SKILLED AIR Manual FOR MILLING AND OTHER INDUSTRIES by Jack Kice, PE. tATABLE OF CONTENTS EEL PAGE Ue ee Betis tte eo pact ee teeta era germ 1 PICTURES Kice Plants, #1 - Wichita, Ks. #2.- Wichita, Ks. #3 - Blackwell, Ok. Company Founders PREFACE. . ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION VERSE AIR FUNDAMENTALS AND MEASUREMENT. . VERSE . PSYCHROMETRICS AND AIR STABILIZATION. . SVERSR eee te A DUST CONTROL FOR SANITATION AND SAFETY . VERSE . ier AIR ACTIVATED PROCESSES IN MILLING . VERSE... PNEUMATIC CONVEYING BASICS VERSE . ENERGY AND AIR STABILIZATION (Early Popes) Energy and the Milling Industry... 000... cccceeeeeeeeee eee 98 Air Stabilization & Make-Up Sms eet a eee eee 103 History of Air Stabilization....... . 109 VERSE... .. USEFUL: DATA FOR AIR SYSTEM DESIGN. KICE ADVERTISEMENT. . 130= AIR FUNDAMENTALS AND MEASUREMENT Initially published as A.O.M. Bulletin, 1981 THE BOSS SAID To INSERT THIS PITOT TUBE INTO A DUCT AN: ‘This cartoon illustrates an important truth that applies tomany subjects besides the measurement of air- proceed: ing without a good understanding of the fundamentals can, lead to fundamental mistake So let's begin with the fundamentals, Do you remember the first chapter ofthe Bible where it says, "In the begin- zning’""How much more fundamental than that can you get! Anyhow, Genesis tells us how a mass of swirling gsee ‘without form or void” became out Earth. Some of these gases remained gas, some became liquid, and others be ame solid as they cooled down. One of the first steps of Creation as described in the Bible was the separation 9! ewo Huds one below the firmament one above. obviously water and air. ‘The affinity between water and air has continued. There is always some air in water, The fish die when there's not enough, Likewise, chereisalways some moisture in the al We landlubbers would dry up literally) without it. There is 4 special branch of science that deals with moisture inthe air Ithasa L4-leticrname that knocks out ot of spelling bee contestants - psychrometrics. & concise ee oe 3 £ Rieenesmiaean When I wrote this paper, it was about 45 minutes long and included about 19 mintes on cis subject - measuring moisture and temperature and how to use the payelromet- ficchare In order hold the time to SO minutes, Thave cut but the peyenrometrics and your committee has asked me fovdiscuse thi subject on nent years conference program. $0 ivewnllonly take hmenow toahow aquick ook ata typical “poyen” chart and tosay chat is ot Hs hard to understand af it appears after you Tearn the significance of each set of a 2 Water ) qy Steam }=H20 20% Oxygen). 4 eralees B07Nitrogen fAlr Nevertheless in order to understand the nature of air, we ced to comincat briefly on the relationslup between air Ep watr. eee chav ate socal important all Uving things, We should recognize that air and water favetch in coimmon.Tobegin wit, llecald nor exis without either one ~only minutés without air and a fev hours without weter Each fluid inchides peyaen as ts centerpiece, surge by alae postion o atte gas ‘that neutralizes the volatility of the oxygen. Water is basi Eslivone pet oxygen combined chemically wih vo part of hydrogen plus impurities, Airis basically one part oxy: gon, diluted physically with four parts of aitsogen plus Enpurities. Although we think of water as liquids canbe gas when suiticient heat is aded. Likewise, er is ntmally a gas but can become a liquid when sufficient heats Femoved andiferemove still more heat irom liquidate Can become solid like lee except the change of stave Occurs st much lower temperature et me make some other cbervsons concerning ar versus water. Each floid contains oxygen. Air suports combustion = but water extinguishes f. We must have oxygen inthe swe breathe, Sut on smorpere were pore onygen, the slightest spark would burn up everyta Thav' why the Crestor dilureditinto asafe mixture witha pars fnitogen which nan ine: gu ut since toa Physical combination, so our bodies can casi separate out the pure oxygen needed to bur up the food we eat and perform other duties. As we've said, water is 34 hydrogen fh ongen HO] Hinge eacombusthe ae ity mix pure oxygen and hydrogen gases physically, they make 2lme so Hoy we cm wed thy ut the chemical ombination of oxygen and hydrogen i tis ato produces ‘water " which will not bum qi OXYGEN NS Nature's, Air Recycle i (fove THis) \ System _ Ieee) J XaIRE me) (OUR PRESENT ans) BREATHED BY Dinosaurs /) ee ah (Don"T MESS) Air contains minor quantities of several other gases, the total of which may vary between | and 2%, depending on the surrounding area. Most of this minor gas content is, carbon dioxide. This isa chemical compound ol one carbon ‘atom with two of oxygen, with moleculeslike this: When ‘we breathe oxygen, we exhaust carbon dioxide. This is gombston process moch ike Baring tie which aso reathes oxygen, producing COs, Vegetation, on the othr hhand, breathes carbon dioxie and exhausts oxygen, Ine dentally, may be fortanate thet we are running ou of O- because’ when we burn "fossil fuels,” we imerease the amount of CO: in our atmosphere which might lead to Some severe problems. However, when our fuels are de- ved fom negtaion ike ees grain seaweed cata and so on, these growing plants consume as miuch COs a3 produced hen the fuels bummed, sothe COs content ofour Etmosphere remains in balance. Carbon dioxide performs mother important function for us. It has been found that ‘when carbon dioxide has been removed from the ait we Treathe' we forge o breathe Something nthe COs au tomatically eggers our metabolism. Makers of oxygen masks found out the hard way that COs muse be mised with the oxygen otherwise people forget to breathe WELL... BACK TO THE DRAWING BOARD / (Ga ay ea aura wieape pie PS ce ean So much for my philosophy concerning che ocean. of water that covers "ol the earth and the ocean of air that Covers all oft, We could talk about these two remariable fluids in an abstract way all day and how they interact as @ result of temperature prodeed by solar energy to gives Tain, to make things glow, to prevent excessive slat radi ton fo Keep our metabolism’ operat. an soon and on ‘The amazing job of engineering behind all ofthis is almost like a religion to me. fn fact, {tend to think of Heaven as chat Big Bogineerng Departitent in the Sky! Question; Is this box empty ? Answer : No. It is full... of air. | chink misunderstandings about air and ar systems are mainly due to the invisible character of ait I's hard to think of air as "real set" because we ean'esee it. Airis all, frond and sage of ss close fay ead togeit ny perspective. So, accomplish only this one tang, [ want compress on You thatairs matter and has substance ithls space, has weight and can be measured Incidentally,one eubie yard ofa at 70° weighs about 2 pounds. Furth- mor, ajrcan do work f we provide the cools especially fn this industry, As lve emphasized in previous AOM pap- rs, there's probably ten times as many tons of air passing through your milling processes as there is wheat Air pressures lilee a stack of aircubes 20miles high ‘or more that compresses the lower cubes progressively increasing their density # pressure by the weight above. Nevertelesy the column ef a above = square oot of qi Nereis ie COL over a don ile pounds fo be What is STANDA. “Ali more accurate. You could say that the atmospheric pres- What is STANDARD AIR smote ase bog fe, gat it eommon practice to divide Miby sande 14 Fis Reset mercury Barometric Prese. (Sea level) 29.92 Ing. $eteec tsar balance seam meceny Fegan Pe area complete vacuum above fe ‘ eens ial aga of the tube makes no diference (re . ee ae Temperature Oar sali Gera iOuTERaN (MADE BAROMETERS IN Vacuum in Tube Relative Humidity — 50fR \THE G000 01D Days - / | | Mercury (He) Density (Pounds feu.Fh,. 0u07HIes/u.f. 12992°high x\"x" weighs 14.7 Ibs. Cubic Feet/Pound— 13.5 cu. Ai/\b Most air system calculations use charts and factors that are based on standard air. So-called standard airs air at 7” temperature, 50% relative humidity and sea level atmos- Geterressire of 25 2snenes of merry o Ths tn here. actual conditions are significantly different than See ac it'is common practice to convert your actual Mercury Ts pushed Conditions to standard for the purpose of calculations -then ; convert the result to comply with the actual conditions upin vacuum tube byatmospheric press- | | 2992 in. (this column of mercury balances atmosphere weight) “The face that air pressures often measured in pounds per i oq te Halt nat We contosed withthe weight oF density of ure due to weight of Sheloven though theve ts a relationship. The fact thatthe ; Stnowphere hes pressure is due so the fact that air has air above pushing down er SEINE but the weighe varies with altitude and tempera \ Dish of mercury EIR ut the wee a eecakes {gus cubie fect of arat Thisis the principt of barometer. Alchough the standard is 147 Ibs /agin. at sea level ture: Ag mentioned tani i omkgoutroaseut Lali6 barometric pressure is 29.92 inches of mercury (29.92 i. sea level 0 Wei aoa efootomumiscignty essdense Hig) weathe cotitions cause changes in the weight ofthe thandeesbejowicowntececeememnaly ict Ase a scceed by aia othe mer {han the eu font below It because het ryourgo unl cary column height ofan inch of more above and below TE ee oA Steet wick iw where, sve say Standard. You wil nore hat I thing in. of pressure i eg thestratosphere begins) the weight of airs less than 10% 25 Nalent to 2.036 in, Hg. The same pressure is also equal to ‘uch as at sea level and at 100,000 fect, i's less than 1%. 