showed the same ) Spontaneous generation theory wae demised once and for all) a 3, OPARIN HALDANE THEORY Lt=~ '* Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the fist form of life coud have come from pre-existing norliving organic molecules (ag. RNA, protehn, te) ‘Theory of chemical evolution. ‘*Cohdtions on earth were high temparature, 7 volcanic storms, reducing attosphere containing CHANHD, ete. Similar cordiflons Tha TbSratory scale. a Water vapour at 600°C Ratio of CH4] NHS and 2. wae :4:2 >= ==" opaRm => Locewevah, ‘The frst notrcellular forms of life could have originated + Thig version of Biegeress, Te, the Tt Torin oF 2 billin years back, They wauld have been giant molecules fe stoce slowly through eudlutionary forces from INA Protein, Polysaccharides, etc) nonling molecules & accepted by majority, TOPIC 3. EVIDENGES FoR EVOLUTION ~~~ 1, PALAEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES as Evidences from fossils fostis. 2. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY & MORPHOLOGY — — etre «+ For example whals, bts Cheetah and buna lal HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS ~~ Inarmatel shore silanes h the potcrnet hoes of Organs having same origin but dere functions ore foretnes. cated nomploghes cegang Iydeaies confrn presse. Base¢ cn divergent evolution «+ Vertebrate hearts or bring, L-—— +The thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea ang CucurbitaANALOGOUS ORGANS ae Examples of ahalogy: eye of the octopus and of 1 colgnc having ation opine silo into ae Eanes of palpy ey of the conus and of | oy called analogcus. = — — — Set petats eect medfeton and potty tem He rbtogauearucturse aes rest of owergent mmc | = xpuiton a 3, EVIDENCES FROM BIOCHEMISTRY & COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY ~~ 4. EVIDENGES FROM GENETICS OR NATURAL SELECTION |. — & In @ collection of moths made in 1850s, Le, before indataatar et in it was obeerve that there were rare white: winged othe (ston betta fon trees than erkwinged cr melariaed moths (Bston srkonaxa)| Betula, ‘Similarities in proteins and genes performing 3 {given function among diverse organ fame give clues to common ancestry. 5. EVIDENCES FROM ANTHROPOGENIC vowwtaN. However, after industiialgation, Le, in 1920 , ‘the proportion was reversed. Because redators wil soot & REE agar contrasting Daeg al Nadja iting post intuition pid the tree tanks Bb tecess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc, repulted in celection of retetant varieties in a mich lesser time scale. 1 Alites or dpe psig eukaryote became ark due"%O TUsirTal smoke and S00ts organisms/cel, Fescted Th selection of resistant —— wehetes, a Under thi comton the whtesuingné math dd not Survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised moth survived, uc 1} option snot adtected oroces nthe sense of Gekermiiam Fr 2 Hochistie procett baced on ‘hace events in ature apd chance mutation ih ‘the organisms, EVIDENCES FROM BIOGEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 2 as 1, ADAPTIVE RADIATION = 1 From the ongnal seet-eating fetures many other x forms with altered beaks arose, enabling =i Darwin finches on Galapog2s sland to become a ingectivorous and vegetarian finches. Darwin finehng 6. reer cee ‘ ‘his process of evolution of different Epecies in a ‘given geographical area starting Troma point ad Ueerally fadlating to-othet areas of geograpny beat ical sagas aioe BOSS marrmals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation. Mh. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION = OR ADAPTIVE CONVERGENCE (—~ ‘* When mare than one adaptive radiatign apoeared to have ‘+ Australian mat ‘evolution. ected non bolted geaghhSRETESS get | Fee one con call this als & placental nanrmals show convergent = a TOPIC 4, THEORIES OF EVOLUTION LLAMARG LEIS | SM Befdre Darwin, French rajuralict Lawarck nad sala ‘that] evolution of life forms hd, occurred Butariven by {hat evolition af ie forms hee obeurred BUTE he gave the examole of Giraffes a&2—~ Nobody believes this conjecture any more t= 2. DARWINISM, L2—~ ‘There has been gradual evolution of life forms. Any population bas bul in variation in chayactersties, ‘+ Fitness of the individual or population enable ‘them to survive better. — he stness, abcording to Darwin, is_teproductivg te 5 Malay eth lng Alfred Wallace, also gave sivilar conclusions AA acting the some tine. tomas Matias wore on lation also influenced DaFur population also, in ara Popul on, + anching dedcent sri natural selection oe the fd wey coresbEe or Danwoiar Theeryer~ Evolution, oe —3, MUTATION THEORY (1901) ‘fe Hugo deVries bases on his work on ‘eveting primrose brought forth the Hea of mutations and believed that it ‘cause speciation hence called it siltation he Mutations are random and ‘irectlonless Darwinian variations are amall and drectionsl. 4. WARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE =~ 1 Hardy Weinberg principle stated that allele frequencies n 2 Population are stable and fe constant from generation to generation. ‘Gene pool remains constant. This i: called genetic ‘equilibrium Sum total of al the allelic Frequencies & 1 ‘Ina dioloié, » and q represent the frequency of allele Avand allele 2. (pce The frequency of A indviduats iis pt. Simitarty of dais ct of Aa & 209. enceyo* + Zoat of = tiromai eeancon at 6d + Disturbance in genetic eculibrium, Hardy Wainber sito thctncy a anarng 8 population would then be interpreted as resulting evalton. + Five factors are known to affect Hardy Weinber ‘equllbrlim “ 8 > leege Populabig + > Reeve, aking -— TOPIC 5, A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION Q Meniree Q. bythe tine of S00 mya, merterats were omed and active, = =-=—— = Jawess fish probably evolved around 350 mya, Sea ends and few plants existed probably around 220 mya CChorophyte ancestors gives rise to Bryoohytes and trachegphytee sreeeters, Spee [Hacheaptytes ancestrs give rie to zassrephylum & ive plants, Rhynia = type plants evolved i Psilophyton ‘ailohytop i the conenan ancestor of sphenoosds aaa etme, Srogyemosserm snd GyesanspePhs iGinngor, GaeEaes, COMER em ‘Seed ferns gives rise to Cycads & Angiosperms - first dicot 8 then manacat cycads evolved from seed ferns while corifers evolved from Psiloohyton directly. DOO 5D DSO In 4998 » Gch caught in South Afica happened tobe @ Cagaeénth which was thought (OBE eR CE x () | GENE MIGRATION OB GENE FLOW U, GENETIC DaieT * + Same change cccurs by chance, Genetic dit. * Genetic dritt or sewall weght effect operates only fon very small isolated population Faunder effects and bottle neck effect are recult of WW. Mutation * IV, GENETIC RECOMBINATION % V. NATURAL SELECTION % + Natural selection can lead to stabilisation, directional change ard dieruption. Amphibians evelved into reptiles eke Some of these land reoties went back into water to evolve into fish lke reptiles probably 200 my, keg, ekehyosour) The land reatiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. The biggest of them, ie, Tyrannocaurus rex wae about land had hage Fearsome Gagger ike teeth ‘bout 45 myathe dnozourseuddenly deoppeared from the-ear 9 v v The fest mamma's were like shrews. Their fossils When reptiles came down mammals