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Eiectrical Machines DC&AC
Electromechanical Energv Conversion Princivi

An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device that converts electrical energy into
eCnanical energy or, mechanicai energy into electrical energy. Electromechanical energy
e 2es viace via the medium of a magnetic field or an electric field, but most practical
converters use magnetic field as the coupling medium between electrical and mechanical
systems, this is because the electric storing capacity of the magnetic field is much higher than
that of the electric field. Electromechanical energy converters are either gross-motion devices
such as microphones, loudspeakers, electromagnetic relays, and certain electrical measuring
instruments, etc.

DC, induction and synchronous machines are used extensively for electromechanical energy
conversion. When the conversion takes place trom electrical to mechanical torm, the device is
called the motor, and when the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy. the devIce
is called a generator. In these machines, conversion of enerey from electrical to mechanical form
or from mechanical to electrical from results from the following two electromagnetic
phenomena:
1.When a conductor is allowed to move in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the
conductor.

2.When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, then a mechanical force is

experienced by the conductor.

I n motoring action, current flows through the conductors placed in a magnetic field. A force is
produced on each conductor. The conductors are placed on the rotor which is free to move. Ar
electromagnetic torque produced on the rotor is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and can be
utilized to drive a mechanical load. Since the conductors rotate in the magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in each conductor. In generating action, the rotor is driven by a prime mover. A voltage
is induced in the rotor conductors. If an electrical load is connected to the winding formed by
these conductors, a current will flow, delivering electric power to the load. Moreover, the
current flowing through the conductors will interact with the magnetic field to produce a
reaction torque, which will tend to oppose the torque developed by the prime mover.
Conservation of energy
can neither be created pór be destroyed
it can only be
øf energy, energy
According principle of conservation
to the
transformed from one state to another

to the sum of the following three components:

conversion device, the total input energy is equal
In an energy

conversion device, the energy baldnce equation can be written as

Thus, with an electromechánical

Electrical Energy to Energy to field Mechanical

energ electrical=storage fn the energ

losses electrical system output

input

action, the energy balance egúation is written as

The above equation is for motor action. For generator

Totai mechanical Electrical eneígy 1 [Total energy1[Total energy|

energ input output *l storedI"Idissipated,

Classifications Of DC Machines: (DC Motors And DC

Generators)

DC Machines

Each DC machine can act as a Hence, this classification is valid for both: DC
generator or a motor.
are usuaily classified on the basis of their field
generators and DC motors. DC machines
excitation method. This makes two broad categories of dc machines; (i) Separately excited and (i)

Self-excited.

Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is

supplied from a separate power source. That means the field winding is electrically separated
from the armature circuit. Separately excited DC generators are not commonly used because

they relatively expensive due to the requirement of an additional power source

are
or

accurate speed control of DC

circuitry. They are used in laboratories for research work, for
motors with Ward-Leonard system and in few other applications where self-excited DC
field flux may also be provided with the
generators are unsatisfactory. In this type, the stator
help of permanent magnets (such as in permanent magnet DC motors). PMDC (permanant

magnet DC) motors are popularly used in small toys, e.g. a toy car.
Self-excited DC machines: In this type, field winding and armature winding are
interconnected in various ways to achieve a wide range of pertormance characteristics (for
example, field winding in series or parallel with the armature
winding)
In self-excited type of DC generator. the field winding is energized
a
by the current produced
by themselves. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due to the residual
magnetisIm. So, initially, current induces In the armature conductors of a dc generator only
due to the residual magnetism. The field flux gradually increases as the induced current starts
flowing through the field winding

Self-excited machines can be further classified as

S e r i e s wound de machines - In this type, field winding is connected in series with the

armature winding. Therefore, the field winding carries whole of the load current
(armature current). That is why series winding is designed with few turns of thick wire and
the resistance is kept very low (about 0.5 Ohm).

Shunt wound dc machines Here, field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature Winding. Hence, the full voltage is applied across the field winding. Shunt
winding is made with a large number of turns and the resistance is kept very high (about
100 Ohm). It takes oniy smali current which is less than 5% of the rated armature current.