37.74 in, wee. Tes possible to make a barometer using a 41‘column of water the same way, but the density of water is, colwmach less than mercury, the column must be much Seifer actually 13.68 times a6 tall since the density of mer- Cary is 13.63 times as heavy as water. This would be 2 cury AS Gtwater 407 inches or 33.8 feet in height which is foo tall woe practical 0 thar one ‘reason barometers use merous, rather than water I. TUBE eae estia! PRESSURE | vaCuuM 1 Nevertheless, water columns are very useful for measur ang pressures in lower ranges, especially in air systems for ing presstfol, pneumatic conveying and air conditioning. sist Jeads into the next subject - measuringair flow, vel ity. volume and pressuresin pipe systems, Extremely sensi- ite gauges are available for this purpose, but the basic Sire Hite of the water column with no mechanical parts 0 PP up i haxd to beat in most situations. Incidentally, Other aquids besides water can be used. Oil and mercury are Gre stost common alternate liquids, with different seales to Compensate for their relative densities. ‘The baste water column measuring device is simply an ac eeteSlees tube formed into the shape ofa skinny letter AFG Sboth legs open at the cop about halt full of water orodherliquis. Pee hei ofthe eg vary dependingon the or tact piccoure to be measured. When positive pressure is ranged gavone le, the liquid is forced down in that leg and ae crogner, When a vacuum is applied to one leg the Pease ein that leg and falls in the other. Total difference amlcigbetweg he olga eves ints the pres No Diff, Sil 0.30 Press. MANOMETER 12 “The slant tube manometer works on the same principle but one leg runs uphill on a long slope instead of vertical ut ope Ise renient and generally easier to rcad for precise ars urements in the lower ranges, because the incline Tesults in more travel per unit of pressure. Suppose you have a‘“U" gauge like this filled with water sup edhe rad point Like ths, Also suppose you have 2 toy WE te Taw guppose you blow it up and stretch the nec ballooh. Mon over the end ofthe "Ul gauge on the left side OE eae sg it won't leak. Now what happens to the ‘Stern he cubel The pasar im she allo pases Water ee evra in thevelt side and up the ght side watt Water GAT of the displaced water on both sides i equal to he weigh OC xereed onthe water surface by the pressure the poses ore or example, if te balloon pressure pushes the a ea dgwa 3.27 omelet ede and up 34” more on tis West ide we add the two sides together maling 2 tota) right side re exerted by the balloon equal to the pressure static pressure fmm of water 6.8” high. We generally refer exerted BY Spr wc. (water column) or 6.8" wg. water S a or abbreviation is acceptable. Some people gauge), Either GB” HaO, but I don’t zecommend that be- might Wuio's too much chance of mistaking it lor 6.8” Hg. cans there's Kfpes a5 much pressure. That could be un: hich Fer we, to wg for the same reason, even though Suund arghiects say wee: means “water closet Static Pressure: 6.8"W.C. 1 75.1.227.74 wc. 27.74 Water column pressures can be converted to PSI by divid ing he reading shepumbet ‘of inches w.c, equivalent to a ae eR is 2774. This would give us 68 — 0.25 Pst pressure in the balloon, This type of pressure iscalled state Prewsure static because ist goinganywhere CS TASh, fog out equally in all directions, whic! WOH Ook or'soap bubble is spherical. The air pressure in an atone is alep static pressure. The tire isn't spherical but auto Gc pressure is pushing out - trying to make it 36 roe Slike a sphere as the tire's surface structure will per miue vatic pressure only occurs when the it isrestricted t0 mt Sfegrey Infact, the amount of static pressure is always equal to the resistance, 25 PS.POWER Costs FORMY MILL ARE PRACTICALLY NIL, POWER FROM THE BREEZE TURNS IT WITH EASE - SAVE WHEN THE WIND ISSTILE Another type of pressure is “velocity” pressure, The best example of velocity pressure is the pressure you feel when the wind blows - simply the impact due to aiz movement. Since the wind isnot reucted, there sno stati pressure just velocity pressure...and it increases with wind speed — actually with the square of the wind velocity. For example, the velocity pressure at 1001 fp.m, (which is between 11 and 12 miles/hr| is only 0.66 or 1/16 of an inch w.c. How- ever, at 4004 f:p.m. (which is 4 times the velocity] the velocity pressure would be exactly one inch w.c. which is 16 timos as much. The velocity increased at aratio of, and the velocity pressure increased 16 tes which is¢ squaed. Thisis why windmills develop so much mare power when the wind blows faster. Double the wind velocity — quad. ruple the power. Triple the velocity —9 times the power, ae ef + VP za ‘The wind js an example of pure velocity pressure with no static. The balloon is an example of pure static pressure ‘with no velocity. In the case where fan blows air through a cluct system, we find both types of pressures simultane ously - Velocity Pressure which is a function of air flow - and Static Pressure which is a function of resistance to ait flow. The sum of Velocity Pressure and Static Pressure is ‘otal Pressure Te oe LIKEWISE mrouows, “VR - SR THAT: ee a em S12. VP. This series of diagrams illustrates the interdependent relationship between these three types of pressures pro- duced by a fan versus the pressure drop through the ar system due to resistance, 13 ir: or G id A ETT TTT ‘This graph is a fan performance curve for a centrifugal fan ee ee eae eee oer a {increasing toward | betel saute hati- ee este ree ne cha on the lett at zero, assuming the laa is blocked On the right Por erar aay meena ea ae roe eran Paap re niger rep reels Static Pressure developed to overcome varying amounts of Sree ae Teoh eg ee ee er ea ae ear left side, With less blockage, less static pressure is de- eae ee a eee eee pee Shown by ehe inerease-of Ait Quantity along the bottom TT een Tn i AA v7 r ' i i THIN veya Hi ANE HAA HV Hi or this lids, we've eded a dated ine cuve labeled Coe ene ore tas sal sae Pea also constructed from fan test data. The vertical differential between these two curves is indicative of the amount Vel- ocity Pressure the fan is able to produce in addition to the Static Pressure indicated. Knowing Velocity Pressure, we can calculate velocity -and Air Quantit aminute, we'll Air Measurement Frustration There once was a miller named Pucket ried to measure his air with a bucket. After working all day *!+¢ He finally did say +#1bo This bucket must leak, so let's chuck it! Henry Wadsworth Shortfellowdiscuss these calculations, but first, we'll look at a Pressure Drop curve showing the relationship between Quantity or ‘Velocity of air through a system versus Flow Resistance which increasesas Quantity squared. Here isa curve drawn on a scale to match the fan curves we've been discussing. Obviously, with no flow at zero velocity, there is zero ‘pressure drop as the curve indicates in the lower left corner. ‘As the velocity increases (moving to the right}, the pressure increases as the square of the velocity. In other words if Yrlgcity doubles, the pressure drop quadruples, since 2/ = 4. Using this relationship, if we know the Resistance of an ‘Air System at one flow rate, we can gpd predict the pressure drop of lotalogeurve like this fe system at any other ‘These are the fundamentals on which air flow measure: ‘ments are based. Now let's discuss the basic tools that are used to measure air flow. I told you earlier that we use ‘U-gauges jor manometers| filled with water, oil or mereury. ‘in measuring air flow and pressure in a duct. Ialso referred. toa few simple accessories c alled pressure sensor fittings. (One of these is a static tap, simply a tube connection to a small smooth hole through the duct wall, Pressure is, transmitted to the U-gauge by means of the plastic or rub- ber tube. [tis important that the tube have a sturdy wall so it will not kink or leak pressure. We normally use ¥" 0.4. rubber hose with a #4” bore. Theoretically, the hose length is not critical, but we try to keep them under 6 ft. Our sketch shows a fan blowing into a duct system and a Urgauge connected to static tap to measure tate pressure near the fan. Another U-gauge is connected ta a static tap near the end of the duct. Theone near the fan indicates lot more static pressure than the one near the duct outlet. The static pressure actually drops to zero at she outlet since there is no more resistance to flow beyond this point. The amount of sate pressure developed by afanisalways equal to the resistance of the system at the resultant rate of ait flow Sothe reading Point A indicates nor only the static pressure produced by the fan at these conditions, but also the resistance of the system, EEUWALENT RESISTANCE IN FEET OF STRAIGRT PIPE Ii chis esse dr diagram is matched to the fan prior mance diagram, it presents a picture of the air flow and Sate pressine We can aneieipate for the otal system, The Syovem will balance with thean output atte polne where the pressuze drop crosses the fan static curve, The fan produces the amount of static presure equal to the systern Dresste dop. The vertical distance sbove this point ind Eats the differential between this amount of static and the total pressure capanilityof the fan Ths diferentil fs Vel colty Presouc ftom which we can Caleulate the velocty. Velacit ON YVR Quantity =Velocity xdrea V 24,004 VI56 Q2¥KA V=400¢ x1 249 Q=5000x2 V = 5,000 fp.m, 2/0000 cfm Knowing velocity (V) and the duct area |Al, we use this simple equation to determine ehe ar quantity For exam. ple, if the velocity $8 5000 fp-m. and the duct arca is) Salare feet the ai¥ quantity is 10,000 cfm, FURTHER INFCI (ATION = 14System resistance depends on a number of factors includ- sng ut length velocity he number and type of tums and other fittings that cause air turbulence such as inlet hoods, transitions, branch fittings, etc. Data tables like this are available to help us estimate the pressure drop of each System component when we layout a system, but in the situation where you are checking an existing system, you simply measure what you've got so I won't take time to discuss such tables further, DU PEELE cme Charts are also available that show the resistance of straight pipe depending on length and velocity. Another ‘jor factor in system resistance is Gampers and their ad- [bpment Dampers are used to ad yenstance as needed to lance systera flow. It is wise to check the adjustment of all the dampers in a system to be sure chey are set as intended before spending time on measuring air flow. 165 “The next step is measurement of Total Pressure and ‘velocity Pressure aso how they flate to alt flow. The total pressure sensor is sometimes called a hook nozzle. It Ssessentally small lameter metal tube with 490" radius en atone end connecting by rabber tube toa" gauge br manometer similar to the static tap connection. When Se insert the hooked end through a Role in the duct wall nd tum the hook diet into the ar stream, the Blow air pressure is transmitted to the U gauge. This is Tot BreBhare hecause the hook inlet senses the total impact Begins he combintin of yeloty and state ies the Total Bresure will naturally be more than the Static Bressure measured simultaneously 7 ee oer = Gue- we. VP = we. Vel. = 4004 erm. If you subtract the Static Pressure from the Total, the differential is Velocity Pressure thus’ = TP ~ SP ‘Then, knowing Velocity Pressure, it is easy to calculate velocity and volume. We'll discuss those calculations later. First, I want to show you a couple of optional monitoring methods that give you the same results witha ite less trouble. 