took over this When reptiles came dawn mammals tock over this = Due to continental dit, when South America roned N se animale were Sverridéen rican fauna ee Due to the same continental ¢rift pouches mammals of australia survived bezause of lack of Competition from any Bther mammal. = OOo =TOPIC 6, ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN ‘* Dryonithecas (ape like! and Raprapithecus (rvan tke] 15 myat Hairy, walked fe gorlas Echimpanzee “¢ Mamlte primates (3-4 mal 4 feet height, fossils of man like bores found in ethopia 6 tanzania. + ustrlopithecus (2 myal led in atin gras: lane, hunted with stone weapone Bite fruits CC =500 ce + Homa hats hominid Fest huran the beings Bid nt eat meat Cc = 650 co + Homderectus (15 wal Gavalman ate meat Ce= 900 cc + Homa neanderthalenia Neahderthat ‘man (1 [akh - 40000 years agal lived Ta chet anf eSTeaT Raia BOFET Pet oad, CC= abo + Cromignon (Homasapians fossils): CC =, 1650 cc. Horo sapiens (Modern man) (75,000. | 4S 10,000 years age: Pre-historid cave art, —— 18 oO developed Agrcusture & settlenvents. Co* aPag) 8 HUMAN HEALTH AN DISEASE TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION + Blood circulation discovered by William Harvey. po TOPIC 2. DISEASE Classification of Diseases Infectious Non-infectious disease diseases |__., cancerous diseases —— |__. Deficiency diseases Contagious Non-Contagious |__. Allergic diseases —~ L_, Addiction = L-—— TOPIC 3, VIRAL DISEASES + Genital Herpes : Herpes simplex virus + Genital warts human papiloma virus (HPV). + Yellow fever : Flavivirus (Arbovirus) -— + Dengue : Arboviruses (Flavivirus). (——~ + Chikungunya is caused by chikungunya virus and transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito. + Encephalitis is transmitted by Aedes mosquito. _ COMMON COLD = Mo + Viral disease caused by Rhinovirus. + Symptoms : (i) Nasal congestion, (i) Nasal discharge, (ii) Sore throat, (iv) Hearseness, (v) Co (vi) Tiredness, (vil, Headache. AIDS : ACQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIENCY SYNDROME we 201 + HIV have SsRINA genome enclosed by an envelopen Teapsid). + Transmission : (i) Sexual contact with infected person, (i) By transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products, lil) By sharing infected needles as in case of intravenous drug abusers, (iv) From infected mother to her child through placenta. — + After infection, HIV enters in macrophages where RNA of virus replicates fo form viral DNA with the help of enzyme reverse transcriptase + Viral ONA incorporated into host cell DNA & directs the infected cell to produce new virus particlas «The macrophages continue to produce virus therefore macrophages are called HIV Factory. Simultaneously HIV enters ‘into helper T- lymphocytes (Tit) replicates & produce progeny viruse: + Diagnostic test for AIDS is ELISA [Enzyme Linked immuno Sorbent Assay, + Western blot is used as confirmatory or supplemental test for AIDS. =PREVENTION OF AIDS + National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other non-governmental organisation (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS. BACTERIAL DISEASES * Gororthoeae : Neisseria gonorrhoeae U7 + Tuberculosis (7.8) or Koch diseases: Mycobacterium tuberculae 7 + Plague : Yersinia pasts / Pasteurella pestis. t= + Xenopsylla or rat flea is vector of plague . Sire theria (gal ghotu) : Corynebacterium dightheriae = 42 + Cholera : Vibrio cholerae =~ ‘+ Syphilis : Treponema pallidum 2 + Trachoma : Chamydia trachomatis, ~ MALARIA U4 + Malaria caused by plazmodium (a tiny protozeanl. + Different species of plasmodium ( P._vvax, malariae, P. falciparum) are responsible fer the different type of malaria. Ue/Malignant malaria is caused by P. falciparum, which most serious and can be fatal. + Plasmodium requires 2 hosts human & mosquitoes to complete its life cycle, * Vector: Female Anoohelas mosquito. + Parasites initially multiply asexually with in liver calls & then attack RBCs and causes their rupture. + Toxic substance Haemozoin released due to rupture of REC, is responsible for chill & high fever recurring every 3 to 4 days. eAXexual stages (gametocytes) develop in RBCs. ‘ertilisation & development takes place in female mosquito. lature infective stages (sporozoites) escape from intestine and migrate to mosquito salivary glands. + In human body, Plasmodium multiplies 2 sexually (Schizogony) but in female Anopheles, Plasmodium undergoes sexual cycle (gametogony) followed by asexual cycle (sporogony). TREATMENT OF MALARIA | p--— + (0 Avaiding stagnation of water in & around residential areas, (i) Regular clearing of household ‘coolers, li] Use of mosquito nets, liv) Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds, (v) Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas & swaps, etc 4nd |vi) Doors & windows should be provided with mesh to prevent the entry of mosquitoes. TYPHOID + Caused by Salmonella typhi + Contaminated food & water °C), (il) Weakness, {ii) Stomach pain, liv) Constipation, (v) Headache, (vi) Loss of appetite ‘+ Typhoid confirmed by widal test. PNEUMONIA ~*~ _ + Streptococcus pneumoniae & Haemophilus influenzae uw + Infects the alveoli_(air filled sacs} of the lungs. + Symptoms : (i) Fever, lil) Chills, (ii) Cough, (iw) Headache. _ - + Inhaling the droplets / aerosols released by an infected person. + By sharing glasses & utensils with an infected persbe FUNGAL DISEASES -—~ + Ringworm caused by fungi (genera : richesbyton, Microsporum and |)» Epidermophyton). + Symptoms : (i) Appearance of dry scaly lesions ‘on skin, scalp and nails, (i) Lesions accompanied by intense itching. + Heat & moisture help these fungi to grow, which makes them develop in skin folds as in groin or between the toes HELMINTH DISEASES Ascariasis: Round worm Ascaris “= ‘Symptoms : (i) Internal bleeding, (i) Muscular pain, Gi) Fever, (iv) Anemia, (v) Blockage of intestinal passage. — ‘Transmitted by contaminated food & water (also typhoid & amoebiasis) FILARIASISi-— + Filariasis or elephantiasis is caused by the filarial worm-Wuchereria (W. bancrofti, =~ Wamalayi) - member of aschelminth. + Transmitted by bite of the female Culex mosquito (vector) =TOPIC 4, NON - INFECTIOUS DISEASES CANCER ee + Contact inhibition property shown by normal cells by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth. + Tumors are of 2 types : Benign & malignant. * Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location & do not spread to other parts of, the body and cause little damage. a2 Malignant tumors are 9 mass of proliferating cals called neoplastic or tumor cells. Neoplastic cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissue. These cells starve the other normal cells by competing for vital nutrients. Cells released from these tumors reach distant sites through blood, & they start a new tumor formation there. This property is called metastasis. TREATMENT OF CANCER + Surgery ~~ © Radiotherapy “~ Chemotherapy UE + Immunotherapy uz TOPIC 5. IMMUNITY .