Compound wound dc machines in this type, there are two sets of field winding. One is
connected in series and the other is connected in parallel with the armature winding.
Compound wound machines are further divided as-
Short shunt - field winding is connected in paralel with only the armature winding

Long shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the combination of series
field winding and armature winding

Classification of DC machines

seperatey extited
self exciteed

Sernes wOurnd shunt wound compound wound

long shunt Snot shunt

EMF Equation of DC Generator

What is the EMF Equation

o f DC G e n e r a t o r ?

Reh
PpN ZPZpN volts obr
E=60 x A 60DA
PZpn
E (S)
A

The derivation of EME equation for DC generator has two parts:

1. Induced EME ot one iiitor

. Induced EME of the senerator

Conductor
Derivation for Induced EMF of One Armature
For one revolution ot the conductor,

Let.

wveber (Wb)
Flus produced by each pole in

and

P= number of poles in the D generatoI.

therefore,

Total flux produced by all the poles

= oxP

And,

Time takern to complete one revolution

Where,

N=speed of the arnature conductor in rpm.

Now, according to Faraday
s latw of induction, the induced emt of the armature
denoted by "e" which is equal to rate of cutting the ux. conductor is

Therefore,
do total flur
ande
dt time take

Induced emt of one conductor is

Induced emi ot one

oniu tor

oP
G0

Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator

Let us
suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a
generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.

Here
Z =
total numbers of conductor

A =number of
parallel paths

Then,

Z A =
number of conductors cornnected in series

We knor that induced emf in each

path is same acoss the line

Therefore,

Induced emt of DC generator

E emf of one conductor x number of conductor connected in series.

I n d u c e d e m i of DC generator is

x volts

Sirmple i v a v e i v o u n d gernerator

umbers o t parallel paths are oniy 2 - .

Therefore,

Induced emf for wave tyvpe of winding generator is

PN oZP Jolts
60 120

Simple lap-wound generator

Here, imumber of parallel patlhs is equal to numbeer ot nelete f e o I i n one path

i.e. P = AA

Theretore

Induced emt tor lap-twound generator is

E , =DZNP
volt
60 A

Torque Equation of DC Motor

What is the Torque

Equation of DC Motor? N

aDP
pole pitch
Pm0Tav 2tnMav
D
Therefore, Pm Ela 0Tav 27mav S S

But, E nPaZ
A

Therefore, nPgI
A 21n Tav N

and PZ
 motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry
When a DC machine is loaded either as a

field of the air gap. Ihus each conductor

current. lhese conductor lie in the magneti
rotor at a radius trom
force. The conductors lie near the surface of the common
experiences a

at the circumlerence of the rotor and rotor starts

its center. Hence torque is produced
d Young is the quantitative measure
rotating. The term torque as lbest explained by Dr. Huge
a rotational motion, or to bring about a change in
of the tendency of a torce to cause

torce that produces changes a rotational

rotational motion. It is in fact the moment of
a or

motion.

The equation ot torque is given by,

T FR sin o ...(1)

There. F is torce in linear direction.

R is radius of the object being rotated,

and 8 is the angle, the force F is making with R vector

FsinO

The DC motor as we ail knovw is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a very
important parameter in this concem, and it's of utmost importance to understand the torque

equation of DC motor for establishing its running characteristics.

7
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor,

and its voltage equation.

Ra
www
la
Brush

E Eb DC
Load
Motor

la Shaft

is the back emf

Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb
and armature resistance respectively then the
produced and Ia, Ra are the armature current

age equation is given by

E =Eb+IRa. . (2)

of DC motor we
Butkeeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation
multiply both sides of equation (2) by Ia.

Therefore. E l = Esla+ 1 R (3)

Now LRa is the porver loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective
mechanical power that is required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,

= Ehla .... .. 4)

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

PmT ... )

There, wis speed in rad sec.

Now equating equation (4) and (5) we get,

El= Tg
Now tor simpliftying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

604
... (6)
Where, P is no of poles,

i s tlux per pole,

Zis no. of conductors,

A is no. of parallel paths,

and Nis the speed ofthe DC motor.

2TN
Hence, W= .. (7)
60

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), Twe get:

T P.Zp.la
2TA

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and

subtracting the mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.

Therefore,

TmT9-mechanicallosses
This is the torque equation of DC motor. It be further
can
simplified as:

T-kol
P.Z
here. Ka2TA

Which is constant for a

particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with
only tluoand armature current la.