43 tion uses the same sensi The first 0 ‘apparatus we've just discussed but only one"U' gauge. The "hook nozzle” Connects tone legal the “U” and the “static tap” connects tothe other, Since the static tap senses only Static Pressure, while the hook ngzzie senses Total Pressure [which is al Ways greatest on the outlet side of the fan), the Total Pres- Sure leg pushes harder than the Static Pressure leg, moving, the water level down ot the-TP side and up on the SP side, ‘The difference in those two levels is Velocity Pressure. The fesult isthe same ao if you meapured the pressures sepa: rately ~ then subtracted static from total. The U gauge performs the subtraction for you by balancing one pressure ‘against the other.mae Ta f SP. PITOT (PeaToe) TuBE oP aa ‘The sensing method can algo be simplified by using a oe ES ne ret cmbines the functions Of the stale fap afd the hook noses: Thepaneiple stil he care looks Tike the hook nogale at frst glance. Actualy, ivis a tube dtfthin'a tube a hook nozale and cube inside a concentric Suter tube, A numberof tiny holes throvgh the outer tube Gull near the end of theypent portion are drilled so their Soeninge are90° tothe noBsle openingin the endo the bent the: When the nozzle s positioned to face directly mothe Girstrearn, the litte holes are not subjected to any Velocin Brcssure. However, they sense the Static Pressure inside Z aaa / } a the duct, since Static Pressure tries to expand in all direc tone ap wel agout Fea pees eae krough the annular space between the tubes, then throug throug the aon genpection tothe" gauge ormaanome- ier, The inside tube with its hook nozzle facing the air Suga came he ttl pressure coe ote ego the 2G" gauge, which works the same way as ifthe Sensors were Separate, The total pressure pushes harder on the let Igo fee water level droge alittle and the right level raises, {he same amount. The difference in the two levels is Veloc- ity Pressure, from which velocity can be calculated. 16 You should note that all of these comments so far have dealt only with measurements on the outlet side ofthe fan. We havea different situation on the inlet side of the fan ‘where the inlet pressure is below atmosphere. This is usu- [lly relerred to as "suction’’- but it's more correct fo cal it Negative Static Pressure. ‘Since Negative Static Pressure is less than atmosphere, it cannot press down its water column leg as far as the atmos- phere presses down on its sie - so Negative Static Pressure Fneasurements involve negative values...below atmos- phere. Total Pressure on the inlet side is the sum of two compo: nents, one negative - one positive - Static Pressure and. Total Pressure. As stated, the Static component is a ncga- tive value but the Velocity component is always positive. So when Total Pressure, sensed by the inner tube is transmitted to one leg of the U gauge, and the Static Pres: Sure sensed by the outer tube is transmitted to the other, {the Negative Static Pressure balances out the negafive sta- He component of the Total Pressure. This leaves a positive ifferential which weread directly as Velocity Pressure, the Same as when we read Velocity Pressure on the outlet side. Recommended Pitot Traverse Locations to Cover Air Duct Cross Sections \ Tobcareseinkin centers ofanuler rings oF equa area Ideally — oun ‘Velocity can vary a great deal over the duct cross section - mos {from top to bottom and side to side, This is due to turbu- Ience and eddy currents created by elbows, transitions and other Fittings in the duct system, A single velocity mea- Surement might be considerably different than the average air velocity over the entire cross section, For this reason, we “always check a number of velocities and calculate the aver- ‘age. We divide the duct cross sectional plane into a numberof equal areas and measure the Velogity Pressure at the center of each arca, For typical field work, we then add all the reading and divide dhe total bythe inher of readings to find che Average Velocity Pressure. In laboratory wot ‘where controlled conditions make a high degree of accu- ‘acy achievable, we oan extra sepand calculate the veloc, ity Yor each pressure reading, then average the ealeulat velocities, This is correct, but more trouble than it’s worth forfield test work. The difference between the two averag ing techniques is seldom over 1 or 2% which is a higher level of accuracy than the measurements you can read ‘under most field conditions. Ifyou can repeat your field test results within 5%, you are doing well, a|-| ene |-| 1 He He BG For larger figures, see page 5¥ eanE THNNE ag Fortunately we donot have to actually calculate all of the velocities. We have tables like this that provide that infor mation, Knowing Velocity Pressure, you can pick the cor ‘responding velocity from the table: For example, say the Velocity Press 1s 1.25” wie. What is the velocity? 6008 fp. ‘With all this background, we are now ready to solve a demonstration problem. I've set up a problem with nice ound numbers so you can concentrate on the principles involved and not my arithmetic. Weare assuming standard i emions preva at OF and 308 ch and et lel rometri¢ pressure, assuming readings that you might find in a typical fan outlet duct near the fan ‘Let's run through the velocity calculations starting with the assumed Velocity Pressure readings. Since this Was 4 ‘eotaglar uct tte convenient {© divide 1 into 16 ‘magiaary rectangles which we've indicated by leters. The pitot tube nozale is positioned ‘near the center of each Fectanle and the velociy pressure ig recorded fr, each leer When you analyze theeacings I've assumed, "eis the largest, which indicates the velocity s greatest near the center ofthe duct. This s logical because the ais flow near the center is less retarded by fiction slong the duct walls. ‘Aponte that che velit pressures aregreateron theright side ofthe duct than the lefeside- This is sometimes due to theelteces ofs tum inthe duce system avesd of our readin However, since ar eaings ae arsed tobe ake ly near and rectly infront of the fan outlet, these variations reflect the typical velocity partern of a fan outlet. With Yelocities high along the top and right side, ts a good bet the fan has a top horizontal discharge and the inet ison the Jefe side aT Trica! jont BLT yg. v P= 2085 222 Velocitys soos 1VP Gig V = 400s VERE 230 V= 40056 5 £28 V= 6.007 Fpm Duct Aven Widra x Height Sas 15x20 A= 3.0 square feet Zz ee) Quantiysa rv Biot Q=3.0% 6,007 ‘Pict testealcenteraieach = 1g.091 crm ou aso oF asco ecto Be that a it may, when we add the 9 readings and divide the total by9, the Average Velocity Presstxe is 2.25. Know: ing this, we calculate the velociey. The constant 4005 sfor standard ai, The square 00¢ of 229 average Velocity Pres sure) is 1'5, When the constant 4008 is multiplied by 1.3, the result 6007 is the average velocity in feet per minute Incidentally, velocity of 05 pm, which ib eypical ae speed in flour mill aiz systems) develops 1” Velocity Pres- sure. That's a good number to remember. ‘The volume or quantity of air through a duct depends on the air velocity and the duct size - actually the cross see Uonalareeekon ante Gimensions Youll that {zectangalar duct 30" high x24” wide was specitied for this example, Multiplying width by height gives us across sec: tional area of 432 sq, n. We need to know the area in sq. so dividing by 144 the area is sq.ft. Now we have thetw0 factors.we need for the following equation: Quantity = Velocity x Area = 60003 = 18,000 lm. The abbreviation Gm. means cubic feet per minute. If you'd like to know the quantity of airin pounds, you can multiply this by the Gensity of standard air, which you may recall from my earlier comments is 0.074 pounds per cubic foot - 18,000 x (O74. =" 1332 pounds of aif per minute..