~ nity Innate Ly a Required my imenity 4 types of barrens TOG CHE) sotto ou us mediated wownary |. prysicat barriers stn Fim cooing of une a |. physiclepst¥” | ey Actin stomach bepriers) ‘Saliva in mouth Teas homes we oe Cllr Borns sg. Wace PMN Ke non ep paw Lense er Leen steely penton we CANCER CAUSES + Radiation () lonising radiations : Xray & gamma rays. + Nomrionizing radiation : UV-ray. UV causes damage of DNA leading to neoplastic transformation. DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER Cancer detection & diagnosis } |__, Biopsy & histopathological studes “=~ |__, Blood & bone marrow test (for Leukemia) go |__, Radiography: Uses X-rays Ce er Uses Xeraye L_, mate Generate 3-D image |. Uses strong magnetic fields [Uses non-ionising radiations. Most accurate technique INNATE IMMUNITY + It is non-specific type of defense. 9 _” Physical Barriers : Skin, Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory, urogenital \& gastrointestinal (URG) tracts also help in trapping microbes- entering our body. 7 Physiological barriers : (a) Acid in stomach, (b) Saliva in mouth and (c) Tears from eyes, all pravents microbial growth Cellular Barriers : Leukocytes (WBC) in blood and macrophages in tissue can phagocytose & destroy microbes. + WBC : (2) PMNL (polymorpho- nuclear leukocytes) - Neutrophils, [b) Monocytes and (c) Natural killer cells (type of lymphocytes). «2Cytokine barriers : Interferon is secreted by rus infected cells which protects non-infected calls from further viral infectionCHE omer re ACQUIRED IMMUNITY = 1? Response: Slow 42 —* T4M. wer 2 oF anamnestic Response : When body ‘encounters the same pathogen subsequently then body elicits (evoke) 2° response. « 2 response is highly intensified. This is due to the fact that our body have memory of the first encounter. «1 & 2 immune responses carried out with the help of 2 spacial type of lymphocytes prasent in our blood, i.e. (i) B lymphocytes, wm lymphocytes. TYPES QF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY 4-— + Each antibody molecule (Ig) has 4 peptide chains. + Active Immunity ~~ « Antibody: 2 chains are small called “light + Passive Immunity 4°" chains’ & 2 chains are longer called ‘Heavy Tome e| vagoHaTIoNl chains’. So, antibody is represented by H:l2- AND IMMUNISATION + Principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the TOPIC 8, AUTO ~ IMMUNITY u-~ property of memory of the immune system. + Examples of autoimmune diseases: us (i) Rheumatoid arthritis, (ii) Orie % ACLENOY Myasthenia gravis (DPMT 1998) and + Symptoms of allergic reactions : (ii Grave's disease. i Sneezing, (id Watery eyes, li HASINOTD Running nose, (iv) Difficuity in Yh Pigg breathing TOPIC 9. IMMUNE SYSTEM IN + Allergy is due to the release of Prnaphulahio THE BODY L2=— chemicals like histamine & serotonin from the mast cells. Chou, Immune system in the body + MALT : Lymphoid tissue located ‘Within the lining of major tracts (urogenital, digestive and respiratory) called mucosal associated lymphoid tissue + MALT constitutes about 50 % of f wens ergans 2 Lymphoid organs hs moti tissue in human Igor | bg-dorth pte 7 4 Thymut @* “Lymph node “Appendix, “Spleen 7 -TonsilsNuoting TOPIC 10, DRUG ABUSE Topacca =~ Commonly abused drugs ot w Tobacco has been used by or pores human beings for more than: Lywahoidtt Ss —Connabincide Coka-alkalaid 400 years. L- = Tobacco contains a large Cannabis sativa atom coca number of chemical aE | wmariuana 22 substances including nicotine, “Mrerbhine “erointsmact) |_ashich 2 Cocaine we bnalkaloit. _——s ore (coke or ye Commer oes) Loca iL Gh Tr eve © Aleohol —> liv mt Chin's — Bavbihuraly — Sedalia — Bun2odiqzabin. — Arti Ayxicty —+ Renphbapin > Stimudeunt LSP —s Claviens — Rs Halluinogon>STRATESIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION TO INCREASE FOOD PRODUCTION TOPIC 1. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY | 1. DAIRY FARM MANAGEMENT ~~ Noe 2. POULTRY FARM MANAGEMENT =~ Nee pivapat sate 3. APICULTURE a © A05linca & mest comman specs in Ina. > Animal husbandry fangs A Fisheries = 3 piant breeding Tlesue culture “ve bury farm Pout) arm) bea Feros Fresh water EF Marine water EF. seit) managtment— [keeplag we “ot ae er = Row - egal + oases = 7 Eommon carp rH TOPIC 2. ANIMAL BREEDING ee. Animal breeding 4 Eas f\ } Outcrossing —_Cross-breeding _ interspecific = Hybridiation a= Hisardate (Punjab) Hevine wom Bitinnt —*F Pre nen persia vig Artificial insemination "> Semen is introduced deliberately inta tha cervix af & tere, Ye] MOET (muttiple Ovulation Embryo Trapsfe is @ BrOgramme Tor Ferd lnproverent /Uvestock improvement In MOET, hormones with FSH Uke activity ‘are administered in cow ta induce we follicular maturation & super ovation = Super ovivkdion (instead of 1 egg, they produce 68 eggs) Hr Fertilized epg at 0-92 cells stages, are recovered ronangesee IVE trancferred to sirogate mothers =TOPIC 3, PLANT BREEDING GREEN REVOLUTION u7~ Q WHEAT ‘Wheat productio} incrgased from rales tenves-to- 75 rls te ‘2ICWMi{international Centra for ‘Wheat & Maize Improvernent) is ‘stuated ot Mexiec, = At ICWMI, Norman E. Borlaug developed semi For ‘this Borlaug got Nobel prze. 4 Highyieldhg & diceace resistant vareties of wheat are Sonalika & Kalyan Sora — PLANT BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE Dicer csreh tng ttt 2rper rut of wheat) Rad ftp sugarcane, Cul Late bight of potato ge Disease caused by bacteria: Black rot cf crucifers or Brassica Disease caused by Virus #19 Tobacco Mosaic, til Tatnio mosaic, — VY aice ‘Sem-ewart varety of rice were derived from IR UWhich fs developed at JRRI) & Taighng Nativgt (frome Tajwank — a laya & sem-gvait v Y sugar CANE “af' Saccharum barberl was ‘originally grown in North india but had poor sugar content & yield © 2 Saccharum officinarum tropical canes) grown in South India WG SURE 2 IRRL tnternationat Rice Research tnstituted i situated st Philippines are better yielding ee, METHODS OF BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE Q Beha E ariedout by: O comentnat om breeding technique: Hybridization followed by selection an fil by mutation breeding, GO Q Sabatstn retetere to ‘ius. $. powdery mildew w by futations. @ istaes io jel mosaic vis Bana \flleimoschae 4eculentue) wae ttanefepred from a Wild speces f rented Th 2 new variety Komal our, — Sturn ox, — 4 SrdabshayTOPIC 4, SCP (SINGLE CELL PROTEIN) Single cell protein (SCP) UZ 1 Spieuina tA 2. Methylophilus +4 methylatrophus 3. Mushrooms A2™ TOPIC 5, TISSUE CULTURE ue + Apple ll = Tomate -=MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE + Protozoa, Bacteria, Fungi, microscopic plant, viruses, viroids & prions. + Prions are proteinacious infections agents. + Microbes cause a large number of diseases in human beings. TOPIG 1. MIGROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUGTS + Lactic acid bacteria is used for making curd. ——~ i sens satel by y boeing BO) Bacterial fermentation is used for making food such as dOS3-and WN. + Dough used for making bread is fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Baker's yeast). Puffed up appearance is due to production of carbon dioxide, cad + Toddy is made by fermenting 2p from palms. «Large holes in swiss cheese is due to release of carbon dioxide by a bacterium named Pronionibacterium shan + Roquefort cheese is ripened by growing @ specific fungi Rogyestt TOPIC 2, MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS 1. FERMENTED BEVERAGES y= baristories. + Microbes mainly yeasts are used for the + First antibiotic discovered was penicilin from Penicilium production of beverages like wine, beer, whisky, notatum, Alexander Fleming discovered it while working on brandy or rum. ‘Staphylocosci bacter + Veast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is commonly « Fall potential of penicillin as an effective antibiotic was called Brewer's yeast is used for production of ‘established much later by[efain & Florey] ‘ethandl by fermentation of matted cereals and «+ Fleming, Chain & Florey Were awardee Me Nobel prize in fruit juices. 