Characteristics of DC Motors (Shnt, Series & Conmpound)

Before discussing the characteristics of DC motors, let us recall the
expression of speed and torque
of a DC motor. Because these two relationships are quite essential for understanding the
characteristics of a DC motor.

Expression of Speed of a DC Motor in Terms of Back EMF and Flux

We know the mechanical power developed in the armature of the motor is the product of back EMF and
armature current. We can write the expression of back EMF as

E oZN
60 P
A
Where,
N RPM of the motor

p Field flux of the motor

P =Number of poles of the motor

A Number of parallel paths in the armature winding

Z Number of conductors in the armature winding.

Therefore, we can write,

60A 1
N E xp

Or we can write

Since, A, P and Z are constant for a DC motor.

12
Expression of Armature Torque in Terms of Field Flux and Armature Current

Suppose, Tis the armature torque developed in the DC motor. The motor runs with
write the
a
speed N rpm. So,
we can
expression of mechanical power
developed in the armature, as

V
Power developed Tx 2n 60 ilg

Again, we know the expression of back EMF and that is

dZN P
E 60 A
Now we come to actual characteristics of DC motor.

There are three characteristics what we draw for a DC motor to judge its performance. These are
1. relationships between torque and armature current. We refer to this characteristic as an electrical
The
characteristic, T I a
2. The relationships between speed and armature current. NVsTe
3.The relationships between speed and torque. We call this characteristic as mechanical characteristic. NVsT
During dealing with characteristic of DC motor, we should remember two essential relations which we
have already derived at the beginning of this article and these are

Taol
Nx

Characteristic of DC Series Motor

Electrical Characteristic of Series Motor T Ys La
As we have already defined the relation between torque and armature current. We have already seen
that torque is directly proportional to the product of flux and armature current

Txo Ia

But in the of a series motor, we know that before

case
varies with field
current. Again,
Hence we can wTite
magnetic saturation of the pole, flux linearly à< TA
the field current is nothing but
armature current in a series motor.

At light load armature current is small. Hence the field flux is also tiny. But when we increase the load
of the machine, the armature current increases.
Which causes increased in armature as this
varies with the square of the armature current. So for the torque
torque and armature eurrent is a
smallerload, the relation between armature
parabola.

14
After a certain load or in other
words, after a
constant due to magnetie saturation in the certain armature current the field flux becomes almost
poles. result, we get,
As a

Since this equation represents a straight line, at a higher load, the electrical characteristic
series motor becomes an almost
of the DC
straight line.

TI

Why the starting torque of a de series motor is high?

From this relationship, we can understand that at standstill eondition, because of the absence of back
EMF the armature current of the machine would be massive. The torque varies with the square of this
large armature current. Therefore at starting condition torque of the series motor is quite high. But in
loaded condition, the torque is linear to the armature current. This is why the starting torque of a series
motor is qute higher than its running torque. Because of that where we require quick acceleration of
heavy load, we use DC series motor such as in the electrie locomotives.
Speed and Armature Current Characteristic of
Series DC Motor
As we have already proved that NVs Ia
N E
Again, we know that

E V- I,R,
From this voltage equation, we say that there
can
should not be any significant change in back EME
(E) for a change in load current or armature current (L). Henee we can consider the back EMF as
approximately constant. Now we can say that the speed of a DC motor is inversely proportional tothe
field flux.

Na

Again in series DC motor, field flux is directly proportional to the armature current below thesaturation
level of the field core. Hencewe can write,

NT
That we can represent graphically as shown below.

Ia

16
Why should we not run a series DC motor
without any mechanical load?
When there is no mechanical load attached to the DC
This small armature current causes series motor, the armature current is
minimum.
massive speed in the machine because of
the speed is inversely
proportional the armature current. As a result in no-load condition
to
dangerously high. Due to this excessive speed, there speed of the motor may become
may be mechanical damage in the machine due to
large centrifiugal forces.

Mechanical Characteristic of DC Series Motor

N Yc T
Before magnetic saturation, torque is directly proportional to the square of the armature current.

Txl2

After magnetic saturation, torque is directly proportional to the armature current only. Therefore,

Txla

In other words, we can say the armature torque varies with armature current. Again speed of a DC
series motor is inversely proportional to its armature eurrent.