¥5 of ton! Moving % of a ton per minute of anything takes consid- erable power. When you know the ait volume and static pressure requirements, the theoretical “air horsepower” an be calculated by, imply multiplying the cfm cimes static pressure and dividing by 6386, This is 2 constant based On the face that if a tan were 100% efficient, one horsepower could deliver 6356 cfm of standardair at!” w.c static pressure.In actual practice fans are never 100% eff cient. Manufacturers claimn peak eificiencies near 75% (with airfoil type blades alitde highes| but actual installa ions seldom operate much above 60% static efficiency. When allowance ismade for drivelosses, welose about 8% more. So for preliminary estimates of motor size require ments, we multiply the 6356 constant by an efficiency factorof 50-55%. I suggest 3300 as ¢ round number divisor in this rule of thumb equation: ‘Approx. Motor H.P. ~ CFMxS-P. 3300 18,000x8 = 43.64 3300 Use $0 hp. Note that we use the next rrpaced When all Jt size motor for estimating but keep in mind this isa preliminary estimate ‘details are known so the specific lan can be selected from fan performance chart, ve might find that 80 hp. motor wil da the foo, but this equation ss intended to be close on the safe side. Wedon’t have time to discuss the more specialized types of sir measurement gauges and devices ike onfice plates, nemometer and various electronicequipment. but they an come later The simple units we've been discussing are the bases of air measurement technology andl recommend them.as tools for air skill in millingOLD MILLERS NEVER DIE Nurse says to old miller Bert Sturm, _"Coiild be virus or maybe a germ — Besides that, your temperalure’s high But don’t fret — old millers never die. They just lose their endosperm.” i WONDER MILL ‘A cha-cha dance performed by Big Lil Inspired an old miller named Phil Tt gave him the notion For a new sifting motion — Now one sifier can serve the whole mill!DANDY BRAN Our mill h haired young man Whose ponytail caught in i When THE FAMOUS MILLER’S DIET If you'd like to be much thinner mply go without your dinner, jou cannot keep from munchin’ Also go without your luncheon! But for your health’s sake — 1 And never go without your breaPSYCHROMETRICS AND AIR STABILIZATION Initially published as A.O.M, Bulletin, 1982 What causes all the rain That makes the posies grow? What causes all the wind That makes girls’ dresses blow What causes your barometer To jump both high and low ? Just stady psychrometcics And then you'll think you know / ‘This paper will discuss'psychrometrics first - after which welll deal with air stabilization. This is che seme idea a$ understanding eggs belore you cal with chickens, Psye Domes a indent ur allzaon ‘hesame 5 eng are fundamental to poultry. Although the word “psye- Brometry” sounds like’ it may be related to the word ‘psychology’ = there is no connection, Tis basically the study of inter elaionships betwen hes ar and moisare andi a logical follow-up to the paper I presented lest year in Dallas on air fundamentals. : ‘This subject is fundamental to weather, including rain, fog, snow, blizzards and heat waves ~ also wind, hurricanes and tomadoes. It involves evaporation and condensation both of which affect humidity and temperature. leis funda. ‘mental to human comfort and crop growth Likewise, itisan important factor in the elficieat operation of flour mills because wheat and flour are hygroscople materials, which means that they absorb moiseue from the ar, or vice versa, We will expand on this subject later in the discussion of ait stabilization, which is ourname fora type of air conditioning that we havé developed espectally for flour mills. Poychrometris is arr important subject, since life itself could not exist if any one ofits components did not exist. Fortunately forall living things, air always contains some moisture in gaseous form - which we call water vapor or humidity. Without humidity in ehe ais, we would all dehy rate to death! Even desert air contains some humidity Actually, the air does not absorb and hold water vapor chemically. Water vapor isa separate and independent gas that mixes physically with the air but reserves an ability to act independently. A considerable portion of barometie EVAPORATION PLUS... CONDENSAT/OAL EQUALS........ PRECIPITATION 26 yesne i du o vapor. A hacometer ie a device that ind ates the weight ofall the sir directly above it in this way: ait pressing down on a pot of mercury pushes it up into a tube thatis closed atthe top and evacuated. Thus dense air at sea evel will push it higher than lesser density airin the moun tains. Standard air(70 degrees F. and 50% rclative humidity) taises the mercury column 29.92 inches at sea, while air at the same cemperatureand relative humidity at Denver (5000 feet above sea level only raises the column 25.63 inches Surprisingly, less humid air for example 20% rh.) will aise iehigher, more humid air je, 80% wil reduce the height of the column, indicating that humid air weighs less than dry air. For example, a falling barometer indicates wet weather ‘This is because water vapor weighs less than dry ait, When someone refers to vapor pressure in the ai this ls basically that portion of air weight lor pressure) contributed by its ‘wate vapor content expressed in inches of mercury “partial pressure” Tt should be noted that barometer readings can alsobe expressed in weight units(PSIA column of mercury WSanaean'3953 Inches high weigh 1a7 pounce Thus sea level pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch Its equally Correct o express atmospheric pressure either in pours pot Square inch, of inches of mercury (2.03 He = 1 PSU} rom the above, iis apparent thatthe contribution of dry air to total atmospheric pressureisafaity constant valueina siven locality since its altitude does not change, but the artal pressure due to the water vapor content causes most Barometric fluctuations. At any temperatures there 1s = specific maximum vapor presse. This increases with rising temperatures = but the actual vapor pressure is usually lest than maximum. When the vapor pressure reaches this maximum, the air is said to be saturated, It cannot absorb more moisture unless heat is added or altitude increased When alr expands - whether due to heat or altitude or both, itacts as f tis leaves more space between the air molecules that can be occupied by vapor molecules. This is the reason that warm ir can contain more moisture than cooler aif, SYMBOLS >) Water Vapor At 67%, a pound of saturated air occupies about /3.6 cubic Reet and contains 00 grains of water vapor. OW ASSUME HEAT 15 ADDED At8T°F. a pound of saburated air would expand fold eubie Feet and would have capacity te contain 200 grains of vapor. bur... since ne H20 has been added, it stillcontains just (00 grains |] which is only 50% of the humidity it can hold at 87°. Sowe say the relative humidity is 50%.PSYCHROMETRIC CHART %) Ifyou can't spellit- § just rememember. “HAM” H for Heat,and 3 A for Air, and wo | M forMoisture 3 8 That's what Ete it’s al § ele about) 3 sz 6 ae wf E waren ‘"Saturated air” contains 100% of the water vapor it can retain at any speciic temperature and baromettic pressure If the ratioof water vapor aetually inthe air verous the amount it could hold if saturated at that temperature is say half a5 much oF 50%, we say the relative humidity is 50%. In other words, the hurntdiey level is 50%, relative tothe amount of moisture the air could retain if it were saturated at that temperature and barometric pressure. Simultaneously, che ‘vapor pressure 18 50% of the maximum vapor pressure cor xesponding with that temperature It is usual practice in psychrometric discussions to assume barometric pressure of 29.92 inches Hg. [standard at sea Tevelf so the balance ofthis paper will assume this standard Nevertheless, you should recognize that less density due to higher altitudes inereases the capacity of air to retain mois- ture muck the sre as whe the dessyisroduced by her mal expansion. Likewise, reducing air density by pumping a ‘vacuum works the same way. This charactenstic isa reason for “vacuum drying” elfectiveness. Just remember that airs "chirstier” at higher altitudes because of lesser barometric pressures, Special psyehrometric charts are available for Figher alticudes but with 95% of our population living in areas less than 2000 feet above sea level, special charts are seldom needed, and they are seldom published. “The psyehrometric chart provides a good visual ai for explotgeg how Heat, Air and Moisture [HAM relate ath other. The charts move or lss a pict of tis iter fcletionship. Actually is several charts in one, and for ths Feason, there ae several sets ines and seals chat fond to Re onsing uni you earn to sort ove the parameters chat Ty to each problem, This inital confusions moze then thet, however, by the convenience of so much coordinated {nforntion nS litte space Our “Concise” Peyehrometrie hart ic cater to ead an others because we lef out more Sham half the lines that give you astigmatism wien readin tore ‘poyeh" charts, For example, where other dry bull Tempeeguue ines ae 2 degrees spar, ourlines are 5 degrees Spur We think i's caste to interpolate than follow Tins SPacedt00 close together 26 When you study the chare carefully, you find a set of ygricalins tof Sevisona ie apd se seal line, one sloping upward fromm gat f eta abot 45 from horizontal and the other set about 10"from vertical, yer ts utile gid seaiph ines sapattema cFeurved fines allot whieh isurounded by various ceales, Cradualy, tehen your eyes begin 10 sot out and relate the lines to the Seales you srl hscover the following 1. Vertical lines relate to “dry bulb temperature" scale, ottom of chart. "Sensible heat is directly related 0 dry bulb temperature. Moving horizontally right on the chart indicates increasing tetaperature with constant moisture . Horizontal Lines relate to "weight of water vapor scale, seb of har, Laven hee” src lated this weight. Moving straight up on a vertical Line indi. aces constant temperature beng aineainl when reasing moisture level ‘The 45 degree approx slope lines indicate “wer bulb” temperatures a5 noted directly above the top curved line The “total heat” content of air which isthe sum of “sensible heat” plus "latent heat”|is related to its wet bulb temperature. Constant wet bulb indicates con- sant total heat -sometimes called “enthalpy” We will aisans wet bulb temperature measurements ale ater. ‘The curved lines indicate “relative humidity”. The top curved Tine indicates 100% relative humidity. Iis ea {edhe line of saturation and is significant because this isthe maximum amountof moisture air can holdat this temperature. The lower curved lines are labeled with Percentage number from Se down f0 10% nda {ng the percentage of moisture contained by the air at the spesfied condition, compared with the maximam quantity of moisture the ar Could hold ift were fully Saturated (100% a) at the same condition. ‘The steep slope dash lines relate to air density which is expressed in cubie feet per pound, noted within the Body of the chart When all of these individual sets of lines are put back together, we have the psychrometric chart we started with orlet's say, we will have it when the seales and numbers are added "The wet bulb temperature lines extend above the line of saturation to a slope scale labeled “otal heat”. This relates the total heat contained in the ar toits wet bulb temperature, which ean be read on a wet bulb ther. Imometer by’ a procedure to be discussed laver ‘Also