1945, + Wine & beer are produced without distillation. + Whisky, brandy & rum are produced by bi ia 3, CHEMICALS, ENZYMES & OTHER BIOACTIVE MOLECULES UPeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): Production of ethanol, ases used in detergent formulations helpful it TemOVIf oily. stains fram the clothes. ‘+ Bottled Juices are clarified by proteases & pectinases. CHEMICALS, ENZYMES AND BIOACTIVE MOLECULES TOPIG 3. MIGROBES IN SEWAGE 1. Citric acid > Aspergillus niger (fungus) a 2. Acetic acid > Acetobacter aeati (acteriund a TREATMENT 3 Butyric acié > Clostndum butlicum (bcter iam) + Cerried out by the heterotrophic microbes 4. Lactic acid + Lactobacillus (bacterium) ~~ = it includes 2 stages: 5, Ethanol S.cereviciae (Yeas fungus! ——— a 6, Streptokinase — Streptococcus (bacterium) (Clot buster) 7.Cyclosporin A Trichoderma polysporum (fungus) Immuno 1 PRIMARY TREATMENT (PHYSICAL REMOVER) suppressant t= 8. Statins > Monascus puroureus (yeast) & Blood Cholest «+ Filtration & Sedimentation <—~ Lowering agent ze ——- « |i) nitialty floationg debris is removed by _ sequertial filtration ) Then, the grit (soil & pebbles) are removed by sedimentation ‘© Supernatant forms the effluent {1"effluent). «Effluent from T*settling tank is taken for Ptreatment.2, SECONDARY (2°) TREATMENT OR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT. + Effluent is passed into large aeration tanks, allows Vigrous growth of useful aerobic microbes into + Remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into flocs. wa large tanks called anaerobic sludge di 3, AA Flocs: Bacteria associate with fungal flaments to + Anaerobic bacteria growth digest the bacteria & form mesh The Stractares fungi in the sludge. + Consume the major part of organic matter in the + Midture of gases such as CH, HS & CO, these effluent: This reduces the BOD of the effluent. forms biogas. = « Effluent is then passed into settling tanks where + Ministry of Ervironment and Forests (MOEF! initiated the bacterial floes are allowed to sediment. This ‘Ganga Action plan @ Yamuna Action plan to save — sediment is called(activated sludge) rivere_from water pollation, + A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back inte aeration tank to serve as inoculum or starter TOPIC 4. MICROBES IN PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS + Bacteria which grow anserobically produce large amount of CH, along with CO, These boca aecalectnaly elt mathonogens tg Mathonebocters 7 ‘Also present in the rumen (a part of stomach) of cattle. Gobar lavcreba/ Scrat of cattle is rich in these bacteria. Biagas contains CH, {70%), CO 2 (25%), H, (1%) & HS. Developed in inddreaiiy due Fe afore GTTARTS-ATIC hod! and Village Industries commission) ee ——— nd Hy TOPIC 5, MICROBES AS BICONTROL AGENTS + No negative impacts on plants, mammals, bird, fish or non-target insects. Desirable when beneficial insects are being conserved to ai ‘an overall IPM (Integrated pest management) programme. TOPIG 6. MICROBES AS BIOFI + Plants having mycorrhizal associations show other benefits also: (i) Resistance to root borne pathogens Gil Tolerance to salinity & drought. and (iid Overall increase in lant growth & development, + In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve a¢ an important biofertiliser. =~ + BGA also add organic matter to the soil & increase its fertility. related to use of + Organic farming biofertilisers.CHAPTER wa TECHNOLOGY PRINCIPLES AN D PROCESS INTRODUCTION (EUROPEAN FEDERATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY) -teesiater ye ty ete ie gn wanted old oad at ot deur ef cgi lS wage mec TOOLS OF THE RDNA TECHNOLOGY (D rreconbnae DNA -ONAItechnotyy was discovered by Cohen & Boyer, 107 The ay tale: Rertrcon sya, 22 G2 Palyerae enzymes, Upaes, Vectors and (5) Host organism. = = PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY (1) ISOLATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA) a WO hee itt ct nn rene BNA (GP Thc ante sciored by teatg the bacterial / blant or animal tissue with enzymes soch a6: 0 Lysozyme (bacteria), Ceutare (lane cele) an Chitirare (angus) —= eincinberehoned iy cesine ih atm Tucci arid ven by treatment with protease. uz DNA ultimately precipitates out after the addition of. chilled ethanol — (DH on nat senetses out canbe rere by sooty RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE i2~ (Drie fn sestitonentonsetense wenn) Bot rine tor was aalates tele nechoroke sate ge he? ind Il always Gut ONA malecuies at particular int by recepntsing @ specific sequence of 6 w Pose pee ep eee eee More than 900 restriction enzymes have been ‘golated from over 250 strain of bacteria for Ecol the recegnitioh zaqenc@—— (2) FRAGMENTATION / CUTTING OF DNA RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES: (BH zeneymes resonate for restricting growth of Bacieriophage ib E cali wete isolated one ofthese aed mativigrunsto DNA wile fname Spe. tha ie slp sekie ruleset sents ot ehenea keives) a Exonucleases 7 Endonucleases Remove nucleotides Makes the cuts at from the ends of specific position DNA with in the DNA NOMENCLATURE OF RESTRICTION ENZYMES: we Eco RL Escherichia coli RY13 \ (Roman No) Indicate the order in which the enzyj ware lalate fron thet Goecie strain of bacteria@ Eee Eg ge € & € g FUNGTIONING OF RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE Each restriction endonuclease functions by “This teaves single stranded portions at the “inspecting” the length of @ DNA secuerce pds. There are ovarhanging stretches called ‘sticky ends. tt wll bid to the DNA ary cut each ofthe hex 2¢ spect pins in ther agar poate they tom iyrogen bonds wit ther bactbones complementary cut counter parts. Each restriction endonuclease recognises: (fest ender ar sed in genetic swecfe alindramic nucleptide sequehces in the ngineering to form recombinant molecules of ona. DNA. Restriction enzymes cut the strand of DNA 9 , shin tactician aay the cehemmesiemesciats RY mnen ate na cn mye resultant ONA fragments have the same kind of Sos but betwen the saipe 2 bases dn the! sticky-ends these can be joined together using DNA ‘eppesite strands EcoRV — Blunt End = 3) ISOLATION OF DESIRED DNA FRAGMENT: AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS The ett of ONA by molec Sisors {P08 ragnents canbe visuaed ony ater sting (escintenenfraceaes seats ite {fe DU th etm bone flowed by fragments of DNA. expocure to ultraviolet radiation Fragments cy be separated bya tecnaut. (GP bieh orange eure bande DUA nathan fone m gel clecroproress/aerote ge brome sabes gl ooeve to OV ghee OREN electrophoresis. ua oS The separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and