N T

From this above relation, we can say that when torque is low speed is high and when torque is high
speed is lovw. We can represent this relation graphically as shown below.

17
Characteristic of DC Shunt Motor
Electrical Characteristic of DC Shunt
Motor
In de shunt motor, the shunt field NVs La
flux pdoes not significantly vary with
slight change in tield flux with load current due load. Although
there may be3
much significant compared to the to
phenomenon armature reaction. As this change is not
variation of load current, we can consider
Hence we can field flux p as a constant.
ultimately say the torgue in de shunt motor merely is
armaturecurrent directly proportional to the

Tla
Wly we do not start a de shunt motor with a load?
The electrical characteristic is the relation
betveen torque and armature current. In DC shunt motor
this characteristic is a straight line
passing through the origin.

if we try to start a shunt DC motor with heavy mechanical load, the machine tries to draw a
proportionaily huge current from the source to produce required massive torque for starting propose.
Because here in the shunt DC motor armature torque is merely proportional to armature current.
Hence, this large current at the starting point may damage the armature winding or may fuse the supply
mains. For that reason, we usualy do not start a shunt DC motor with any mechanical load attached to
the machine.

Relation between Speed and Armature Current in DC Shunt Motor

We have already told that in a de shunt motor there is no significant change in field flux with changing
the load. Again practicaly, we can assume, the back EMF of a de motor is approximately constant.
Again, we know that the speed of a shunt DC motor is proportional to the ratio of back EMF to feld
flux.

Nx E

As both flux and back EMF are approximately constant in a de shunt motor, the speed is more or less
constant throughout its operation.

18
Which is the Best Suited DC Motor for Constant Speed Operation?
of the machine. This
Practically, the field flux decreases slightly with an inerease in the mechanical load on the
flux. Again the back EMF depends
is mainly because of the armature reaction on the main field
back EMF (E,) with increasing
field flux. Consequently, there may also be a slight decrement in with the
constant it slightly falls downward
mechanical load. So instead of being the speed perfectly
increase of mechanical pressure.

N Ideal Characteristics

Practical Characteristics

La

use de shunt motors where

stable speed operation is
Because of this constant speed property, we can sudden withdrawing of the load
from the
there would be a high chance of
essential. That m e a n s where
not does
Because sudden withdrawm of pressure from the motor
machine during operation. tools,
motor widely for driving shifting
the speed. For this reason, we use shunt
significantly change and in all other purposes where
different machine tools, eutting tools,
laths, wood cutting machines,
have drawn the relation between
constant within loading condition. We
the entire
speed should remain
current of a DC shunt above as in the figure above.
speed and armature

19
Characteristic of DC Compound Motor
The compound motor is a motor which has both shunt and series field. In a
compound de motor, the
seriesfield flux and shunt field flux may oppose each other or may support each
other
relative connection between these two fields. When the direction of shunt field flux anddepending
series
on tne
field flux
is the same that means flux of one field support another, we call the machine as cumulatively
compounded. The characteristic of the cumulatively compound DC motor is more similar to that of a
series motor.

In dc series motor, if we suddenly withdraw the mechanical load, the speed of the motor becomes
excessively high. This high speed may cause permanent damage to the motor due to excessive
centrifugal force. In cumulatively compound de motor, the presence of shunt field, the speed of the
motor cannot reach to that dangerously high level and also due to the presence of the shunt field
constant speed characteristics of shunt field motor imposes on the motor simultaneously. That is why
constant speed operation as
we can use the cumulatively compounded DC motor where we need nearly
where frequent fluctuation of load
well as high starting torque. We can use most suitably the machine
occurs during operation.

Characteristic of Differentially Compounded DC Motor

with increment of load the flux gets decreased and as a
differentially compounded DC motor,
an
In
we have already seen that speed ofthe DCmotor is
result speed of theapgine gets increased. Since
So where the
require that of the
speed motor mustincrease
inversely proportional to thefield flux.
we

DC motor. The characteristies curves for both

with increasing load, we usedifferentially compounded below.
cumulatively compounded and differentially compounded DC motor are shown

Differentially Compounded Differentially Compounded

N N

Cumulatively Compounded
Cumulatively Compounded

Ia

20
Applications of DC Motor (Shunt and Series Motor)
April 12, 2019
There are mainly two
types of de motors. These are shunt DC motor and series DC motor. There 15
another type of de motor which has
features of both shunt and series motor. Since it is
shunt and series motor, we call is
hybrid of both
as
compounded de motor.
Depending upon the kinds of de motor, we
employ them in various uses. Now we explain the applications of dc instrument one by one as follows

We know that a shunt motor has a definite speed at its no-load condition. Hence, it does not run with
excessively high speed when we suddenly withdraw the mechanical load from its shaft without
disconnecting its supply and field cireuit.