note the vertical scales running up the right side of the chart. The first scale shows the weight of water Yapor in grains and a second scale adjacent to it shows the same weight expressed in pounds. Incidentally, there are 000 grains ina pound, The third scale along the far right side shows the vapor pressure correspond: ing wich the amount of weight indicated Referring back to Item 3 above, the chart shows that ‘Wet bulb temperatures are the same as dewpoint temp- ratures. This is logical when you realize that the point ‘where the wet bulb ine erosses the line of saturation is the pent where dear contains al the moisture se ean hoidin vepor form, Since it cannot contain any more at this temperature, iefollows that condensation (also cal Ted “dew” | will occur ifthe alr temperature should drop rif more moisture is introduced, So the dew-point is {dentical with the point of saturation a any given wet bulb or dry bulb temperature. Note that any dry bulb temperature on the lower scale falls directly below the polit whereits wet bulb temperatureline intersects the Fine of saturation.Vertical Lines indicate: Dry Bulb Temp. (Sensible Heat) Increasing aE L 0 “ony Buus ‘start - beonets F, Slope Lines Indicate’ Wet Bulb Temp. Gensible + Latent ) Weight of Water Vapor Clatent Heat) Inergasing Absafute Humidity Relative Humidity jo Actual ig, Ratio Karl imum Ha! 7h Sloped Dash Lines Indicate: + Air Volume ~ CuFt /\b. (expands with increasing temp. # 20 content... also with altitude, ) GRAWS WATER VAPOR PER FOUND OF DRY AIRt a AYNOHFIW Q SFHONI co FUNSSIUd YOdvA YILYM eee z 1 r 1 L : vos = : © 1 & 2 wiv 2 Aud 4O g GNNOd Hid w YOdvA °o YFLVM 1) SGNNOd 9 9 2 5 a Pei imaeelo: gS a7 SLY LA S LL 110 F é pea | ad eet va (Lea A, PH 4 ta . rm : VA ao i) ~ on Te | SEE eg le iG & = A Ch a eS = | — rt L4 a i A? a ee _ a ead a ~ Jou & 5 ¥ = co & > Z BRS “eo AK > 8, ae | eas oy¥ ing AV ~ 3 tary Me, ty S$ a %2, % Se 7 My See v on . yy Vio, S of = vg e me o : | % o y. oe e 4.3 Seu eee Vo S ef BS Za eee lie Fy iy 4 & Qo atest. ne mK aS Sica tisk aCe Ss 4g s 885 a 4 3 am os 2b, OS a a Yo, © 43In discussing the chart, 've had to use ghac may not be cleat to verybody so before we ak about some terminology how touse the chart, perhaps we' some of these unfamiliar terms, We'll start with evaporative cooling, Say, for example you gre in a park, standing on the lee side ola big fountain ess hot day, but the air feels cel on the lee-side because the warm breeze blowing through the water spray is cooled by 3 ess we call evaporation. This process converts water in liquid form to gascous form, much like boiling except it cecurs at lower temperature levels. boiler needs to transfer about thousand BTUs af heae fom ts bumerinto its water to change a pound of liquid into 2 pound of steam. Nature's evaporative process uses about the same amount of heat to convert a pound of spray water into vapor. The heat for this process is absorbed from the air. The process is described technically as an adiabatic heat exchange, which means that some of the air’s “sensible heat” (heat that can be sensed” by a thermometer] is used to change the state of the water from liquid to gas, This heat isnot lost since itis stored in the ‘water vapor as “latent heat”. If and when condensation oc. curs (changing che vapor back to liquid water}, this latent heat will convert back to sensible heat. The temperature at which condensation occurs is called “dew-point' Tt is ims ‘portant to remember that heat isa form of energy, and it ean exist at any temperature. Temperature merely indicates the intensity of heat ~ not the quantity. AA British Thermal Unit is the quantity of heat that can taise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, We call ita BTU. Itis approximately equal to the heat produced when you bum an ordinary match. It takes about 1000 BTU's [converted from sensible to latent heat) to Saorate# pound of watetfeqal 0 7000 gens) andthe same number of BTU's will be given up jeonverting the Tatent heat back to sensible) when a pound of water is con densed from vapor back to its liquid form. Evaporation 1a similar to boiling except it takes place at lower temperature, So it is a slower process, Like boiling, the gas absorbs and stores the heat energy that changed its state. ‘You can read most of the basic facts pertaining to any air condition directly from this chart is you know two of the factors. The wet bulb and dry bulb temperature of the aircan ‘be quickly obtained by checking with sling psychrometer ‘terbackupand explain 29 APPROX. EQUAL To HEAT OUTPUT OF 1 “6OPHER" MATCH! MORE SCIENTIFICALLY, 1 BRITISH THERMAL UNIT IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRETO RAISE THE ‘TEMPERATURE OF 1 POUND OF WATER 1 DEGREE. a simple device consisting of two identical thermometers except one has alittle water-soaked cloth bag around its fb Tes called'a wet bulb thermometer, The other ther. mometer has no bag and is called dry bulb thermometer The'tvo thermonsicn, ae mounted toaster ia ame equipped with a spinner handle, Whitling the device acceler. ites ar flow over the two thermometers the ewo readings can be checked quicldy and simultancously. The dry bulb thermometer indicates che temperature of the air in the usual way like any other ordinary thermometer. We call his. the dry bulb temperature. The wet bulb thermometer usu- ally indicates a lower temperature, reflecting the cooling elect due t0 evaporation. I the air being checked were to" tally saturated (100% relative humidity}, there would be no evaporation and no cooling effec. tn that case, the wet bulb temperature would be the same as the dry bulb temperature. ‘This would tel us the relative humidity is 100%. However, 2 thea sot saurged, there wil be some evaporation ‘which will reduce [or depress) the wet bulb temperature. The drier the air, the more evaporation, which causes the wet bulb temperature to get cooler. PIAL ae AUB Dry ue SC iat = Zire ea Ta (Cys eee WET BULB. U7 MOISTENED CLOTH SLEEVE READINGS 0° eT" DB, m8, SLING PSYCHROMETERAs a practice problem, assume the sling peychrometer ‘measured the air in a room at 80 degress d. brand 72 degrees, Wis Now relerto the “psyeh’'chart-On the dry bulb temper- Tiare verte across the lottom ofthe char, find the 80 degree ertical Tine, Now find the 72 degree wet bulb temperature foted directly above the curved top line (the saturation Earve) Proceed straight up onthe 80 degree vertical line until 4 crosses the slope line corresponding with 72 degree wet Sib Mack the poi where dey roe with pen This point established the following additional information con- Eeming the air in question Een pouno 8 oF ony varon varor Ppnessune.™ iwones B uenc a ‘2 Relative Humidity, 70%. The intersection point is Slightly below curve but so close we will call it 70% relative humidity. ey lan B or om $ 3 varon Ppnescune,* iwoHes B wen G waren is 30 . Total Heat Content of the Air, 35.8 BTUMD. of Dry Air The wet bulb temperature is directly related to total heat. Simply extend the 72 degree w-b. line up tothe left and read 35.8 BTUILb. of dry air on the slope scale. 0B cron 3 varon Sen oun waren ounos c. Dew Point Temperature, 69°F. From the cross-point of 80d. and 72.w.b. lines, extend a horizontal line to left until ie crosses the Saturation Curve, between 68 and. 70. By interpolation, read 69 degrees, “Dew Point “Temperature” which is synonomous with "Saturation “Temperature”. At this point, the air is saturated, and any drop in temperatufe will cause condensation to bogin forming, £ = fg g até é z é ey : é boa B waren © varon © pressune ‘DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - DEGREES F4. Absolute Humidity (Weight of Water Vapor), 106 fisinslb. of Dry Aur From the intersection, extend a orizontal line to the right intersecting the scale al the right side of the chart intersecting the "weight of ‘water vapor” scale at 106 grains. A second scale on the same line indicates the same weight in pounds rather than grains. 7000 grains = 1 pound and 106 grains = 0.0153 pounds as indicated or ony oe Paes varon © pnessune,® 8 waren B yaten © ©. Vapor Pressure 0.705 inches of Mercury - Continuin the came honzota ine futher ley iret the vapor pressure scale slightly above 0.7 which you can ‘2d 0703 by nerpolaion, Sine the wu ome pressure is 29.9 inches, we know that this portion (705 inches of mercury) is due to water vapor and the remainder is due to the air [29.215 inches}. When the two pressures are added together, they equal the barometric pressure (29.92 inches} = Say é = varon e & Byaren * varon "oneiahne® ones © a Oe ae 31 4. AirDensity, 13.94 cu, ft/Mb of Dry Air-The intersection falls between two of the steep slope dash lines, one indicating 13.5 cu, ft/Ib. and the other 14.0 cu. fb. BY intemolation, read 13,9 cu feb, The reciprocal of 13.9 ‘would be(1!13.9]0r0.072 Ibs, which is the weight of one cubic foot of air at this condition. varon 3ren pouvo 8 oF nares * varon "pnessune,® ones © roma 8 waren ea 8 Comment re: Dry Air Reference Items, d, and e above refer to quantities of heat, water vapor and air volume in ters of “per pound of dry ait’, Although we've said there is no such thing as bone-dry ai, i is necessary t0 refer to the term theoretically in order to be specifi. Reference to saturated air would not be specific because the quantity of moisture that will saturate airs variable depending on the air temperature. Warm air can retain far more moisture than cold air. As shown by the chart, 108 grains of moisture will saturate a pound of 69 degree «ir, but when the same air warms up, its ability toretain moisture increases, so it is no longer saturated. It is 8 Waren * Varon Sonessune.® mone 8 we Se ae oe HS aw Buca gusty te netsinteresting to note that over the entire range of this chart, from. 30° to 90° saturation temperature, the moisture: holding capacity of air more than doubles for gach 20 degree nse sn cenaperaure In other words the $0 degree capacity is double 30 degrees, 70 doubles 50 and 90 doubles 70. The capacity to hold moisture is like ‘a geometric relationship -not a straight line. That’s why the relative humidity lines on the chart curve up. This expanding capacity of air to hold moisture explains its expanding “thirstiness” and drying effect, when it is heated. Conversely, it indicates why air flow over a cold surface may release condensation. & cea ae = + 22090. B waren = varom Spnessune.