extracted from gel piece TRIE step known a8 elution = Since DNA are negatively charged molecules, ‘they can be separated by forcing them to move towards the anode under the electric fielé ‘through a medium / matric ‘Smaller the fragments size, the farther it roves. ue 4 AMPLIFICATION OF GENE OF INTEREST USING PCR {) Denaturation ti Primer Anneatng and Cohen & Boyer in 1972 contrasted tet recombinant Gil Ertension ovine ONE by lnking agate encoding antibiotic 4 resistance with a native plasmid of Saimonelia ‘alinurium abot resistance. eee —=— ‘The cut piece of DNA wae then linked with the slasmid ONA yee Linking of antibiotic resistance gene with the plat mid vector became possible with enzyme uA ase Which act on the cut DNA majecules & Jol ‘ends ta form recombinant DNA. = = Plasmids are uses as vectors for gene cloning becouse they self feplicate in bacterial cell. Vectors used at present are engineered in such a way that they help easy linking of foreign DNA & selection of recombinants from non-recombinante ‘Some plasmids may have only one or 2 copies ger cell sherede others may have 15-100 copies per call «e «ae eeFEATURES REQUIRED TO FACILITATE CLONING INTO A VECTOR (1) oR} (ORIGIN OF REPLICATION) ~~ ‘Sequence from where replication starts also responsible for controlling the cepy number Of the linked DNA, (ID SELEGTABLE MARKER >“ Vector requires a selectable marker which belos Identifying & eliminating non-trans formants. QB Novmaty the gener enn revitance to antic such 2¢ ampeiln,eloramphetica tetracycline oF koramycin, ete ae considered usetulselectabie markers for & coll (uy cLowtue sites 2 (&H the vector needs to have very few, pretersbly single recogation sites forthe commen uted restition enzymes {WE coi cong vector obs22 showing restriction stes (Hina, Eco, Pv Bark Sab, Pr Pat) Cl of & antibiotic retance gona lao 6 Et). Rap coder forthe oreteins inyolved inthe relation cf the asm {OD pate a torign ON atthe Barviste of tetracycline resstince gene in the vector gBR02. ‘One antibiotic resistance gene lampR’ helps in ‘electing the transformante & the other antibiotic resistance gene ttetR | gets inactivated éue to insertion of alien DNA and helps in selection of recombinants. (IW) VEGTORS FOR CLONING GENES IN PLANTS & ANIMALS (A) VECTOR FOR PLANT: AGROBACTERIUM TUMIEAGIENS <7 (BH i stasis srosites ince a cong vector which is ro more pathogenic to the plants but is sill able to use the mechaniem to deliver gene of interest into a variety of plants. (DD sachin acon ato be used ¢@) VECTOR FOR ANIMAL, —““~ (DH retrovruses banat, C27 BP 1220 ofomthgens ite wet vectors or detneing D ene of ntetert a humora. QF Fecontinat OWA ening gene for festomceto sbi ail {awterred nto Eel the hr ces become trout nto amelie xl QP onytrantemares wil grow tu epresd fhe tansorned eet on par les (Gh Atemative seectabie mariers have bee fveled en eteretate coronas ffonorreronthars orth soo ot tity te mpuce ern the prsmcn oF ‘thromagenic substrate. uae (Peon DNA x tena thn the toing seats con ene resus mo flash syrah fred oa henonal ncn ti Presence of ctvonegeicststate gins bie celouredcoonas ifthe lami she poster docs net hve an mere (5) TRANSFERRING THE RECOMBINANT DNA INTO THE HOST (COMPETENT HOST) FOR TRANSFORMATION WITH R-DNA METHOD = | 2 W fraity hare ven dec pee el eel. eclala datas gS tex fe pal wtlaedetmeeetsccrost tdge € Recombinant DNA can then be forced into such celle by incubsting the cell with recombinant DNA on ice, followed by. lacing them briefly at 42°C theat shock) & then putting them back on ice, METHOD - Il MIGROINJEGTION METHOD - III BIOLISTIC / GENE (FoR ANIMALS) Lo GUN (FOR PLANTS) We OMA is drecty neste into the (BH cats ore bombarded we high velocity mero rurleus ofan anima cel articles of ped or tungsten coated with ENA. METHOD - IV DISARMED PATHOGEN (12 Dizarmed pathogen vectors, when allowed to infect the cell, tranefer the rDNA into the host. (6) CULTURING THE HOST CELLS IM MEDIUM AT LARGE SCALE ¢{=— Cells harbouring cloned genes of interest to A stitred — tank seactor is usually olindical or with be grown in image quantities require ‘a curved base to failitate the mixing of the reactor bioreactors (where large volume of culture ‘contents to maintain O, availailty. can be processed). & [a Wotactar ta opin owt contin ‘Altematively sir con be bubbled through the reactor. (temoerature, oH, substrate, sats, vitamins, QP dererctoras an Laptator system, 2.An o> oxygen. delivery system 3. A foam central system, 4. A temp- ‘The most commonly used bioreactors are of ‘control system, 5.A oH control system and & stiri tyoR, ‘Sampling ports so that small volumes of the culture ‘can be withdraw periodically. (7) EXTRACTION OF THE DESIRED PRODUCT , p2— Include separation & purification, collectively referred to as downstream processing. The preduct has to be formulated with suitable preservatives. S—=4 Eg. It case of drugs, strict auaity control testing for each product if requred. UAPa a) Ir ITS A BIOTECHNOLOGY & PPLICATIONS ua INTRODUCTION 3 erttical research areas of biotectmology are + ‘ Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism + Creating optimal conditions through e + Downstream processing technologies BIOTEGHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRIGULTURE 3 options than can be thought for increasing food production: + Agrochemical based agriculture 2 + Organic agriculture we = Geneticaly engineered ctop-based agriculture, Increased yields have partly been due to the use of impraved crop varieties but mainly due to the use better management practices & use of agrochemicals (fertilisers. & pesticides). 1, PRODUCTION OF PES! RESISTANT PLANTS —= rein is produced by 2 bacterium called Bacillus. thuringiens + BE toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria & been expressed in plants to provide resistance ta insects without the need for insecticides, in effect created a blopesticide. + BE toxin is protein that kill certain insects such as 1. Lepidopterans: 2,Coslopterans 8. Dipterans ae taraten forme d toxe insecticidal protein that ‘list 26 inactive prototine but once an insect ing est the inactive toxin, Ris converted into an active form af taxin due to the alkaline pb of the gut which ‘dubike tne enter gee ine scthates in STO the uae of gt epithet ell 5 ereare pores thet cause cltsweling & ia + BE toxin genes isolated from Bacilus thuringiensis 6 incorporated into several corp plants such 2s cotton, chim ree pote et! +B tos ae sec gun Specie. Cnpb conta care borer. CryllAb & crylAc control the ballworms. GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS Genetic modification has : 2-7 ‘Chemical pesticides (pest - resistant crops) are used less: frequently. =~ JZ Crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (Cold, drought, salt, heat) AA Phanced nutritional value of food, eg: vitamin’ A" enriched rice (goleen rice). ecreased efficiency of mineral usage by plants fedice past harvest losses. ~ Create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of starches, fuels & pharmaceuticals 2. PEST-RESISTANT PLANT as we + Anematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of ‘tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in viel, = Anpvel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation which was based on the process of RNAi (RNA interference). 