Applications of Dc Shunt Motors

Before look into the applications of de shunt motors, we need to discuss some of its unique features to
get a clear idea about its uses or applications. We know that a shunt motor has a definite speed at its no-
load condition. Hence, it does not run with excessively high speed when we suddenly withdraw the
mechanical load from its shaft without disconnecting its supply and field circuit. Also, a shunt field de
motor does not reduce its speed significantly when it earies the full mechanical load. Practically, the
speed falls slightly from no-load to full load condition. Hence we can refer this motor as a constant
speed motor.

Although by varying the shunt field current, with the help of a rhestat, we can quickly change the
speed of the motor at a particular loading condition.

It has a general shaped efficiency curve. A shunt de motor has low starting torque. But it does not mean
that the motor cannot start with heavy mechanical load imposed on its shaft. It may begin its rotation
with heavy mechanical load, but in that case, the motor draws exessive starting eurrent from the
supply mains. On the other hand, other types of de motor such as series motors and compounded
motors take much less starting current compared to that of a shunt de motor.

Example of Use of DC Shunt Motor

Considering the above-explained characteristies of de shunt motors, we use them

.when we require a constant speed operation with a variety of loading conditions. Even when we
want the speed of the driving motor should be approximately the same from its no-load to a full-
load condition.
.when we need to maintain an almost constant speed for a wide range ofloading condition and
then to change the speed as per requirement. Such as for driving a lathe machine. Besides, the
constant speed feature of shunt de motor, it provides easy and economical speed control
methods. That means speed control of de shunt motor is simple, easy and economical

2
Applications of DC Series Motors
Before discussing the applications of series motors, let us recall
the typical features of a de series
noo
The speed of de series motor prominently
drops when we increase the mechanical load of the motor. So,
a series motor cannot sustain a steady speed with fluctuating mechanical load at its shaft. Hence we
usually do not use a de series motor for constant
speed operation.
But at a certain load, even at the full load, this motor takes less starting current than a dc shunt motor
In other words, for a particular armature current, a de series motor develops more starting torque than
a de shunt motor. For that reason, we use de series motors in street cars, cranes, hoists and electrical
railway tractions. Because, all these applieations, require massive on load starting torque.

In addition to the much starting torque, a de series motor increases its running torque, with increasing
series motor. Hence, with
mechanical load. Thespeed is inversely proportional to the torque in a de
and thereby torque of the motor
increasing mechanical pressure, the speed of the motor decreases
inereases.

maintain the constant speed at an

But a shunt motor takes larger currents from the supply mains to
increased torque.

Example of Use of DC Series Motor ascends an

the wheel shaft of an electric car. When the vehicle
Suppose we fit a shunt motor wvith takes
maintain its ground level speed. As a result, the engine
inclined road, the shunt motor tries to
extra to keep the constant velocity of the vehicle during
torque
higher electrie power to supply
ascending.

When we use a series motor for the same purpose, the engine takes much less power during ascending
the speed of the de series motor decreases. The decreased speed
of the vehicle. While the car goes up,
causes additional torque for elimbing up without taking much power from the battery.

of DC Motors
Summary of Applications

The de shunt motor has a steady constant speed, adjustable speed, and medium starting torque.
Because of these features, we use de shunt motors for eonstant speed line shifting, lathes, centrifugal
and reciprocating pumps.
pumps, machine tools, blowers, fans,

For these
The deseriesmotorhas variable speed, adjustable variable speed, and high starting torque.
mentioned reasons, we use de series motors for electric traction, rapid transit system, trolley cars,
cranes, hoist and conveyors, ete.

Like de series motor, a de cumulatively compounded dc motor has also variable speed, adjustable
variable speed, and high starting torque. We use cumulatively compounded de motors for intermittent
high torque loads, shears, punches, elevators, conveyors, heavy planers and rolling mills, etc.