® wenes ® wenouny Here is another example that illustrates a psychrometric process we use in air stabilization systems. Assume ourdoor Rirentering the inlet of a spray chamber at 100°d.b. and 30% qelative humidity. A spray chamber is simply « large metal box in which a number of nozzles spray water, creating ¢ ‘ist that fills che chamber. Baffles are provided in the outlet ‘end to retain the spray droplets and a fan is provided to draw sir through the chamber, A pump recirculates the water and provide presse ro produce a fine spray, There ag purer Sus commercial applications for spray chambers. They are used az evaporative coolers, humidifiers; dehumidificrs {with chilled water sprays}, air washers, ete. In milling it Serves as a humidifier during cool weather, butitis set up so its evaporative cooling capability will be utilized when the ‘weather is warm, Relatively warm air passing through the chamber evapo rates moisture. We've already discussed evaporation. You ‘wil ecll that evaporation results in lower temperatures but ho heat is gained or lostin the process. The wet bulb temper- {eure (which measures total heat) does not change because Water from Pump Recirculate Air must ay be clean. (2 Bankes ) SPRAY CHAMBER total heat does not change. Sensible heat (that can be sensed by a thermometer) is converted to Jatent heat jwhich is the heat that causes water to change its state from liquid to a jas). Since the process does not lose or gain total heat, it {follows a constant wet bulb line when diagrammed on the psychrometric chart. Refezring back to our example, find the intersection cor- responding to 100° db. and 30% rh, Note that these values {intersect on the chart almost on the 74° w.b. line. As this air passes through the spray chamber, it evaporates moisture, Converting some of the sensible heat in the air to Latent heat, ‘The dry bulb temperature drops as the relative humidity goes up - but the wet bulb temperature remains constant at 74°. A ‘diagram of this process would simply be a pencil line drawn Giagonally upward along the 74” wet bulb line. Ifthe spray Chamber were 100% efficient, the leaving air would be to tally saturated at 100% rh. and the dry bulb temperature would be the same as the wet bulb at 74”. In practice, satura- tion is seldom required or even desirable. Generally a single bank of sprays i a spay chamber can produce about 80% anda double bank of sprays about 90% r.h, leaving air, Using these values for our problem, note that the intersection for 44" wb, and 90% rh. yields 2 dry bulb temperature of 76.3° for the double bank spray chamber. This is a23.7 dearee drop. ‘The single bank unit (80% rh.) would yield 70° d.b. which is a 21° drop in dry bulb temperature. OA Ke sh & 2 a § & waren Bowaren ® varon Ponessune,® ion a 32Air Stabilization for Flour Mills SUMMER Same Humidi eee Same Humidity More Circulation ESE eT Evaporative cooling is a very simple low-cost process compared with refrigeration. It must be remembered, how: lever, that refrigeration removes the heat whereas evapora: tion merely transfers it from one form to another - [rom temperature that feelshot - to humidity that doesn’t feel hot, ‘but you still feel in a different way. From the standpoint of summer comfort, evaporbtive cooling cannot do as much as refrigeration, but it can improve the comfort level substan tually, especially with sulficient rate of air movement rough the occupied space to flush away the humidity en ‘elope that might otherwise build up around the occupants. ‘The additional humidity is beneficial, pareicularly in indus- tries that process hygroscopic materials such as textile fibers and grains including hard wheat, sot wheat and durum. This brings us to the second part of this discussion, Air stabilization hamesses psychrometric theory and brings it down to earth - or perhaps we should say puts it to work jn she flour mil, Basically, air stabilization iy « specialized form of air conditioning designed primarily for ¢Retlourmalingindusty. Inthe pest muller have hed to contend with what I call “wild air” - in other words, uncon- ‘tolled air. This is a much greater problem than for most other industries because flour mills use so much air in theit processes. I you add up the air requirements for dust contro. sification, aspiration, pneumatic conveying, etc, you will End that ten times as many tons of sir pass through your typical flour mill as tons of what, ‘This explains why the ‘Wuality and condition ofthe air with its varable vapor con- feat and temperature has so much influence on amil'slour Guality and production efficiency Inthe past, zirformillinghasbeen treated moreorless like a necessary evil, Today, millers are Becoming aware of the any ways that ar can help them itis contrlled. Not long 350. fin fact, even today in many mills ait from the mill Sesion systems, purers ete, wes blown to cyclone dst Separators, where most ofthe dust wae recovered and the ait was partly cleaned. After thi, the recovered dust was {pouted back. the mill nd huge quantities of used air were discharged outcoors because eyelones could not clean it well enough fo use {t over again For every cubic foot of ai exhausted, a cubic foot of outside air hal to be sucked into the building. In mild weather when the windows could be kept open, they could get by hecause the open windows did not restrict the supply of air. Nevertheless, the air quality was often less than satisfactory - either too hot or too dry or too moist, oF contaminated by dust, smoke, insects, mold spores, ete. Mil- ling conditions inside the building changed with the weather not only from season toseason, but from day tonight, and in Kansas, conditions can change from hour to hour, So with en windows atleast the supply of air was enough to keep the mill in balance and each machine could pull in the amount of air it needed to operate properly. But when bad ‘Weather forced the miller to close his doors and windows, his problems multiplied. The suction system had tosuck harder. ‘The building became a sieve for cold air that sucked in through every crack. The restricted supply of air to the equipment reduced performance, but the suction still amounted to many thousands of cubic feet of cold outside sir, and it had to be heated. Big steam boilers and pipe coils or radiators all over the mill put millions of BTU's of dry heat into the mill which kept the temperature up but reduced its relative humidity. The ait in most mills was dry asa desert, producing very dry flour andlor of other unnecessary prob” Life for a flour miller was a constant battle with his ever-changing environment. The ideal environment for mil- ng efficiency appears tobe constantairtemperaturein the milling area of 82 to 84 degrees db. and a constant relative humidity of 60 .65% with rapid circulation while maintain- ing a constant balance between exhaust and makeup ait. ‘Many mill buildings may not be able to télerate this much ‘humidity in sub-freezing weather due toexcessive condensa- tion and freezing moisture in the walls. In such cases, we suggest the above as a warm weather standard, dropping the temperature and moisture-as much as 10 degrees and 10 eteentage points {to 72 -74 degrees and 50 58%] to be constantly maintained during the cold weather months. The key word in these suggestionsis constant’ Establish condi: tions that are practical for the season, then maintain these conditions 24 hours per day, day in and day out, constantly. ‘This means that the mill windows must be kept closed, and the air exhaustisupply must be held in constant balance... automatically, 1 oFgeny opt milla we flere that ean remove practically of the dust (even particles in the micron range) produc- Ing filtered air chat is cleaner than the cusdoo ar around the mill. This is the initial requirement for air stabilization. fa mill has good filters it has a good start, Some filter systems 33fA | ol i ‘pave s manual by-pass arrangement in their filer discharge Suisks so they can recycle some of this clean, warm, hurnid (So beck o the mill during periods of cold weather. Recycling Bes ae belos t0 keep the mill pressure in balance besides Seagbentsnd mo store the peatr member 0 open fhe bypass the right amount and at the proper mes. “Wouldn't it be great if your mill coulllafford to hire a crew ‘aibours 2 dey to Keep one hand on a damper handle, opening fend closing it as needed to revirculate the right quantities of ‘Gheas filtered air to every floor of the mill, to maintain ideal See temperatures constantly - heating without consum. Sa Coordinated with this, he would have a second Gosoer to exhaust the excess air, warm air that would Geenwse overeat the mill. Then give him another handle Seccorral a third damper in an intake duct opening and Gose ttobringin filtered outside air, equal tothe quancity Seteesicd thus equalising the ai presen the mil i Senaidoors, thus keeping the mill in balance, During hor Seeather, the samc three dampers function to keep the mill (Gooler than it would be otherwise, by recycling less air, while more, and pulling more relatively cool outside air Seo the building. ‘Thav’s what the first sectionof an ar stabilization ayster ees automatically plus a grea deal more, We call i the SMedugete” control section. fts thermostatic controls sense sebes axiitional heat is required to temper the incoming Eexb air - also the heat needed to offset the evaporative ‘Gooling effect when moisture is added in the second section Pee ir stabilizer which we will discuss next, Another Ssrancage over manual conteol- the automatic "Modugate” Gentrol section docsn’t take time out for coffee breaks or heir consequences. ‘The functions described above would normally require hice separate multiblower dampers all coordinated to mod- Slate together. When more heat is needed, for exemple, the Esliowing changes happen gradually and simultaneously Damper No. Direction