42 IMaNAi tales place all ebkaryoticgentme 22 « method ‘of cellutar defense: + It involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to 2 emglemattary eA recor tat Sd roar translation of the (silencing). =e roth serge & antrsense BNA are reduced inthe host cells. — TT — TTRERNA's being comolementery ta each other form a double standed (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and silenced the specific mRNA of the nematode. ue3. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE ~ About 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human use over the worl. In dia, 12 of these are Dresently being marketed: 1, GEWETIGALLY ENGINEERED INSULIN us - Insulin consists of 2 short polypeptide chains - chain A & chain B, that are linked together by disulphide bridges. + In mammals, including humahs, irsulin is synthesised a§ a pro-hormonas which cantains an extra stretch called the C-peptide. ~ Cipeptide is not present in the mature insulin & is removed during maturation inte insulin. 1983,, Eli Lilly an American company prepared 2'DNA sequences corresponding to A & B, chang of human ingulin 86 introduced ther in plasmids of E_coli to produce insulin chains. Chains A. & B.were praduced separately, U7 extracted & combined by creating disulphide | 4 bonds to form human insulin (Hurtin. — 2. GENE THERAPY ~~ TREATMENT Genes are inserted into a person's cells & + Bone marrow transplantation and sue to treat a disease. =— enzyme - replacement therapy both First crical gene Tevany was given in are pot epmpletely urate 1990 to a4 year ald girlwith ADA CE However, if the gene isolate from (adenosine deaminase) deficiency which i arrow cells producing AD, crucial for immune system introduced inta cells 2t early ~ ADA deficiency couses SCID (Severe embryonic stages, it could be a Combined Immuno Deficiency) permanent cure (gene therapy). 3, MOLEGULAR DIAGNOSIS (DNA technology, (il PCR and (il) ELISA. - Very low concentration of @ bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by PCR. PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients. Detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients, identify any other genetic disorders. A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (orobe. ~ Probe is-aliowed to hybridise to-its complementary DNA followed by detection using autoradiography: ho Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens or by detecting the antibodies synthesised against the pathogen based on the principle of antigerrantibody interaction.4. TRANSGENIC ANIMALS Ui USES OF TRANSGENIC ANIMALS 1, NORMAL PHYSIOLOGY & DEVELOPMENT Eg. Study of complex factors invalved in grawth ‘such as insulin-like growth factor. ue 3, BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS. =~ ‘Such as, human protein (0-1 antitryosin) used to treat ‘emphysema. —S 11997 , the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein enriched milk (2.4 gram per litre) ‘having huma® Grlactalbumin and was nutritionally 2 more balanced product for human babies than atural eow-milk, 5B. CHEMICAL SAFETY TESTING 27" For testing toxicity of drugs 2. STUDY OF DISEASES: Like cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis ‘and Alzheimer's. 4. VAGCINE SAFETY 27~ Use in testing the safety of vaccines before they ‘re used on humans. Eg. polio vaccine. ‘Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them more Sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic. animals. 5. ETHIGAL ISSUES. = GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), for validity of GM research & the safety of introducing GM-organisms for public services. Giopracy The use of bio-resources by multinational ‘companies & other organisations without proper ‘authorisation from the countries & people concerned without compensatory payment. = There are an estimated 2,00,000 varieties of rice in India alone. The diversity of rice in India is one of the richest in the warld > id threndomwel * —=—_—= = 27 documented varieties of basmati are grown in india ~ $997 2n American company got patent rights.pn BSsmati rice through the US patent & Trademark Office. ~The Indian parliament has recently cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill that takes such issues into consideration, and including patent terms ‘emergency previsions & research & development tistve, Path >ORGANISM AND POPULATIONS D> Ecology: Relationshigs of living organisms with the abictic\biotic components, of conditions that @ organism can tolerate, resourees it utilises & a functional role in the ecological D Systm comprises nee MAJOR ABIOTIC FACTORS TEMPERATURE U2" D> Most ecologically relevant factor, LX D> Decreases from the equator towards the poles. D> subzer eves noir reins 50°C tron D> Thermal we and deep sea hydrothermal vents exceeds 100" D> reterate wide range of tnperature eurythermet range of temperature eurythermal. D> Restricted to a harrow rahge of temperature ‘stenathermal. D> Temperature affect the i$ of the enzymes. gut 47 D> Autotrophs produce food through photasynthess. D> Photoperiodic requirement for Rowering. Timing their for. } reproductive & > Poy ne ges sol D> Ht, mineral composition ard topography determine vegetation nd type oF ermal ADAPTATION ~~ > [Morphological, physiological, behavioural) attributes that enable atganism to survive & reproduce. ADAPTATION (N DESERT PLANTS > Thick cuticle (sunken stomatal Special photosynthetic pathway (CAM), Leaves are reduced. ‘GALAON, WATER D> second most important factor %27 p> _The productivity & dstrbution of plants dependent ‘on water. D> For aquatic organisms (chemical composition, pH) are important, D> Tolerant of wide range of salinities leuryhaline). D>) Restricted to narrow range (stenohating) —_ ‘> Shae Response to abiotic factors ue aiterance a cnstanc ofirtetlenirnment hameorat [=> Regulate eau pra rome [> Conform —e 99% animals & nearly all plants us Ls geste | —e Sterin birds 2 Le suspend [> Thick walled spores —» tg. - Bacteria = “Fungi Lower plants [> sees —> Ep - Higher plants [Gyre & angi foe i «Bears (inert) frog J» | Acstivation + Eg. - Frog (urpeer seeo + snails = Fish ‘> Diapause —> £9. | Zooflanetsn == ADAPTATION IN KANGAROO RAT *~ D> Meeting water requirement through internal fat ‘oxidation (solid u — > Aquatic mammals lke seals have layer of fat (blubber) that acts as an insulator. D> Desert tizard spanage their body temperature by behavioural means.POPULATION > Population: group of similar individuals (Same species) that ive in geographical area, share or compete for similar resources & Potentially interbreed Pdpulation attribute 1 E> birth rates 07 2b» Death ratey b> Sexratio 4 Lis Age distribtion POPULATION DENSITY: D> Number of individuals of @ species per unit area D> Tiger census based on py marks & fecal pellets Fluctuates due to four basic process (natality 6 immigration) increase population density, (mortality & emigration) decrease: ee) D> Population increases if B+ 1>D +E OF Population decreases if B + |/ Transferring energy to > Cactus feeding math was higher trophic evel,» —‘intreduced, iad p> Piedator keep orey oepulations under control, D> eps The prickly pear Helo in maintaining species diversity by reducing fompetition. eg, starfish Bisaster! oe his trai istavy sreedvapiay. DP Pregators im nature are Exponential growth | A“ 4 } eescleces dosnt 7 Ne ary eect ALTITUDE SICKNESS »~ D> Symptoms : 1 Nausea, 2, Fatigue & 3. Heart palpitations. D> Gradually person get acclimatised. 