Function ‘and Name of Move Performed 1. Recycle Damper Open _recycle more warm air 2 Exhaust Damper Close reduce exhaust of warm air Intake Damper Close _—_ reduce outside air -equal 34 When less heat is needed, the same dampers gradually move in the opposite directions to reduce the amount of {Warm recyele aif, and increasing quantity of warm exhaust While equally increasing intake of cooler outside ait. ‘All of these control functions can now be handled by a single large damper which we call the “Modugate’. The fovter half serves as a splitter to divide the total warm fil; tered air between recycle and exhaust while the upper half Serves asa plug type damper controlling che intake quantity gual torhe excuse for mill balance A large az eyinder ac. GANEes the single damper shaft as directed by a pneumatic letmostse: The movement is very slow and gradval, 90 the Gmount of compressed ait is negligible. This proprictary Amrelopment eliminates the multiple shafts, bearings and Shulntenance required by multi-louver dampers and can be built for larger volume applications ‘The second section of an air stabilizer is the spray chamber, a large water-tight housing through which the alr pastes ait leaves the Modugate section. If contains one or Boo banks of spray nozzles with water, connections and Dutlet Dalles or mesh that prevent drops of water from being Carried out of the chamber by the air stream. Water is sup- Slfed'to the opray nozzles at the required pressure by a spe Pi pump, Chevron type eliminator banks prevent drops of fee waterbelng plied cut ofthe chamber bus pesmi swith ts absorbed vapor to passthrough easily. The amount fof water used is elatively low. ‘A centrifugal fan ig connected to the spray chamber outlet aut Than alle shear through bok sschongand elves he stabilized’ air through a duct system back to the mill, {Hiseriburing it to each floor as required to assure adequate ait supply to each machine and 0 supply the Beating 2nd pol {ingequirements. Although the volumes of air for each duty DAMPER >). see page3e Thermostat >t) Humidiséat—>D Rolle | fetter Bazenont : AIR STABILIZATION SYSTEM DIAGRAMray differ considerably, experience has demonstrated that the total air volume can be divided between the separate floors and other spaces in proportion to the heat loss ofeach. ‘his permis the aro seve doublet) fn poring its temperature control job, then supplying the ar require for dust control, Manlift holes and other openings between floors equalize the supply of air where the dust control suc- ton system uses more [or less) ai than the amount supplied for temperature contro. For example, the purifier floor may use more air than it receives, due to the large volume re quire by’each punter, but ie extra volume can flow ‘ough openings from the sifter floor wacre the suction requirements are minimal |because sifters do not need suc- tion]. The total air volume supplied by this system should be equal to or exceed the volume of air required by the mill equipment suction eystems plus the volume used by the pneumatic conveying systems, plus any other air systems {hat vent to the mil llcers. Normally, this number of cubic feet per minute will equal roughly one-fourth the gross val ume of the mill space, or about one-thixd of its net space which has proven to be a desirable ratio. This provides at air change every three to fourminutes, which is approximately double the air change rate o atypical air conditioned ollice. ‘At our elevated humidity level, this high rate of air move: ‘ment is beneficial to comfort. As stated before, air conditions for best milling efficiency appear to be around 82-84 degrees d.b. and 60-65% rh. This is warmer and more humid than the ideal for comfort, but ‘pid air circulation provides a cooling effec [like a circulat- ing fan} that makes these elevated conditions more tolerable ~ especially ifthe occupants are wearing light weight clo: thing © The extra temperature and humidity does net add any operating cost since it is produced by recycling heat that ‘would otherwise be exhausted. Although this matter should becheskedfor any given mil based ontsspecic situation, typically the power input to your milling machinery con: vers to far more heat energy than is needed to heat and humidity the building and its supply of air. Most ofthis heat is carried by the air systems to the mill filters. If all of this, warm filter discharge air were recycled back to the mill, it would overheat the mill - even in very cold weather in most localities. Our system is designed to exhaust as much ait as necessary to avoid overheating the building, replacing the exhaust with an equal volume of filtered outdoor ait, which is mixed with the recycled air. Normally, the system exhauists some warm air even during the coldest weather, ‘exhausting more during warmer weather, up to 100% during the hottest days. It is fortunate (and economical) that these ideal milling conditions are within the range that can be maintained dure ing the summer by evaporation inthe spray chamber [with ‘out refrigeration) in most sections of the United States and Canada, As a general rule, evaporation can do the job where the prevailing wer bulb temperatures seldom exceed 75°. In the South, where people are acchmsted to working in wanmer environments, we suggest establishing higher level summer conditions - up to as much as 88 degrees and 65% th. which stil appears to provide beneficial milling results Tn still warmer climates, we have used refrigeration to chill the spray water during excessively hot andlor humid hours of the day still utilizing evaporative effect during the night and early moming hours. Evaporative cooling is very effective in hot but dry conditions As stated earlier, although it is desirable to maintain one constant set of conditions all year around, it is often more practical to establish two sets of conditions - a summer standard and a Winter standard, The summer standard I-Filler, 2-Fileer Fan,3-Modugate Unit,4-Spray Chamber, 5-Fan shouldbe set ata level that con be maintainedby evaporative cooling eect during 96 to 98% of the summer hours. The Winter standard would apply during the weeks when sub iresing ‘weather might accu, The specific condition Selected depends fargely on how well the exposed suriaces of themill are insulated and vapor sealed, as well es the antic pated weather extremes. It would be unwise to attempt (© aintain high humidities daring cold weatherin an unasu lated structure, where condensation can cause sanitation problems, and ring sil colder weather, can deeze and damage the building structure The ideal solution of course, would be anew or modeled building with sealed vepor barrier and adequate insulation, But practical factors usuelly force compromising by educing the emperature snd humidity levels during the winter ‘weeks, As previously suggested, we might drop the summer Standard of 82 64 degrees to 72-74 and 60 “65% relative hhumiity down to 50. 55%. This is usualy low enough = providing the windows are doublegiazed or equivalent and thealr distribution system is designed to provide extsa cca lation and velocity along the outer walle Our first air stabilization system was instlled twenty years ago. At that time, there was litle or no precedent for Such systems, Progress since then has been ava conservative pace, and each job has been a custom design. Our systems foviay are stil similar to the frst ones and operate on the inal principles, but we've managed to improve the de- tsils, profiting rom ourmlling tients who use the systems Webave gradually established equipment design cnteria and application parameters that have proven dependable ‘We will soon publish a sales brochure that will annoance two standard lines of ait stabilizers. The two lines will be supplementary and similar, but they will cover two wide ‘anges of capacity, The smaller serves [6 models from 20 to 54,000 cm} will be designed for factory assembly in two Sections, within erick shipment size limitations, The larger Sees [fmodel from 34,000 9.600 cn wl be toolage to be shipped the same way, but they will be designed for Convenient jobsite assembly of sub-sections and’ panels, Large mills will use two or moce units. Model numbers, structre desig and dimensions will bestandardized at that time, and we expect to include several design innovations that will help us reduce the cost of air stabilization 365 eT|rabu t [OUTDOOR AIR Thr | omen seus leuctens TH'STAT MODULATES BETWEEN MAXIMUMS. A-complete air stabilizer includes the “Modugate” control section, plus inlet filer and exhaust components {which I've Slered foas the #1 section) A stainless steel spray chamber Ssson vith pump climinators conteo acessories end pip- SSgsmaks up the #3 section ‘The fist sections contolled by @ thermostat while the second section is controlled by a Bemidetat. A complete system would also include the dis- Sabation ducts and grilles, with the miscellaneous ducts Sequired to interconnect with the filter, fans, and the inlet Elie and exhaust components. Supplementary heating coils Ee often included as'a hest source when the mill is not operating. Since any mull with efficient filters can benefit a great deal bbe merely adding the “Modugate”” control section with its Sct and exhaust items, plus duct work, the equipment is Gesizncd to make it convenient to install ection #1 initially then adi section #2 later, when and if desired Air stabilization is destined to become as much a par of spodern mlling practice nthe next 20 years as paeumatc Eonveying and filtration have become during the past score. Sreurnates, titers, and air stablization ae, infact, tee parts of the same “skilled air” picture. They supplement WATER PUMP (NOT SHOWN) ACTUATES SPRAYS PER HUMIDISTAT. each other. Pneumatic lifts provide intimate interchange between controlled air and your stock particles. if we con- trol the air. As you know, air conditions influence, stock conditions when they are in contact. Dry air tends to dry the Stock, but humid air ean add a little moisture. If it's cool, it ‘ean cool the stock. Ifthe air has been stabilized at a constant conditions, the condition of your mill stocks will be better Stabized, andthe characteristics of your lou wll be more Regarding fileers, the same air that carries dust to them also carries heat produced by the same machines that are the dust sources. So the discharge air is not only clean - itis also warm and valuable, ready for recycling, So if your mill has modern efficient filters now, you arc ready for the next step, ur automate "Modugate” contol or beter yet- total air stabilization. Tnviewof the many advantages weseein beterextraction, better Hour guaity, uniformity and moisture, sanitation, Ccmnort and fel savings proven over @ mater of yeas in mere than dosen maior mille 1don tbelieveIneed acrystal Fall to predict tht most mills will be benefiting fom air stabilization belore long AIR STABILIZERTHE FIRST FLOATING MILL omits — but somewhere it's wrote joah had a mill on his boat. He used elephant power kb the flour. THE SPRUNG RUNG LAMENT Our roofing contractor, Mi Tried to fix our leaking mill roof ‘McGoof's ladder Twenty When he hit theCLEVER ROVER This genial old miller named Phil Taught his cleo exam the hill! THEN THEY COULD KEEP THEIR OIL cohol fuel is really nent — come people make it out of wheat. If we'd get our power From 190-proof fious, OPEC could keep its oil to eat! BOOK OF THE MONTH — aall her Miss Gale, our mill. A soft-cover book, printed in Braille. THE MILLER’S DILEMMA out young miller, Bill. ing bad at the mill. 