42“ Deby Increasi Increasing brat Decreasing bindi RBCs production, 2. ing rate & 3 ‘affinity of Hb. PuRARID Bal, URN Representation of age pyramids for human population GROWTH MODELS ‘GROWTH MODELS "Hare carry capacity Kt earrying capacity Nb pope densty at inet Ny = Population density. at time 0 Nc= Population density after time t = Base of natural log (2.71828) b=Birth rate d= Death rate r Intrinsic rate of natural increase: DEFENCES AGAINST PREDATION D> Insect & frog are cryptically coloured (caomouflaged). ua D> Monarch butterfly is distasteful to predator. o> D> Thorns of Acacia & Cactus are morphological means of defence’“~ > Calotropis produces poisonous cardiac giyeosides.COMPETITION D> Fitness of one species is lower in the presence of another. GAUSE'S COMPETITIVE u~~ EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE Competitively superior species will eventually eliminate the other spect VGA ‘Abingdon tortoise: in Galapagos islands became extinct after goats were iptroduced — Comp veluuacae AAG, 2. Connelt’s elegant field experiments: Balanue dominates & excludes Chathamalus. -cexoureParttionng: mid comoettion by different times for feedings ot different foraging patterns. Me axtnwy Example: (varbers wing onthe same tree. COMMENSALISM 42" ay Oy or) (epiphyte) an Cen PARASITISM D> Ectoparasites. ¢g. 1) Lice on humans, ‘coneposs, uw pp Endoparasites 4g, 1 Liver fluke Platmadium Life Gydles of endoparasites are rrore D> comslex morphological & anatomical features Sopled ante fe ¢mphasising reproductive potential ‘MUTUALISM D> Both the interacting species are benefitted Examples : = Lichen © Mycorthiza 47 + Plant-Poltinator relationship: fig pollinated by its partner wasp. + Female wagp uses the fruit a5 egg laying site ‘= (Cohrys) employs sexual deceit Hediboien Gn oxtreghEM INTRODUCTION + comprises biotic & abiotic components. Ecosystem (E) STRUCTURE OF FUNCTION OF FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS: Ecosystem ~~ OF ECOSYSTEM 2 main structural features of an Productivity usr Manmade E — @cosystem: __ Decomposition Natural ecosystem UA y ‘L Species composition. ml ition ~ ro cytes 25tatifeation Energy Flew eGR“ enieatn & enumeration of P Nutentcytng er Terrestrial E Ue, Aquatic plant & animal species of an pond take ecosystem gives ts species Wetland, composition tot eceed peat ets + ert itrbutin af tere cee TE soncincccying diferent — levels is called stratification 4 Gross primary productivity (G2 propuctivity “~~ 2.Net primary productivity ‘+ Amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unt pp Rs NBD area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis is | gpp Nop called primary production. « NPP is the available biomass for the consumption to ‘© Measure in terms of weight (g/m@)or energy tkeal/m2) ‘+ Productivity expressed in terms of (g/m) y-* or (kcal/m*) a —- heterotropks (herbivores, decomposers). + Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers is called 7 productivity. TOPIC 4, DECOMPOSITION 2~ wa ue Complex organic scomposition Simpler inorganic substances matter ICO, H-0 and nutrients) + The important steps in the process of decompositions are : 1 Fragmentation; 2, Leaching; 3. Catabolis 4. Humification 5. Mineralisation. trivers breakdown detritus into smaller particles. This process is called fragmentation. Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon & get precipitated as unav: the process of leaching. _F Bacterial & fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances by the process of catabolism. Fragmentation, leaching & catabolism in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus. ‘= Humification leads to accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substance called humus. Humus is highly F resistant to microbial action & undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate , The humus is further degraded by some microbes & release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process callad mineralisation. SS ble salts by FACTORS AFFECTING BATE OF DECOMPaSITION ~~ controlled by I. Chemical composition of detritus 2 . Climatic factors Slower if detritus is rich in lignin & chitin 2° = ——— == Quicker if detritus is rich in nitrogen & water soluble substance like sugars. =~ Warm & moist environment favour decomposition. =~ Low temperature & anaerobiosis inhibits decomposition _ p=”enency Flow + Sun is the only source of energy forall ecosystems on ‘earth except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem «+ Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% of it is PAR (photosynthetically active radiation). + About 15% of incident solar radiation or 2-10% of PAR is ‘captured by plant for photosynthesis — «+ Energy flow in an ecosystem is always unidirectional from sun ta producers & then to consumers. + Amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. + 10% law: Only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from: lower trophic level. + 10% law was proposed by Lindeman. + Length of food chain is limited to 3 to 4 trophic levels dye to energy loss. + Food chains are of 3 types : 1. GFC (Grazing food chain), 2, DEC (Detritus food chain) and 3. PFC (Parasitic food chain) {a «+ In a food chain (GFC), the initial organisms we A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted as: Gest ee Gost wenn Man Producer Herbivore 1° Carnivore F trophic level 1° consumer 2° consumer 2nd trophic level 3" trophic level ‘+ Death of organism is the begining of detritus food chain web (BFCI = «Detritus 7 dead Plomass that serve as an eneryy source for decomposers. Bon an aquatic ecosystem, GEC is the major conduit for energy flow. gh a teresTtal ecosystem a much lager fraction of ‘energy flow through the DFC than through the FC. + Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time is called standing crop, ‘which is measured by two ways : 1 Biomass (mass. of living organisms) & 2. Number in an unit area. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS +. Ecological pyramids are usually of three types: |. Pyramid of Number: InvewEd/ upright a>" 2.. Pyramid of Biomass : Jnverted/ upright u——~ 3. Pyramid of Energy: Always upright 2. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: + The pyramid of biomass in ¢ea or lake ic generally inverted 4 ine 1, PYRAMID OF NUMBER ‘+ In parasitic food chain, the pyramid of number is inverted = | + Inan a ecosystem dominated by trees the pyramid of number is spindle shaped /inverted, ak 2. PYRAMID OF ENERGY + Pyramid of energy is always upright yx?” LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS ‘+ Same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. eg., Sparrow. ‘+ It assumes 2 simple food chain. ee ‘+ It does not accomodate a food web. + Decomposer or saprophytes are nat given any place in ecclogical pyramids, 2°? ECOLOGICAL OF SUCCESSIONS ~~ + These changes 7 orderly & sequer community. parallel with the changes in the physical environment. ‘These changes lead finally to @ community that is in near equilbrium with the environment & that is called climax The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are called sere or seres. The individual transitional communities termed seral stages or seral communities. total biomass. the number of organisms. 