'sh 5 ash, low on his fe forgot her pill!DUST CONTROL FOR SANITATION AND SAFETY Initially published as Bulletin by Association of Operative Millers, 1983 Dust Control has been a high priority subject with flour tillers and their suppliers ever since the big disaster that destroyed nine plants in Minneapolis over a century ago. some 80 years before Uncle Sam got into the act. Unlike ‘most industries, milling was not forced into it by govern- ment edict - they were motivated by enlightened self- interest. Millers pioneered dust control. To most people, Gusts little more than a housekeeping problem. To millers, dusts housekeeping problem too, but more than that, it is a safety problem, a sanitation problem, and a major factor affecting production efficiency. ‘These considerations have justified the huge amount of, effort that has gone into dust control development during the past century. The effort paid off as mills became cleaner and more sanitary largely due to their dust control systems. Likewise, their safety record improved with fewer explo. sions and fires in proportion to the tons of grain handled almost every consecutive year until about 1970. Alshough Gata from several authorities do not agree on details, and some years are exceptions, the trend appears to have bot- ‘tomed out in 1969 with 15 total explosions forthe entire U.S. Grain Industry - then started climbing until it reached 45 explosions in 1980-2 300% increase in 10 years anda matter fof much consternation and concern. ‘Very few of these disasters have actually occurred in the rill proper after the wheat hasbeen cleaned. Grain elevators are most vulnerable because this is where the dustiest wheat enters the premises. But mills have cleaning houses and arc usually connected with elevators - so millers must be con- cemed (00. What began to happen in 1970 that reversed the good wend? In retrospect, there have been several contributing Causes, but most of them are related to a common problem: Most of our facilities are older today, and they are moving more grain at faster rates than onginally intended. Poot ‘economics in the Grain Industry has led to reduced mainte- nance. More and more grain is being stored on the farm and much of it has been artificially dried too fast and too hot, causing i tbe rile. The a¥erage length of storage has increased, resulting in more insect and rodent damage. Ifyou think ithas been bad lately - wait till the PIK grain hits your plant, On top of al eis, you ae in compliance with EPA, Yyour dust control system is now connected toafiler that can feuain and rerum the hazardous fine particles instead of & éyelone that exhausts them, § 60 So f= G40 8 = 5 20 2 & is LE AG Nn 1860 79501970 one Hundred Years — TREND GRAIN. INDU: EXPLOSIONS: xcTusL—— FuTURE--~ 43 : ed up { ns. Duin drops the coursedust, “Up flies the Fine... * Onahazard scale of 1 010 In order to appreciate how all these factors have worked together to increase the explosion hazard, you need to te- rember that there are two Kinds of dust. Actually, there are thousands of kinds - maybe millions - but for now, lets just think of two: dust that flies easy, and dust that docsm't, Allof the conditions Ist described leave us with more ofthe fine dust that flies easy. and the fines that ly are much more volatile than the coarse duse chat drops. Seating it mors specifically, you have fo del wish more particles under 30 microns in equivalent diameter than th did before 1970. To visualize 30-microns, let me translate this metric dimension into the American system. It's ust 8 spat has over 11000 of an ach im diameter For conven ence, dust particles are assumed to be spherical even thought they may be every imaginable shape, Actually, 2 30-micren pact fs pro ny shape and te dha a he same velocity asa 30-micron sphere of the same density in still ai Thirty microns happens to be about the smallest size Particle you can see without magnification. Ie also happens tobe about the smallest particle a large ld cyelone can hang onto. Smaller particles than this would be blown outdoors With the cyclone exhaust ai In the good old days, before BPA, Said you can’t do that anymore, your cyclones provided an unappreciated safety benefit for the Grain Industry. They skimmed off most ofthe sub 30-mieron particles chase. ing them like smoke outdoors which permitted the fest of your dust control system to petiorm more efficiently, TERMINAL VELOCITIES OF PARTICLES IN STD. STILL AIR j i Fe id us EtaIt is also wise to minimize situations that will stir up the dust. Fine stocks, or stocks that may contain fine particles, should not be bounced around as they are handled. Many dust problems are aggravated simply by running conveyors {such as belts, legs, screws, drags and pneumatics) at exces- Svespeeds. Slower speeds help the system co retain the dust particles and evoid grinding them finer. As stated before, {hese particles are valuable “stock” when retained within the system, but become nothing but ‘dust when emitted. ‘Step 3 & 4. DUST CAPTURE AND COLLECTION - The system of hoods, piping, fittings, dampers, fans, etc., that fumishes the suction (or negative air flow) required to cap- ture and transport or “collect” the dust might be considered together asa single step, rather than two. Itis basically a vent system capable of conveying dust entrained by the air. The hoods end inlet connections capture the dust. The fan moti- vates the system, A proper balance must be provided bet- ‘ween the airflow rate versus the suction system pipe diamet- rs to provide sufficiently high velocity to hold the dust ‘particles in suspension as they pass with the air through the Collecting system. The fan must be capable of moving the required air volume while developing sufficient pressure to match the resistance of the system when conveying the ‘entrained dust. Typical dust control system resistances are in the 8 to 10” w.c. range, but can run considerably more or Jess. Ifthe fan does not move enough air to provide “flying” velocity through she entre system, the ust may “al ont” at critieal points that can plug the piping system and stop an inward flow of air on which we rely to retain the dust, ‘Remember that the besic fmction of the system is to satin a pepative presto within your process eauit ‘ment, spouting ete. - not to pick up stock or even dust flthough itis Bound to do so, So we design the hoods and iping connections to avoid picking up more dust than Acedeary while peforming the base nction. Velocities ‘will be held comparatively low at inlet points - sufficient to retain the fine dust but low enough to evoid picking up the stock being processed: Depending on a variety of such fa tors, the hood inlet air velocities may cover a wide 1 ‘Where you merely need gentle suction on a bin, for example, 75 to 100 fpm may be adequate. Where it is necessary to retain heavy flying particles from a grinder, you may need inlet velocities around 2000 fpm. These higher velocities ‘may be needed to arrest and redirect particles moving with considerable momentum in the wrong direction. Airspeedin 46 Syd ‘ranch pipes should usually be above 3,000 fpm with trunk Iine velocities ranging up &o 4,000 fpm to keep mill dusts flying You can correlate the relationships, berween vel- cities, hood and pipe areas, air volume and flow resistance By application of the Kice chare entitled "Pressure Loss in Round Pipes” Let me say a word here regarding the use of dampers and the design of anc iis Text Bok theory can este preted to mean you can design piping systems that do not fequire dampers to balance the air quantities for each branch Kine, To design a system without dampers, you would use special pipe for each branch so its higher velocity will create extra resistance sulficient to equalize with the longest line. ‘This results in very high velocities in the shorter branches and excessive wear. Furthermore, any plant changes or ai tion of new equipment will obsolete the entire piping system since it is not adjustable. It is far more practical to select branch pipe sizes in the recommended velocity range, pro- viding dampers in each line, then adjust them to add the mount of resistance necessary to balance each line with the resistance of the longest line Likewise, in the case of branch fittings design, we must weigh a theoretical advantage versus practical advantages. ‘Textbooks rate 30°branches “good” and 45°branches "fair", because tests in some lab indicated 2 litcle less pressure drop for 30° fittings. This is ue, but it is not an advantage, however, because branch lines are usually shorter than the Mast add a 60° ell For straight branch run 4% more friction than 45‘ell! Only a 45° ell needed FUALLY | .G00D and more practical !