4. creas The species that invades a bare area are called pioneer species 4A changes soun: L Changes in the dversty of SPOGRESForgarte. 2 Increase inthe numberof species & Increase TYPE OF SUCCESSIONS et>— + 1 successionwhere no livi reservoir ing organism ever existed. ¢g., Newly cooled lava; Bare rock and Newly created pond or + P succession: where natural biotic comm unities have been destroyed. #g,, Abandoned farm lands; Burned or cut forest and Lang that have been flooded. 1* succession is a natural process. Takes several hundred to several thousand years to produce fertile soll on bare rack. Since some soil or sediment is present, 2° succession is faster than 1* succession,SUCCESSION OF PLANTS, IVDRARCH SUCCESSION: Takes place in wetter areas & the successional series progress from hydric to mesic condition. WAT KERARCH SUCCESSION: Takes place in dry ‘area & the series progress from xeric to condition, T Hydrarch Succession’ pioneers are the small phytoplanktons 2g., Volvox > Hydrila -> Pistia > Scirpus > Lantana > Oak Submerged plant stage (Hydrila, Vallisneria, Phytoplapiton (Volyox) oa Pri sland sage Scirpus, Typha, ‘SagittariaK-2008) 4 \Artarsh meadow stage = EZ Potanwgeton) 4 stage (Wolff, Pst ea free-floating plant Azole) Arent stage (Salix, ae TT Yerarch Succession ploneer species Uchens eg 1 Lichens > Bryophytes > Bigger trees ~ Forest. 2 succession depends on (a) Condition or soit, (b) Availability of water , {€) Environment and {dl Seeds & other propagules present. NUTRIENT CYCLING The amount of nutrient (such as C,N,P, Ca and etc) present in the soil at any given time is refer to as standing state. + Nutrient are never lost from ecosystem they are recycled time & again indefinately nutrient cycling or biogeochemical cycle, two types :1. Gaseous (eg, C & N cycles) and 2 Sedimentary leg., P & S oydes) . NUTRIENT CYCLING (H.C) Populus) = (Cyperus, suneas) Forest Gereous NC) Gesimenteny NED (ak: FERACA20071 Coyle Nace CARBON CYCLE = 2 Gee) + Carton constitute 49% of dry weight of 7 ‘organisms & is next only to wat er [70% -90%). + 71% carbon is found dissolved in oceans. + Atmosphere only contain about |% of total ‘global carbon. + Fossil fuel Ipetrol, diesel, coal) alo represent a reservoir of carbon 4x10 kg of C is fixed in the biosphere Tag ERS hot Drotasynthesis annually. _f3solution + POSPHOROUS CYCLE + Phosphorus is the major constituent of |. Biological membranes: 2. Nucleic acids & 3. Cellular energy Transfer systems {ATP, GTP etc.) + Many animals also need large amount of P to make shells, bones & teeth. + The natural reservoir of P is rock + Rocks contain P in the form of Phosphates. So weathering of rocks makes 'P! available first to producer. wa ———$—— toe Litter fa Detritus t ‘Decomposition 4 Uptake — es hering A simplified model of — Producers [Consumers [Soit feat. [Rock minerals phosphorous cycling in a terrestrial ‘ecosystemECOSYSTEM SERVIGES + The products of the ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services. Cost of ecosystem services was given by Robert Constanza & his colleagues. Rotert Constanza have recently put price tags on natures life support services of US $33 trilion 2 yea! This is nearly twice the value of GNP Gross National Product). The cost of the GNP is US $ 18 trilion erty Pra fs Nutrient cycling < 10% Serres ae rrTOPIC 1, INTRODUCTION scurry termed 3 important components ersity are: |. Genetic diversity, 2 . Species diversity and 9. Ecological diversity GENETIC DIVERSITY high diversity at genetic level (not at genus level) Components of biodivessity —» Rice (50,000 strain) Ly 1.Genetic —» eg. _| ee avarsity [> Mango (1000 v) ess > Rauwolfia vomitoria (in different Himalayanranges) Species diversity The diversity atthe species |» 2 Species eg. Western Ghats have @ wed eee diversity greater amphibian species. ~~ diversity than Eastern Ghats Ecological diversity eg. India have greater -=—~ Diversity at the ecosystem level it Ecological gm are Called ecological density. > avercty > aiversity than Norway TOPIC 2. MAGNITUDE OF BIODIVERSITY “1 Mammals © According to JUCN.2904 Linternational Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources), total number Of plant & animals species described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million (15 lakhs). —= ca © Robert May places the global species diversity at about 7 million 7 TT — = ‘© More than 70% of all the species recorded are animals while plants comprise no more than 22% of the total * Among animals insects are the most species rich taxonomic group making up more than 70% of total animal speciesindia has only 2.4% of worid's land area, India's TOPIC 3, PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY share of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1% ‘In India one of the 12 mega diversity countries of © 2 factors which are responsible for uneven distribution of biodiversity : the world 1. LATITUDINAL GRADIENTS. * If we accept May's global estimates only 22% of * general species diversity the total species have been recorded so far. decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole. TOPIC 4 SPECIES AREA RELATIONSHIPS — «The greatest biodiversity on earth ‘Alexander von Humbaldt observe that with in a region is present in tropical Amazonian species richness increases with increasing explored area, rain forest in South America. but only upto a limit. ‘© The relationship between species richness & area turns anette * But fora very large area Uke the entire continent slope of the line (Z) to be much steeper (Z values in the range of 0.4 to 121, @g., for frugivorous birds (fruits cathy bEPSRE Ransrals inthe tropical forest of ant continents the slope is found to 1.15. TOPIC 6, LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY Where : § = Species richness A= Arca Z-= Slope of the line (Regression coefficient) C= Y- intercept TOPIC 5, IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY TO THE ECOSYSTEM u~ settee SE 2 reductiky 3. Ecosystem Health: a Aloo Dothan feats sa oda agreoter the pimanyprofuaivty. RIVET POPPER HYPOTHESIS ,.- «© Rivet popper hypothesis is given by Paul Ehrlich * It shows the effect of biodiversity ecosystem. * Removal of a rivet (key species that drive major ln ecosystem functions) is obviously 2 serious threat >” Threat of extinction Loss of Biodiversity is mainly due to human activities. Recent Extinctions Animal From Ly Dodo wu - Mauritius L-» Quagga = - Africa [> Thylacine =~. austrialia iger (Bali, Javan & Caspian) More than 15,500 species world-wide are facing the threat of extinction oor EFFECT OF LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY © Decline in plants production (productivity) A ‘Lowered resistant to environmental perturbations like drought ue * increased variability in certain ecosystem L2~ process